Drucker's Construction of a "Free Society"

Bl a žKos o v e l * Dr uc ke r ' sCons t r uc t i onofa" Fr e eSoc i e t y " Pe t e rF . Dr uc k e r( 1 9 0 9 2 0 0 5 )wa so neo ft hos epe opl ewhol i v e dt hr oug ht hewhol eoft he2 0 t h c e nt ur y ,wi t ha l li t sg r e a tc ha ng e s .Buthedi dnotonl ywi t ne s sc ha ng e .Hewa sa na c t i v e pa r t i c i pa nti ni t .Hi sa c t i o nswe r eunno t i c e a bl ebutha dr e s oundi nge fe c t s .Tec onc e ptof ma na g e me nt ,hi sl i f e l o ngpr oj e c tofc r e a t i ngas oc i e t y ,whi c hwoul dbea na l t e r na t i v et o f a s c i s m,ha sa l r e a dyc ompl e t e l ydomi na t e da l ls phe r e sofl i f ea ndi nt e r pe r s ona lr e l a t i ons .Hi s c onc e pt s , whi c hr e v ol ut i oni z e do urpe r c e pt i o nofo ur s e l v e sa ndoft hewor l dt ha ts ur r o undus , ha v ebe c omes e l f e v i de nta ndbe y onddoubtwi t houta nyoppos i t i o na ta l l .Ti si swhyhi s r e v ol ut i o ni sofadi fe r e ntk i nd,be c a us ei tha ppe nswi t houtt hei nt e r v e nt i o nofpol i t i c a la nd s oc i a li ns t i t ut i o nsa ndr e pr e s s i v ebodi e s .Tek i ndofc ha ng ehec oc r e a t e di sbe s ts e e ni nhi s fr s two r k s , a st he ys t i l l c ont a i nt heo r i g i na l poi nt , whi c hl a t e rc ompl e t e l ydi s a ppe a r s . Tema i n pa r to fmyt e x tt he r e f or edi s c us s e shi sf r s tt wobook s ,TeEndo fEc o no mi cMa n( 1 9 3 9 )a nd TeFut ur eo fI nd us t r i a l Ma n( 1 9 4 2 ) . I nt he s et wowor k s , hi sob j e c t i v ei sno ty e tc l e a r l yf or me d, a nd hedoe snoty e tk no w wha te x a c t l y hei sl ook i ng f or ;heonl yk ne w,wha tt he pr e s uppos i t i onsmus tbe .Bute v e ni nt hepr e s uppos i t i onsoft he s et wowor k s ,adr a s t i c di fe r e nc ec a nbeobs e r v e d,whi c hi sv e r yi mpo r t a nti fonei st ounde r s t a ndt hea ut ho r ' s c ompl e t er e ma i ni ngpa t h.Tec e nt r a li s s uet hi st e x ta ddr e s s e si st hust hef ol l o wi ng : Ho wdoe s Dr uc k e r ' sc onc e pte v ol v ef r o mt heor i g i na li de a ,a nd i n wha twa ydoe st hi sc a us et he or g a ni z a t i ont obe c omet hef unda me nt a lbui l di ngbl oc kofs oc i e t ya ndl i f ei ng e ne r a l .Or ,i n ot he rwor ds :Ho wi st hec onc e pt ua ldi fe r e nc ebe t we e nbot hbook sofk e yi mpo r t a nc ef or unde r s t a ndi ngt hewhol eofDr uc k e r ' swor ka ndc ons e que nt l yt hec onc e ptofma na g e me nt . h eEndoft heEc onomi cMa na ndHi sSoc i e t y Teme a ni ng f ult i t l e soft hef r s tt wobook sr e fe c tt he i rc onne c t i ona ndc ont i nua t i on;whe n TeEc o nomi cMa ne nds ,t hef ut ur eo ft heI ndus t r i a lMa n( whi c hwi l ll a t e rbes uc c e e de db y t he" k no wl e dg ewor k e r "oft oda y )l i e sa he a d. Wha ti si mpor t a nti st ha twea r ewor k i ngwi t ht he f ut ur ea ndnotpr e s e nto ft hei ndus t r i a lma n,a sDr uc k e rha sy e tt or e a c ht ha tne wne s s ,whi c h * The article way originally published in slovene language as a part of the book Prispevki h kritiki managerske paradigme, (Contribution to the Critique of the Managerial Paradigm) (Kuzmanić, Tonči, editor) 2008, Mirovni inštitut, Ljubljana. 1 wi l lc o r r e s pondt os uc hama n, a ndont hi spa t h,hea l s oha st ofndl e g i t i ma c yf ors uc hane w wor l dor de r .Tes ub t i t l e so fbot hbook sa l r e a dyc l a r i f yt hedi fe r e nc e s :Tef r s ti ss ub t i t l e d " TeOr i g i nsofTot a l i t a r i s m" , a ndt hes e c ond" ACo ns e r v a t i v eAppr oa c h" .Tus , t hef or me ri s ade s c r i pt i on,ont heot he rha nd,hei sa l r e a dyg r o undi nghi so wnpo i ntofv i e wi nt hel a t t e r . Tes e c ondbooki st he r e f or ea c t ua l l yade r i v a t i ono ft hefr s t , b utwi t haf unda me nt a lc ha ng e s i ni t sc or e .Ac ha ng e ,whi c hi se s s e nt i a lf ora l lhi sf ut ur ede v e l opme nta sat hi nk e r-" f r e ea nd e qua ls oc i e t y "oft hef r s tbook ,hi sa l t e r na t i v et of a s c i s m wi l li nt hes e c ondbookt ur ni nt oa " f r e ea ndf unc t i oni ngs oc i e t y " . S ol e tust a k et hepa t hofc onc e pt s . I nhi sbookTeEndo fEc o no mi cMa n, Dr uc k e rwa nt st os ho wus-be i ngv e r ymuc ha he a dof hi st i me-ho wf a s c i s mc o ul de me r g ea ndwhyi ti sapr obl e m oft hewhol eWe s ta ndno tj us tof s pe c i fcc ount r i e s .Hei sr e f e r r i ngt ot hec r i s i sofmode r ni t y ,wi t ha l li t spr e s uppos i t i o ns . Dr uc k e rpr e s e nt st hee a r l y2 0 t hc e nt ur ya sat i me ,whi c hbr oug htt hec r i s e sofs oc i a l i s ma nd c a pi t a l i s m, t wog r e a tc r e a t i onso fmode r ni t y , a tt hes a met i me . Tepr e s uppos i t i o nofbot hwa s t heEc o no mi cMa n,whi c he me r g e dt og e t he rwi t ht hebi r t hofe c onomya sas c i e nc e ,a nd " f oundi t sf r s tl i t e r a r ye x pr e s s i o ni nt heho moo e c o no mi c usofAda mS mi t ha ndhi ss c hool " 1 ( Dr uc k e r2 0 0 5 ,4 6 ) .Ti sEc o nomi cMa nc ont i nue dwi t ht heEur ope a nt r a di t i ono ff r e e dom a nde qua l i t y ,a ndwa st he r e f or et hes uc c e s s oro ft heI nt e l l e c t ua la ndS p i r i t ua lme n.J us ta s ,a t fr s t , Chr i s t i a ni t ywa sus e dt opr oj e c tf r e e dom a nde q ua l i t yi nt ot hes pi r i t ua ls phe r e ,a ndl a t e r t heLut he r a ni s mt opr oj e c ti ti nt ot hei nt e l l e c t ua ls phe r e , t hene x tl e v e l be c a meas oc i a ls phe r e , 2 i nwhi c ht hePo l i t i c a lma na swe l la st heEc o no mi cma nbot hpl a y e dapa r t .Butbot hg r e a t c onc e pt sc oul dnotf ul fl lt he i rpr omi s e s ,a si tt ur ne doutt ha te c o no mi cf r e e dom doe snoty e t br i nge qua l i t y .Tec r a s hoft heNe w Yor kS t oc kEx c ha ng ea ndFor d' si mpl e me nt a t i ono fa monopol yt ha tc a nc r e a t epr oft ,e v e nt ho ug h,a c c or di ngt oe x i s t i nge c onomi cl a ws ,i ts houl d 3 not , pe opl el os tt he i rt r us ti nc a pi t a l i s m,a ndt hee x pe r i e nc e si nRus s i ade s t r o y e dt het r us ti n s oc i a l i s m." Ca pi t a l i s m ha sbe e npr ov e daf a l s eg od,be c a us ei tl e a dsi ne v i t a bl yt oac l a s swa r a mongr i g i dl yde fne dc l a s s e s . "( i bi d. :4 4 )Ont heot he rha nd, " s oc i a l i s m ha sbe e npr ov e df a l s e 4 be c a us ei tha sbe e nde mons t r a t e dt ha ti tc a nno ta bol i s ht he s ec l a s s e s "( i b i d. ) . Ne i t he roft he m c oul dpr oc e e dt o wa r dsas y s t e m ofmor ef r e e dom a nde qua l i t y .Ti si swhype o pl ee mbr a c e d 1 Drucker 2005, 46. "After its [from Spiritual Man] breakdown freedom and equality became projected into the social sphere: man became first Political and then Economic Man." (Drucker 2005, 51-52) 3 He deduces that "the teachings of economic science have ceased to correspond to social reality" (Ibid. 49), just as the miracles of the early Church lost all worth for modern physicists and biologists (Ibid.). 4 Ibid. 2 2 f a s c i s ma si fi tc oul dde l i v e rt he mf r o ma l lba d.Fa s c i s me me r g e da ss ome t hi ngc ompl e t e l y ne w, e v e nt houg hi twa si nt a ng i bl e . Tewor s tda ng e rofaf a s c i s tr e v ol ut i oni nDr uc k e r ' so pi ni onl i e si nt hef a c tt ha t" f a s c i s t t ot a l i t a r i a ni s m ha snopos i t i v ei de ol og y , butc onfne si t s e l ft or e f ut i ng , fg ht i ng , a ndde ny i nga l l 5 t r a di t i ona li de a sa ndi de ol og i e s "( Dr uc k e r2 0 0 5 , 1 1 ) Hepr e s e nt st her i s eofNa z i s m6a sag r e a t i de a ,i nwhi c ha tf r s tnobodybe l i e v e d,note v e ni t so wna g i t a t or s .Butwhe nt hel i ewa s r e pe a t e ds oofe nt ha ti tbe c a met r ut h,t hema s s e ss uppos e dl yj oi ne df a s c i s me x a c t l ybe c a us e 7 t he ydi dnotbe l i e v ei nt he i rpr omi s e s . S oi tbe c a met hef r s tr e v ol ut i o n,whi c ha i mst o de no unc ee v e r y t hi ngt ha tc a mebe f or e ,butbr i ng sno t hi ngne wi t s e l f .Andnoto nl yt ha t : " Fa s c i s m noto nl yr e f ut e sa l lo l di de a sbutde ni e s ,f ort he f r s ti nEur ope a nhi s t or y ,t he f ounda t i o nonwhi c ha l lf or me rpol i t i c a la nds oc i a ls y s t e msha dbe e nbui l t : t hej us t i fc a t i o nof t hes oc i a la ndpol i t i c a ls y s t e ma ndoft hea ut ho r i t yc ons t i t ut e dunde ri ta st heonl yme a nst o 8 f ur t he rt het r uewe l l be i ngoft hei ndi v i dua l s ubj e c t "( Dr uc k e r2 0 0 5 , 1 1 ) . Dr uc k e rdoe snots e ef a s c i s ma sac a pi t a l i s ts y s t e m, a ndne i t he ra sas oc i a l i s to ne , be c a us ei ti s 9 s e a r c hi ngf oras oc i e t y , whi c hi snol ong e rba s e do ne c onomi cpur pos e s . " I ns t e a dofa bol i s hi ng pr oft si nt hefr s tpl a c e ,t heg o v e r nme ntl e t st he mc i r c ul a t eo nc emor et hr oug ht hee c onomi c 1 0 s y s t e m, o nl yt or e g a i nt he mi nt hef or mo ft a x e sa ndc ompul s o r yl oa ns "( Dr uc k e r2 0 0 5 , 1 4 9 ) , a tt he s a me t i me ,t he e s s e nc eo fi t se c onomy i sf ul le mpl oy me nta nd t e c hnol og i c a l a dv a nc e me nt ." TeNa z ic r e e do ft hepur pos eo ft hel i f eo ft hei ndi v i dua li st ha ti tbe` t ot a l l y ´ 1 1 i nt e g r a t e dwi t ht hel i f eoft hena t i ona lorr a c i a lg r oup. "( Dr uc k e r1 9 6 5 , 9 8 ) Te r e f or et he ys e t upa not he rhi e r a r c hi c a ls y s t e m,i nde pe nde ntf r o mt hee c onomi cs y s t e m,whe r eme mbe r sof uppe rc l a s s e swe r ei nt e nt i ona l l ypl a c e do nl owe rpos i t i onsa ndv i c ev e r s a .S uc hr o l er e v e r s a l s we r eas or to fane ws oc i a l e g a l i t a r i a ni s m, i nwhi c ht het r a di t i ona ls oc i a lr ol ei sf r oz e nbe c a us e ofi t sj oi ni ngwi t hs oc i a l i t y , a nds oi tdoe snota fe c tt het r a di t i ona l a c t i v i t i e si nt hel e a s t . 5 Ibid. 11. Drucker does not differentiate between fascism and Nazism, except that he uses fascism in the first book - The End of Economic Man, and Nazism later, in The Future of Industrial Man. 7 Ibid. 15-16. 8 Ibid. 11. 9 "Fascism and Nazism are social revolutions but not socialist; they maintain the industrial system but they are not capitalist" (Drucker 2005, 132). 10 Ibid. 149. 11 Drucker 1965, 98 6 3 Be c a us eo fe v e r y t hi ngme nt i o ne d, i ti si mpos s i bl et or e v e r tf r o mf a s c i s mt oas oc i e t yba s e do n a ne c onomi cf ounda t i o n.Te r e f or ea not he rt y peofano ne c onomi cs oc i e t ywi l lha v et obe f ound, whi c hwi l l g r o wa s" f r e ea nde qua l "f r om adi fe r e ntf ounda t i on, i . e . ane wa nd" pos i t i v e 1 2 no ne c o no mi c a lc onc e pto fFr e ea ndEqua lMa n"wi l lha v et obef ound. Wi t ht hi sf r e ea nd e qua lma n,Dr uc k e rc onc l ude st hebook ,t hr oug ho utwhi c hhec ons i s t e nt l yr e pe a t st ha tour f ounda t i o nha st obef r e e dom a nde qua l i t y ,a nda tt hes a met i mehet a l k sa boutbot hape r s o n a nds oc i e t y . Howe v e r , i nt hene x tbook , bot ht hepe r s ona nde qua l i t ydi s a ppe a r , a nda l r e a dyi n t hefr s ts e nt e nc e ,onl ys oc i e t yr e ma i ns ;b utt hi si snol ong e ras oc i e t y ,whi c hwa ss e a r c hi ngi n TeEndo f Ec o no mi cMa n, butane w, a l r e a dye x i s t e ntAme r i c a ni ndus t r i a l s oc i e t yoft ha tt i me . Ne wI ndus t r i a l Ma na ndNe wCompa ny I nTeFut ur eo f I nd us t r i a l Ma n, t heEc o no mi cma ni snotde s t r o y e d( a si nt hefr s tbook )b yt he de s pe r a t i ono ft hema s s e sbe c a us eoft hes t a t usquo , butr a t he rbyane wphy s i c a l r e a l i t y , whi c h i sdi fe r e ntf r om t hea g eofme r c a nt i l i s m, t hea g eo fEc onomi cma n.Tema i nc ha ng e sa r enow t hei mpl e me nt a t i ono ft hea s s e mbl yl i nea ndt hee me r g e nc eoft hemode r nc or po r a t i o n.Te 1 3 a s s e mbl yl i neha st husbe c omear e pr e s e nt a t i v ema t e r i a le nv i r onme nt a ndt hec or por a t i on ha st a k e nt hepl a c eoft hema r k e ta ndf e uda lpr ope r t ya ndha sbe c omet hene wf unda me nt a l 1 4 i ns t i t ut i on, t hr oug hwi t h" t hema t e r i a l r e a l i t yi sor g a ni z e ds oc i a l l y . " Tei ndus t r i a l r e a l i t yt hus e x pos e st hepr i nc i pl e so fame r c a nt i l es oc i e t ya ss ome t hi ngo uto fda t e ,e v e nt houg hpe o pl e s t i l lus et he m be c a us et he yt hi nkt ha ts oc i e t yi ss t i l lo neo fme r c ha nt sa nda r t i s a ns . S o" t he ya l l t ho ug hte x c l us i v e l yi nt e r msofame r c a nt i l es oc i e t y .Te i rma i ne c o nomi cpr obl e m wa st he 1 5 r e l a t i ons hi pbe t we e nt hea g r a r i a npr oduc e ra ndc omme r c i a ldi s t r i b ut o r . "( Dr uc k e r1 9 6 5 , 5 5 ) 1 6 1 7 Butt heba s e soft heme r c a nt i l es y s t e m -f r e et r a de a ndmonopol y -ha v enomor eme a ni ng i ns uc ha ne nv i r onme nt ,whe r e" pr oduc t i on[ …]i sc o mpe t i t i v ea ndnotc ompl e me nt a r y .I ti s c ha ng i nga ndno tf x e d.[ …]I nt hei ndus t r i a ls y s t e mt he r ei snot e c hnol og i c a ll i mi tt o 12 Drucker 2005, 268 Which will consequently lead to a complete specialization in all fields. 14 Drucker 1965, 60. 15 Ibid. 55. 16 "Free trade in the complementary exchange of goods on the basis of a division of labor ordained by God and unchangeable by human hands" (Ibid. 57). Therefore everyone creates according to their own natural resources, whereas the production quantity is fixed (Ibid.). 17 According to the theory of monopolies, profits can be increased by limiting it, because of a fixed supply. (Ibid. 58). 13 4 1 8 pr oduc t i o n"( Dr uc k e r2 0 0 5 , 5 8 ) . Te r e f or ei n" t hemode r nbi gbus i ne s sc or por a t i oni ti sno t 1 9 t heque s t i on ofe fc i e nc yt ha tma t t e r s ,butt ha tofpol i t i c a ls t r uc t ur ea nd po we r . " Te me r c a nt i l es oc i e t yc a nnots e et hi s ,be c a us ei t" k nowsnos oc i a la ndpol i t i c a lpr obl e mso ut s i de 2 0 t hema r k e t . " Tee ndo ft heEc o no mi cma nt h usha p p e nsb e c a us eo ft hes o c i a li nt e g r a t i o n o ut s i det hema r k e ti nt hene ws o c i a li ns t i t ut i o n-t hec o r p o r a t i o n. Mo r e o v e r ,t hi sa l s ob r i ng st oa c ha ng ei nt heme a ni ngo f p r i v a t ep r o p e r t y , wh i c hi snol o ng e rt hede c i d i ngf a c t o r , l i k ei twa si nt he e r ao fme r c a nt i l i s m.I nt hee r ao fc o r p o r a t i o ns , i ti smuc hmo r ei mp o r t a ntwhoc o nt r o l sp r o p e r t y r a t he rt ha nwhoa c t ua l l yo wnsi t .Teb a s i st he r e f o r es h i fsf r o mo wni ngt oma na g i ngp r o p e r t y . Co mpl e xe c onomi ce qua t i o nsa r eme a ntt odi s c our a g es ha r e hol de r sf r o m ma k i ngde c i s i ons a boutt he i rc a pi t a la ndt oe nc o ur a g et he mt oonl ybei nt e r e s t e di ng e t t i nga sl a r g ear e t ur no n i nv e s t me nta spos s i b l e .I nt hemome ntwhe nt he ye nt r us t e dc or por a t i on' sma na g e me ntwi t h t he i rmone y ,t he yc e a s e dt obeEc o no mi cp e o p l ea st he yc e a s e dt obea c t i v eo nt hema r k e t . 2 1 " [ T] he s t oc k hol de rha sno de c i s i o n orr e s po ns i bi l i t y .And i n bot h he wa nt snone . " Ma na g e me nt , whi c hi sno we nt r us t e dwi t hr e s pons i b i l i t y , doe snote v e nhol dl e g i t i ma t epo we r be c a us ei snotde r i v e df r om o wne r s hi pbutf r om i t s e l f . " I nne i t he ri sma na g e r i a lpowe ra c t ua l l yde r i v e df r o m,ort r a c e a b l et o ,s t oc ko wne r s hi p;t ha ti s ,t oi ndi v i dua l pr ope r t yr i g ht s .Tede c i s i v epol i t i c a la ut hor i t yi nt hei ndus t r i a l s y s t e m, t hemode r nc o r por a t ema na g e me nt[ …] i sno tt hee x e c ut i v ea g e nto ft hea t omsofi ndi v i dua lpr o pe r t yj oi ne dt og e t he rs oc i a l l yi nt hec o r por a t i on. I ti snot 2 2 po we rde l e g a t e db ypr ope r t y . Ma na g e me ntpo we rha sbe c omeor i g i na l po we r . " I ns t e a dofo wne r s hi p, c ont r ol a ndde c i s i o nma k i nga r et hef ounda t i ono fi ndus t r i a lr e a l i t y , t he po we ro ft hede c i s i o nma k e r s ' c a nonl ybede l e g a t e df r o mt he ms e l v e s .TusDr uc k e rde fne s t hec e nt r a li s s uea saque s t i o nofl e g i t i ma c yo fpo we ri ns uc hs oc i e t y , whi c hha st obe c omea n i ndus t r i a l s oc i e t y . Al r e a dyi nhi sf r s tbook ,hewr o t ea boutt hes a mei s s ue s :" I ne v e r ys oc i a ls y s t e mt ha tba s e s 2 3 i t s e l font heEur ope a nt r a di t i on, t hej us t i fc a t i ono fpo we rmus tbet hec e nt r a lpr obl e m. " And no whede fne st hel e g i t i ma t epo we ra s" r ul e r s hi pwhi c hfndsi t sj us t i fc a t i oni nt heba s i ce t hos 18 Ibid. 58. Ibid. 58-59. 20 Ibid. 59. 21 Ibid. 68. 22 Ibid. 23 Drucker 2005, 15 19 5 2 4 oft hes oc i e t y . " Le a de r s hi p , orr a t he r , r ul e r s h i p , a shes t i l l c a l l e di tba c kt he n( l a t e r , heus e st he wor dl e a de r s h i pi ns t e a d)t husha st obec ons i s t e ntwi t ht hee t hos ,s oi tc a nbel e g i t i ma t e . " Le g i t i ma c yi sapur e l yf unc t i ona lc o nc e pt .Te r ei snoa bs ol ut el e g i t i ma c y .Po we rc a nbe l e g i t i ma t eo nl yi nr e l a t i ont oaba s i cs oc i a lbe l i e f .[ …]Le g i t i ma t ep o we ri ss o c i a l l yf unc t i o ni ng p o we r ;butwhyi tf unc t i o nsa ndt owha tpur pos ei saque s t i o ne nt i r e l yout s i dea ndbe f or e 2 5 l e g i t i ma c y . " Tepur pos eoft hi spo we ri st he r e f or eout s i deoft hel e g i t i ma c ybuti nt hev e r yc or eof s oc i a l i t y .Dr uc k e rg i v e suss ome t hi ng ,wha thec a l l st he" p ur et he o r yo fs o c i e t y " ;" as oc i e t y c a nno tf unc t i onunl e s si tg i v e st hei ndi v i dua l me mbe rs oc i a l s t a t usa ndf unc t i on, a ndunl e s si t s 2 6 s oc i a l l yde c i s i v epowe ri sl e g i t i ma t epowe r . " Hei mme di a t e l ya ddst ha tbe c a us eofi t sf or ma l na t ur e ,t hede fni t i ona bo v edoe snott e l lusa ny t hi nga bouti de a sbe hi ndt hi sope r a t i on:" I n i t s e l ff unc t i ona le fc i e nc yi snot hi ngunl e s swek no wt hea ns we rt ot heque s t i o n:e fc i e nc yt o 2 7 wha tpur pos ea nda twha tpr i c e ? " Wi t ht hi s ,he ,ofc our s e ,t a k e sadi r e c ts hota tf a s c i s mt ha t de v e l ope dawor k i nge fc i e nc yofs oc i e t ya tt hepr i c eoff r e e dom.Andf o rDr uc k e r ,t hi si sa pr i c e , whi c hi sa bs ol ut e l yt oohi g h. Func t i o na nde ic i e nc ya r et woo ft hemos ti mpor t a ntwo r dsi nDr uc k e r ' sv oc a b ul a r y ,whi c h wewi l l no wwi t ne s si na c t i onwi t ht hei ndi v i dua l o nhi swa yt o wa r dst heI nd us t r i a l ma n. Func t i ona ndEic i e nc y Tei ndi v i dua lt husr e qui r e sas oc i a ls t a t usa ndf unc t i o n,whi c ha r epr i ma r i l ybo undt oo ne ' s s t a t usa ndf unc t i o ni nt hee c onomi cpr oc e s soft hes oc i e t y .Hi sf unc t i o nt he r e f or eha st obe e ic i e nti nt hee c ono mi cpr oc e s s ." [ A]s oc i e t yl i k eour s ,whi c hs e e ss oc i a ls t a t usa ndf unc t i on pr e domi na nt l yi ns t a t usa nd f unc t i o ni nt hee c onomi cpr oc e s s ,c oul d no ti nt e g r a t et he f unc t i onl e s si ndus t r i a lwor k e r "Dr uc k e r1 9 6 5 ,8 1 ) ,e v e nt ho ug hi tdoe spr ov i dee c onomi c 2 8 s a f e t y . Tei ndi v i dua lwa nt st oha v eas oc i a ls t a t usa ndf unc t i ona ndt hi si swhyDr uc k e rs e e s une mpl o y me nta sahug epr obl e m -a nune mpl oy e dl os e shi spur pos ea ndbe c ome sas oc i a l 24 Drucker 1965, 32. Ibid. 34, emphasis by B. K. 26 Ibid. 36. 27 Ibid. 28 Ibid. 81. 25 6 2 9 out c a s t . Dr uc k e rc ons i de r st heune mpl o y e di ndi v i dua lapi t i f ulpe r s on.Att hes a met i mehe not e st ha tnoc r i s i ss of a rha ds uc hac hr oni cs t a t eo fune mpl oy me nta st hel a s t ,whe r e a she doe snotme nt i o nt ha ti ti st hes oc i a ls t r uc t ur ea ndr e a l i t y ,whi c hhes t r i v e st og i v el e g i t i ma t e po we rt ha tl e a dst os uc h une mpl oy me nta nd t ur nst he une mpl oy e di nt o a pr obl e m. Une mpl o y me nti ng e ne r a li saf ounda t i ono ft hene ws oc i e t y ,a sonl yi na" wor k i nga nd 3 0 wor k a bl es oc i e t y " t hei ndi v i dua lc a nr e t a i nhi ss oc i a ls t a t usa ndf unc t i on. " I ft hei ndi v i dua li s no tg i v e ns oc i a ls t a t usa ndf unc t i o n,t he r ec a nbenos oc i e t ybutonl yama s sofs oc i a la t oms 3 1 fy i ngt hr oug hs pa c ewi t houta i m orpur pos e . " Butt hema s s e sc a nber e i nt e g r a t e d-i . e .t he y 3 2 " c a nonl ybeor g a ni z e db yf or c e ,i ns l a v e r ya ndi nne g a t i on. " " Anys oc i e t ywhi c hc a nnot 3 3 pr e v e ntt hede v e l opme nto fma s s e si sdoome d" .( Dr uc k e r1 9 6 5 ,3 7 ) Tema i npr obl e m no w be c ome st her e l a t i ons hi pbe t we e nt hei ndus t r i a lr e a l i t ya ndt hei ndi v i dua l ,whol os thi s pur pos ei ni t , be c a us eune mpl o y me nti sonl yt hepe a koft hi spr obl e ma t i c .Tes y s t e m' sne e ds a r ee x a c t l yt heoppos i t eo fy e s t e r da y ' ss k i l l e dwor k e r , hi shol i s t i ci ma g ea nda t t e nt i o nt ode t a i l s . " Uni f or mi t y ,a bs e nc eofa nype r s ona lr e l a t i ons hi pt ot hewor k ,s pe c i a l i z a t i ono noneuns k i l l e d ma ni pul a t i on,s ubdi v i s i o n oft hewor ki nt o pa r t i c l e swi t ho utc ompr e he ns i bl ec ohe s i o n, 3 4 be c a met hene w wa yt oma x i mum pr oduc t i v i t ya nde fc i e nc y "( Dr uc k e r1 9 6 5 ,7 9 ) . I nt hi s wa yt hewho l e ,t hehol i s t i cpi c t ur ei sl os t ." Whe nwec a l lt hene ws y s t e m' a ut oma t i c 'o r ' me c ha ni z e d' , wedono tme a nt ha tt hema c hi ne sha v ebe c omea ut o ma t i corme c ha ni c a l . Wha t 3 5 ha sbe c omea ut o ma t i ca ndme c ha ni c a li st hewor k e r "( Dr uc k e r1 9 6 5 ,7 8 7 9 ) . Onc et hei de a l be c a met hede pe r s o na l i z e dpe r s o na sa ni nt e r c ha ng e a bl epa r t ,y e s t e r da y ' sc r a fs ma ni sonl y 3 6 us e f ulf ors t a r t i ngt hema c hi ne s .I ns hor t :" Tog oa ut o ma t i ci st obepr og r e s s i v e . " " Fr om t he poi ntofv i e woft hes y s t e mt hei ndi v i dua lwor k e rf unc t i o nsonl y , ma k e ss e ns eonl y , i sr a t i ona l onl ywhe nhec e a s e st obeame mbe rofs oc i e t y .Fr o mt hepoi ntofv i e w oft hei ndi v i dua l 3 7 wor k e rt hes oc i e t yoft hema s spr oduc t i ona g edoe snota ndc a nno tma k es e ns ea ta l l . " Afe r 29 "For unemployment is not only an economic catastrophe. It is a social disfranchisement. The unemployed has lost his livelihood as well as his status and function in society. He is an outcast - for a man has no function and no status, for whom society has no use and nothing to do, has been cast out" (Drucker 1965, 82). 30 Ibid. 32. 31 Ibid. 28. 32 Ibid. 37. 33 Ibid. He continues with the exact today’s social constellation (see quote in the Appendix). At the same time, he makes a critique of Ortega y Gasset and his book The Revolt of the Masses (Gasset, 1993), as a revolt is supposedly already a method of participation. But this is how he misses the point of Gasset’s book that the masses are already ruling and that the revolt lies in the fact that their cynical indifference became law. 34 Drucker 1965, 79. 35 Ibid. 78-79. 36 Ibid. 80. 37 Ibid. 84. 7 a l lt hi s ,hi sc onc l us i oni snott ha thi si saba ds y s t e m,butr a t he rt ha tweha v et oma k ei t s e ns i bl e , i . e . g i v ei ts o mea dde dv a l ue , apur pos e . Andwhy ?S i mpl y , f o rt hes a mer e a s o na swhy ma na g e me ntha st or e c e i v el e g i t i ma c y :be c a us eonl y" Ve r yf e wi ns t i t ut i onsi nhi s t or yha v e 3 8 be e na ss uc c e s s f ula st hec or po r a t i on. " Andhel a t e rc ont i nue s :" t he r eha sne v e rb e e namo r e e ic i e nt ,mo r eho ne s t ,amo r ec a p a b l ea ndc o ns c i e nt i o usg r o upo fr ul e r st ha nt hep r o f e s s i o na l 3 9 ma na g e me ntt heg r e a tAme r i c a nc o r p o r a t i o nst o da y " . Co r por a t i o nsa ndt he i rl e a de r sa r et he r e f or et hemos ts uc c e s s f ulr e pr e s e nt a t i v e soft he i rk i nd i na l lofhi s t o r y .Ands oweme e tt hepr obl e m ofDr uc k e r ' ss e l f e v i de nts uc c e s s .I nr e l a t i ont o wha tc a nt hi sbec a l l e ds uc c e s s ,i fi ti sne i t he rl e g i t i ma t e ,no rf unc t i ona lf ori ndi v i dua l s ,who f e e la si nt e r c ha ng e a bl eg e a r si ns uc has y s t e m?I fs uc has oc i e t yma k e snos e ns ef ort he i ndi v i dua l ,f orwhodoe si t ?Andhe r ewes e et hei na de qua t eme t hodo fa r g ume nt a t i on. Dr uc k e rc o ns t a nt l yl e a dsusf r om o neofhi sc onc i s ec o nc l us i o nst ot hene x t , a nda tt hee nd, he pr e s e nt st heba s i sofe v e r y t hi nga ss ome t hi ngs e l f e v i de nt .Te r e f or e , wec a nne v e rr e c e i v et he a ns we rt ot heq ue s t i o n, a ndt hebook ' st i t l ei t s e l fi si nc or r e c ta swe l l -amuc hbe t t e rt i t l ewoul d be" TeFut ur eofI ndus t r i a lS oc i e t y " .TeI nd us t r i a lMa na l mos tdoe snota ppe a ri nDr uc k e r ' s book ,a ndt hea ut ho rhi ms e l fpa y shi ml e s sa t t e nt i ont ha nt henoty e tf ni s he dI nd us t r i a l S o c i e t y . Hec l a i mst ha t , " Pol i t i c a l l ya nds oc i a l l y , ho we v e r , weha v enoi ndus t r i a lc i v i l i z a t i o n, no 4 0 i ndus t r i a l c ommuni t yl i f e , noi ndus t r i a l or de roro r g a ni z a t i on"( Dr uc k e r1 9 6 5 , 2 5 ) . Te r e f or e , a l loft hi swi l lf r s tha v et obede v e l ope d,s oi tc ompl i e swi t ht heg i v e nc i r c ums t a nc e s .I nhi s s e c ondbook , ho we v e r , Dr uc k e rdo e sno ta p p r o a c ht hede v e l o p me nto ft h i sne ws o c i e t ya shed i d i nh i sfr s tb o o k ,f r o mt hep o s i t i o no ft hea d v a nc e me nto ff r e e d o ma nde q ua l i t y ,b utr a t he rf r o m t hep o i nto fp h y s i c a lr e a l i t y .Ti sr e a l i t y ,f o rh i m,i si nt hef o r mo fi ndus t r i a lr e a l i t ya ndt he i nd us t r i a lwa r ,wh i c hwa si np r o g r e s sa tt het i me .Be c a us e" Ti swa ri sb e i ngf o ug h tf o rt he 4 1 s t r uc t ur eo fi ndus t r i a ls o c i e t y-i t sb a s i cp r i nc i p l e s ,i t sp ur p o s e s , a ndi t si ns t i t ut i o ns ,[ …] . " " Any p e a c ef o l l o wi ngt h i swa rmus tb ea ni nd us t r i a l p e a c e-ap e a c ei nwh i c hi nd us t r yi sno tj us to nt he 4 2 p e r i p he r yo ft hep e a c e t i mes o c i a lo r g a ni z a t i o nb uti t sc e nt e r . "( Dr uc k e r1 9 6 5 ,1 3 ) Ast hema i n que s t i o no fhi sbook ,Dr uc k e rt he r e f or ea s k s :" Ho wc a na ni nd us t r i a ls o c i e t yb eb ui l ta saf r e e 4 3 s o c i e t y ? " Andf ur t he r mor e , hea dds : 38 Ibid. 63. Ibid. 76, emphasis by B. K. 40 Ibid. 25. 41 Ibid. 13, emphasis by B. K. 42 Ibid. 43 Ibid. 16, emphasis by B. K. 39 8 " Wemus tk nowt ha twefg hta g a i ns ta na t t e mptt ode v e l o paf unc t i oni ngi ndus t r i a l s oc i e t yont heba s i so fs l a v e r y a ndc onque s t . Ot he r wi s ewewoul dha v enob a s i sf orourowna t t e mptt ode v e l opnoto nl yaf unc t i oni ngbutaf r e e a ndpe a c e f uli ndus t r i a ls oc i e t y .[ …]t he y[ t o t a l i t a r i a ns ]a r et r y i ngt oma k es oc i e t yf unc t i onbya ba ndo ni ng f r e e dom. Toov e r c omet o t a l i t a r i s m wemus tr e c r e a t eaf unc t i oni ngs oc i e t y , a ndonet ha tf unc t i onsa tl e a s ta swe l l 4 4 a st het o t a l i t a r i a np s e udos o c i e t y . " Ti ss ha r pdi fe r e nc ebe t we e nt hef r s ta nds e c ondbooka l s or e fe c t st hef ut ur eoft hewor l d a ndt hepo i nto fDr uc k e r ' swr i t i ng s .Tec ha ng ei sf a t a l :Fr o mt hes e a r c hf oraFr e ea ndEq ua l s oc i e t yf ort hef r e ea nde qua lma n,weg ot ot hes e a r c hf ora ni ndus t r i a ls oc i e t y ,whi c hone 4 5 mus tunde r s t a nda sf r e ea ndf unc t i o ni ng . S oa tt hee ndoft heEc o no mi cMa na ndbe f or et he de v e l opme ntoft heI nd us t r i a lma n, wel os te qua l i t ya ndi ns t e a dofi tweg a i ne df unc t i ona l i t y of as oc i e t yt ha tha st obe c omei ndus t r i a l ,i fi ti st obes ui t a b l ef ort hee x i s t i ngphy s i c a lr e a l i t y . Ev e nwo r s e ,Dr uc k e rfr s ts t a t e st ha tt hef a s c i s tt e c hnol og i c a la dv a nc e me nti se mpt yi na ndo f i t s e l f ,a ndt he nhes t a r t sl ook i ngf o rpe a c e f ulba s e sf ort hee x a c ts a mes y s t e m,be c a us et he c or por a t i on,t ohi m,i ss uc has uc c e s s f ulo r g a ni z a t i on.Hi ss e a r c hf orane ws oc i e t yi st husno l ong e rboundt ot hede v e l opme ntofi de a s( a si ta tl e a s tpa r t i a l l yus e dt obe ) , butr a t he rt ot he de ni a lo ff a s c i s ma ndt hes e a r c hf orot he r ,mor epe a c e f ulf ounda t i ons .Ti swa y ,hea l s os l i ps a nda dmi t st ha tf a s c i s mf unc t i onsv e r ywe l l , a ndt ha twewoul da l s ol i k eas oc i e t y , whi c hwoul d wor ka tl e a s ta swe l l . TeNa z i swa ntt oc r e a t ea ni ndus t r i a l f unc t i ona l s oc i e t y , whi c hi snotf r e e t ho ug h,a si ti sba s e do ns l a v e r y ,wa ra ndc onque s t .Ti sf orhi mt hef unda me nt a lmi s t a k eo f Na z i s ma nda tt hes a met i me" our "mos ti mpo r t a ntbe ne ft , be c a us e" ha dNa z i s m be e na bl et o fnda nyot he rba s i sf ors l a v e r yt ha nwa ra ndc onque s t ,i t st ot a l i t a r i a nr e v ol ut i onmi g htha v e 4 6 s we ptEur opewi t houte nc ount e r i nga nyr e s i s t a nc ea ta l l "( Dr uc k e r1 9 6 5 ,1 0 6 ) . Butt hi sbe g s t hea ns we rt ot hec e nt r a lque s t i o n:Wha ti st heba s i sf orf r e e dom ofe r e dt ousb yDr uc k e r ?I f hes a y st ha ti nt hei ndus t r i a lr e a l i t y ,t hei ndi v i dua l ,r e g a r dl e s sofhi sf unc t i oni nt hee c onomi c pr oc e s s , l os thi spur pos e , whyt he nwoul dNa z i s m wi t hadi fe r e ntf ounda t i onbeda ng e r o usa t a l l ?Na z i s mg a v el i f eaf ul lpur pos ea ndt hi swa st her e a s onf ori t sha ppya ndwi dea c c e pt a nc e . I t sf ounda t i o nsa r edi fe r e ntf r o mt r a di t i on,butf a s c i s ma l s oc l a i mst ha ti tbr i ng sf r e e dom,a s 4 7 doma nyf a r r i g htpa r t i e st oda ya swe l l . Mor e o v e r ,ma na g e me ntha snol e g i t i ma t epo we ry e t , a ndt hes oc i e t yDr uc k e rde s i r e ss t i l ldoe snote v e nf unc t i ona shewoul dha v ewa nt e d.But 44 Ibid. 22-23, emphasis by B. K. A noteworthy difference is also the fact that in his first book, he used a capital F in the word "Free", but not in the second. 46 Ibid. 106. 47 They even call themselves »Freedom parties«. 45 9 wha ti fh i sc o nc e p ti sf a s c i s mo nad i fe r e ntf o unda t i o nwi t hmo r ef r e e do m?Whynot ?I ti shi s a l t e r na t i v e .J us ta st hec or eofat ot a l i t a r i a ne c o nomyi sf ul le mpl oy me nta ndno tpr oft s ,t he ne w,f r e es oc i e t yha st oa l s owo r ka ndbef unc t i o na l ,j us tt ha ti ns t e a df ort hes t a t e ,t hi shol ds t r uef oras pe c i fcc o r po r a t i o n( orl a t e ro r g a ni z a t i on) . Dr uc k e r ' sc e nt r a lpr obl e ma r i s e si nwha t f a s c i s m ha da l r e a dys ol v e d-ho wt og i v epur pos et oaf unc t i o ni ngi ndus t r i a ls oc i e t yi nawa y , whi c he na bl e si tt oe fe c t i v e l yf unc t i ona saf r e es oc i e t y .Andbe c a us eoft hi s ,e v e r y t hi ng de pe ndsonhi sc onc e ptoff r e e dom ( a ndt hea f o r e me nt i one de x c l us i ono fe qua l i t y ) . S owha ti s t hi sne w,f r e es oc i e t yl i k e ?I ti sas oc i e t y ,whi c hi sf r e eofa l le x t e r na ll i mi t a t i onsa ndwhos e ma i nc e l l sc ons i s tofc o r po r a t i o ns or g a ni z a t i ons . S oi ti sa c t ua l l yas oc i e t ywi t ho utt hes t a t e .S o Ic a no ut l i neDr uc k e r ' sp r o j e c ta sf o l l o ws : Wo r s h i p i ngt heo r g a ni z a t i o na sag o a li ni t s e l fwi l l l e a d t ot her e f o r mul a t i o no fo l dv a l ue s ,s ot he ya r ea p p r o p r i a t ef o rs uc h wo r s hi p i ng .F a s c i s m e x c ha ng e dt heo r g a ni z a t i o nf o rac r e e da ndo r de r ,b utb e c a us ewewa ntt ok e e pt heo r g a ni z a t i o n ( a ndwewa nti t ,b e c a us ei ti ss uc c e s s f ul ) ,weha v et oe x c ha ng ee q ua l i t yf o rf unc t i o na l i t y . Ho we v e r , i nhi sfr s tbook , Dr uc k e rwr ot et hi spa r a g r a ph: " Tea b r a c a da br aoff a s c i s mi st hes ubs t i t ut i o nofo r g a ni z a t i onf orc r e e da ndo r de r ; t houg hi tc a nnots uc c e e da nd c a nnotl a s t , t hef o r ma l de moc r a c yo fc a pi t a l i s ma ndo fs oc i a l i s mc a nnotpr e v e nti t ss pr e a d.Butt heg l o r i fc a t i o no f o r g a ni z a t i o na sa ne ndi ni t s e l f s ho wst ha te v e nt ua l l yt he r ewi l l b eane wo r de rb a s e dup o nar e f o r mul a t i o no f t heo l d f unda me nt a l v a l ue so f Eur o p e a nt r a di t i o n: f r e e do ma nde q ua l i t y "( Dr uc k e r2 0 0 5 , 2 3 , e mpha s i sb yB. K. ) . Dr uc ke r ' sFr e e dom Ass a i d,hi sc onc e ptoff r e e dom f r o mt hef r s tboo kc ha ng e si nt hes e c ond,e s pe c i a l l yi ni t s r e l a t i ons hi p wi t he qua l i t y ,whi c hi st r a ns f or me di nt of unc t i ona l i t yt ot hebe ne ftoft he or g a ni z a t i on,whi c ha c t ua l l yma k e si tdi s a ppe a r .S oi nt hefr s tbookhewr i t e s :" I ti st hev e r y 4 8 e s s e nc eo fEur opet ha ti tc onc e i v e sma na sf r e ea nde q ua l . " Andhec ont i nue st ha tt hi swa s l a t e nt l yt r uei nAnc i e ntGr e e c ea ndRomea l r e a dy ,a ndt ha twef e e ls i mi l a rt ot he m be c a us eo f i t ." Wi t hChr i s t i a ni t y ,f r e e dom a nde qua l i t ybe c a met het woba s i c sc onc e pt so fEur ope ;t he y 4 9 a r et he ms e l v e sEur ope . " Ho we v e r ,i nhi ss e c ondbookhewi l lf o r g e ta l la boute qua l i t y ,ne i t he rwi l lheme nt i o nt he e s s e nc eofEur ope , butonl yf r e e dom –Chr i s t i a nf r e e dom: 48 Ibid. 50. Ibid. 49 10 " Teonl yba s i soff r e e dom i st heChr i s t i a nc onc e pto fma n' sna t ur e :i mpe r f e c t ,we a k ,as i nne ra ndde s t i ne dt o dus t ;y e tma dei nGod' si ma g ea ndr e s pons i bl ef orhi sa c t i ons .Onl yi fma ni sc onc e i v e da sba s i c a l l ya nd 5 0 i mmut a bl yi mpe r f e c ta ndi mpe r ma ne nt ,i sf r e e do m phi l os ophi c a l l ybot hna t ur a la ndne c e s s a r y " Andf ur t he r : 5 1 " Fr e e dom, a sweunde r s t a ndi t , i si nc onc e i v a bl eout s i dea ndbe f or et heChr i s t i a ne r a . " S owec oul ds a yt ha tDr uc k e r ' st r a ns i t i o nf r o m Eur o pe( whe r ehewr o t et hefr s tbook )t ot he US( whe r ehes e t t l e df o rl i f e )a tt hes a met i mea l s ome a nshi sl e a v i ngf r e e dom a nde qua l i t y be hi ndf ort hei na ug ur a t i onoff r e e dom a saChr i s t i a nc onc e pt . Atf r s t ,t hef r e e dom i nAnc i e ntGr e e c ea ndRomes t i l ls e e msl a t e ntt ohi m,buti nt hene x t book ,hec a nno te v e nc onc e i v eoff r e e dom out s i deChr i s t i a ni t ya nymor e .Ti sCh r i s t i a n f r e e do m wi l l t h usb e c o meh i ss e l f e v i de ntc l a r i t y . I twi l l b e c o meh i sa b s o l ut e , e v e nt ho ug hhemus t no ta ndc a nno ts a yi twi t ho utc o nt r a di c t i ngh i ms e l ff r o mh i sp r e v i o usb o o k .Butl e tuss t a r ta tt he be g i nni ng .Fr e e dom i snots o me t hi ngpa s s i v et ohi m,i ti snotf un.I ti sapos s i bi l i t yt oma k e r e s pons i bl ede c i s i onsont heba s i soff a i t h:e v e r y onemus tc hoos ebe t we e ng ooda nde v i l ,wi t h 5 2 t hea wa r e ne s shi so rhe ro wni mpe r f e c t i oni nmi nd. Onl yChr i s t i a ni t yha se x t r a pol a t e ds uc h ac o nc e ptoff r e e dom.Le tmer e pe a tt ha t-t oDr uc k e r ,f r e e dom i sno tt hehi g he s tg oa l ,i ti s f a i t ht ha tt hehuma nbe i ngi sa tt hes a met i mepr ouda ndt husa bl et oc hoos ebe t we e ng ood a nde v i l ,a nda tt hes a met i mepoora ndi mpe r f e c t .Wi t houts i n,t he r ei snor e s pons i b i l i t ya nd 5 3 a l s onof r e e dom. Be c a us eo ft hi s , hes t r ong l yoppos e sa nys or to f" ne g a t i v e "f r e e dom, l i k et he onet ha te me r g e dwi t ht heFr e nc hRe v ol ut i o n,whe r et hei ndi v i dua l ,whowa snota c t i v e l y e ng a g e di nbe i ngf r e e , wa snotf r e ea ta l l . I ft he r ei st hec ha nc ef ort hee x i s t e nc eofa na bs ol ut e , t hi si sas t e pf a rf r o mf r e e dom:i fi ti spos s i bl et ok no wt hea bs ol ut et r ut h,t he r ei sno j us t i fc a t i onf ordoub ta ndc ho i c e .I ft he r ei snodoubta ndc ho i c e ,wec a nno tbef r e e ,be c a us e wec a nnotg owr o ngo rs i n,e x c e pti fwel a c ki nf or ma t i on.Be c a us ei ns uc hac a s et het r ut hi s c ommonk no wl e dg ea nd" Fr e e dom l i e sonl yi nt hepe r f e c tr e a l i z a t i o noft hev o l o nt ég é né r a l e . " 5 4 ( Dr uc k e r1 9 6 5 ,1 4 5 ) Ti si swhyhea l s os t r o ng l yoppos e sr a t i ona l i s ma ndEnl i g ht e nme nt , 50 Drucker 1965, 110-111. Ibid. 113. 52 "Freedom is not fun. […] It is responsible choice. Freedom is not so much a right as a duty. Real freedom is not freedom from something; […] Freedom is not only possible, it is inevitable on the basis of the belief that every single human being has to choose between good and evil" (Drucker 1965, 109-110). 53 "By denying the possibility of evil […] denies responsibility without which there can be no meaningful choice, that is, no freedom" (Drucker 1965, 153). 54 Ibid. 145. 51 11 whi c hc r e a t e dt heg odde s so fTr ut h, be c a us es uc has y s t e m" c a nno tr e s pe c ta nyoppos i t i o n, f or 5 5 i tc a nonl ybeoppos i t i o nt oa bs o l ut et r ut h"( Dr uc k e r1 9 6 5 ,1 4 3 ) . Fur t he r mo r e ,noa bs o l ut e t r ut hc a ne v e nber a t i ona l ,be c a us ei tha st obeba s e dont her a t i o :" I ft r ul yr e l i g i o us ,a n a bs o l ut epr i nc i pl ei ss upe r r a t i ona l–at r ueme t a phy s i c a lpr i nc i pl ewhi c hg i v e sav a l i dba s i sof 5 6 r a t i ona ll og i c . " Andt hi si sho wEnl i g ht e nme ntdi s t a nc e di t s e l ff r o mt heChr i s t i a nt r ut h,t o bui l di t so wnf ounda t i on, i nde pe nde ntf r om f a i t ha ndba s e do nr e a s on. Butbe c a us er e a s o nha s t os t a ndons ome t hi ng , i ti sa l wa y sde pe nde nto ns omei r r a t i o na lmome nt , whi c hpr e v e nt st he do wnf a l lofr e a s o na ndg i v e si tt hes t r e ng t ht oc o nt i nue . Ta ti swhyDr uc k e rs e e sadi r e c tl i nk f r om Rous s e a ut hr oug hMa r xt oHi t l e r . Hede t e r mi ne st ha tRous s e a ua tt hepoi ntofc ol l a ps eof Enl i g ht e nme nti nt r oduc e dt hei r r a t i ona lv o l o nt ég é né r a l ei ni t . 5 7 Ma r x , i nt hemo me ntwhe n" t hepos t Na pol e oni cr a t i ona l i s tl i be r a l i s mo ft heut i l i t a r i a ns , a nd or t hodo xe c onomi s t sha dc ol l a ps e di nt hea bor t i v er e v ol ut i onsof1 8 4 8 ,[ . . . ]r e pl a c e dt he i r r a t i ona l i s ta bs ol ut e swi t ht hei r r a t i ona lpe r f e c t i onoft hepr ol e t a r i a ta ndt hei ne v i t a b i l i t yoft he 5 8 c l a s sl e s ss oc i e t y " .And f na l l y ,whe n" t her a t i ona l i s tps y c hob i ol og i c a lde t e r mi ni s m of mode r ns c i e nc e ,ofDa r wi n,Fr e uda ndt heBe ha v i or i s t sc ol l a ps e dunde rt hei mpa c tofWor l d Wa ra ndde pr e s s i o n, Hi t l e rpr oc l a i me dt hepr i nc i pl e so ft hebi ol og i s t sa ndps y c hol og i s t si nt he 5 9 i r r a t i o na l i s mo fr a c ea ndpr o pa g a nda . " I nt hi swa yHi t l e ronl ydi dwha twa sa l r e a dyl a t e nt l y i nc l ude di nt het he o r i e so ft het wome nt i o ne da ut ho r s-hec r e a t e dape r s ona ,e l e v a t e da bo v e e v e r y o nee l s e-t heLe a de r .Heonl ya dde dt hemor a lc y ni c i s m,s o me t hi ngi mpos s i bl ea tt he t i meo fhi spr e de c e s s or s , a sonl yl a t e r» ps y c hol og yt a ug htust ha tt he r ei snomor a lc or ei nt he 6 0 huma nbe i ng . « Dr uc k e r ' ss e e mi ng l ys moot he x t r a pol a t i onc ol l a ps e sa tt hee nd,a ndno t be c a us eofhi ss t a t e me nt ,butbe c a us eoft hepos i t i onf r o m whe r ehei sma k i ngt hi sv e r y s t a t e me nt : 55 Ibid. 143. Ibid. 57 But Marxism (Drucker does not separate Marx and Marxism, even though Marx himself claimed he was not a Marxist) is guilty of even worse terrors, as it "prepared the great masses for totalitarism. It made them ready to accept the logic of man-made, absolutist, apocalyptic visions. For this alone Marxism deserves to be called the father of Hitlerism." (Ibid., 148-149) 58 Ibid. 151-152. 59 Ibid. 152. 60 Ibid. 151. 56 12 " Noneo ft her e v o l ut i ona r i e s[ Ro us s e a u,Ma r xi nHi t l e r ,not eb yB.K. ]ha dt oa dda ny t hi ngt ot he f unda me nt a l be l i e f so ft her a t i ona l i s mo ft he i rda y s . Al l t he yha dt odowa st oc ha ng et hea b s ol ut et r ut h 6 1 a ndr e a s onf r om ar a t i ona l i s ti nt oa ni r r a t i ona l i s tps e udor e l i g i ouspr i nc i pl e . " Tepr obl e ml i e si nt hef a c tt ha tDr uc k e ri sdoi ngt hee x a c ts a met hi ng-hes t r i v e st og i v ea f unc t i ona l l ye fe c t i v ei ndus t r i a ls oc i e t yac e r t a i ni r r a t i o na lps e udor e l i g i ouspr i nc i pl e .Hi s pr o j e c tc o ul dt husbes umme dupa sa ne x t r a p o l a t i o no fCh r i s t i a nf r e e do mt h r o ug ha ne me r g i ng c e nt r a ls o c i a li ns t i t ut i o n-c o r p o r a t i o n( o r g a ni z a t i o n) ,s ot ha ti t sne wf o r mo fr a t i o na ll e a d i ng r e c e i v e sa ni r r a t i o na lp r o o fa ndt h usl e g i t i ma c y .Andmo r e o v e r ,o neo ft hema i nc o nc e r nso f Dr uc k e r ' sf ut ur ewr i t i ng swi l lb ewi t ht hel e a de r s h i pa ndt h uswi t ht hel e a de ra swe l l ,t he r e f or e wi t ht ha tpe r s onae l e v a t e da bo v ee v e r y onee l s et ha tHi t l e rc r e a t e d. h eCons e r v a t i v eRe v ol ut i on, S t a t e , a ndSoc i e t y Dr uc k e r ' sde ni a lo ft heEnl i g ht e nme nta ndt heFr e nc hRe v ol ut i o na nd,a tt hes a met i me , i ns i s t e nc eo nt hephy s i c a l r e a l i t yofhi smome nti spos s i bl ebe c a us e , wa si nt heUS Aa tt het i me ofwr i t i ng , a ndt her e v ol ut i onhet hi nk sne e dst ot obec o nt i nue di st heAme r i c a nc o ns e r v a t i v e r e v ol ut i o n,ori nhi swor ds ,t hec ont r a r e v ol ut i o n.Tusar e v ol ut i o n,whi c hdoe snots t r i v et o 6 2 c ha ng et hec ur r e ntc ondi t i on,butr a t he rt oa da ptt oi t . Tus ,Ame r i c a nr e v ol ut i oni sf o r Dr uc k e r" t hef ount a i nhe a da nd or i g i n oft hef r e eme r c a nt i l es oc i e t yoft heni ne t e e nt h 6 3 6 4 c e nt ur y , " a ndwi t ht hi sa l s ot het ur ni ngpoi ntoft heni ne t e e nt hc e nt ur y . Temos tba s i cdi fe r e nc ebe t we e nt heAme r i c a na ndFr e nc hr e v ol ut i on, a nda l s obe t we e nt he Ang l oAme r i c a nl i be r a l i s m oft heni ne t e e nt hc e nt ur ya nd" t hea bs o l ut i s ta ndde s t r uc t i v e l i be r a l i s mo ft heEnl i g ht e nme nt "a ndt hel i be r a l so fhi st i met oo( a ndnodoubtour sa swe l l ) , i s 6 5 t ha t" t hefr s ti sba s e donr e l i g i o na ndChr i s t i a ni t y , whi l et hes e c ondi sr a t i ona l i s t . " Fr o mt hi s i ti spos s i bl et oe x t r a pol a t et hek e ydi fe r e nc e( whi c hi s ,ho we v e r ,no tme nt i o ne db yDr uc k e r ) t ha ti nt he f r s tc a s e ,f r e e dom i sGodg i v e n( a swr i t t e ni nt heAme r i c a n De c l a r a t i on o f I nde pe nde nc e ) ,a ndi nt hes e c ond,i ti sg i v e nb yt hes t a t ea ndl a w.Ti si swhyAme r i c a n 61 Ibid. 152. Ibid. 180. 63 Ibid. 159. 64 Ibid. 159. 65 Ibid. 139. 62 13 f r e e dom i snott hes a met ha tde r i v e sf r o mt heFr e nc hr e v ol ut i o n.Buti ti st heFr e nc h c onc e pt i ont ha ti st hef ounda t i onoft heEnl i g ht e nme nta ndmode r ni t y . Te r e f or ei ts e e mst ha tDr uc k e rt ookapr e mode r npos i t i o n,whe nt hes t a t edoe snoty e te x i s t a ndwhe nf r e e dom i sbe s t owe do na l ls oul sdi r e c t l yb yGod,wi t houtr e dunda nto ppr e s s i v e f or c e sa ndpr of a net ot a l i t i e s .Het a k e st hepos i t i o n,whe r et hepr of a neg o v e r nme nti snoty e t ma des a c r e d,t hepos i t i on,whe r es e c ul a rg o v e r nme nti snoty e twor s hi pe di na l lofi t s 6 6 r a t i ona l i t ya ndEnl i g ht e nme nt . ButDr uc k e r ' spos i t i o ni snol ong e rpr e mode r n,a si ts t e ms f r o mt hephy s i c a lr e a l i t yoft heUS A,whi c hi sc a pi t a l i s ta ndt husno nt r a di t i o na l .Te r e f or e t hi spos i t i onc a nbede fne da sp o s t mo de r n, whi c hme a nst ha ti tpr e c e de smode r ni t ya nda tt he s a met i mes uc c e e dsi t .AndDr uc k e ri st heonewhonoto nl yope ne dt hec ons t e l l a t i onof pos t mode r ni t y , b uta l s ona me di t . Andnopos t mode r nt he o r e t i c i a nha se v e ra t t r i b ut e dt ha tt o 6 7 hi m, whi c hc a na l s obeunde r s t ooda sag i a nt" s y mpt om"oft het i mepe r i od. Any wa y ,o uto fhi sha t r e df ort o t a l i t i e sa nd a bs ol ut e so fmode r ni t yDr uc k e rc r e a t e sa ( pos t mode r n)t ot a l i t yofpa r t i c ul a r i t y .Tot a l i t yoft hes t a t e me ntt ha tt he r ei snomor et ot a l i t y , nomor ea bs ol ut e s ,a ndnomor ei de o l og y .Ev e r y t hi ngi sonl ya si ti sa nda si ts houl dbe . Ev e r y t hi ngi sj us tf ol l o wi ngt hei ne v i t a bl ene c e s s i t y ,whi c hma k e st hewor l dt ur n.Ev e r y t hi ng onl yf ol l o wst hei de aofpr og r e s s ,t hei de a ,whi c hi snol ong e rc ons i de r e da ni de ol og ybut r a t he r" t heonet r uepa t h" . Asa ni de ol og y , i twoul da l wa y sa c k no wl e dg ea tl e a s tt hee x i s t e nc eof ot he ro rdi fe r e nti de ol og i e s , buthe r eweha v et ode a l wi t ha ni de a , whi c hs uppos e dl ys ur v i v e d t het i meo fi de ol og i c a lc onfi c t sofapr e v i ous ,mode r nt i me .Andt hi si st hei de ol og yo fno ni de ol og y ;s o mes or to fanoni de ol og i c a li de ol og y .Tei de ol og ya fe rt hee ndo fa l lGr a nd na r r a t i v e s . Tea bs ol ut e , whi c hi ss uppos e dt obeg o ne , i st huse v i de nti nt hes t a t e me ntt ha tt he a bs o l ut ei sg o nei t s e l f .Tes t a t e me ntt ha tt he r ea r enomor ei de ol og i e sno wa da y s ,o rt ha t i de ol og i e sa r es o me t hi ngoutofda t e , i sa l s ot hede ni a lofpos s i bi l i t i e st ha tmul t i pl ev i e wpoi nt s 66 With the advent of the modern nation-state, the scientific discourse of the gentry took the place of the religious discourse, and science became the main source of legitimacy of secular government. In this process of secularization and rationalization, society gets rid of the supernatural by dividing God from the human. But in this process, it does not also lose the object of worship; it only exchanges it for something, which seems more tangible. Therefore it begins to worship the Human, not the human in his actuality, but the idea of the Human, an ideal, from which the human and citizen rights are also derived. And this is why the object of state worship is actually the state itself, which positions the human as the idea of a free citizen, which is the reason for the existence of the modern state. 67 With it, the whole problematic of today’s specialization is laid bare, which deeply penetrates academic circles, as nobody studies Drucker at Faculties for Social Sciences and Humanities, as he is considered inferior, or - even worse – is completely unknown. But at the same time, his works are mandatory reading at all managerial and business schools. 14 oft houg htc oul de x i s t s .Tepos i t i oni ngofa ni de aa ss ome t hi ngno ni de ol og i c a li st he r e f or e c ompl e t e l ypa r a do x i c a l , e v e nt houg hi ti squi c kl ya s s i mi l a t e da st hel i v i ngt r ut h. Andb e c a us et he r ei sa ndmus tb enoi de o l o g y , t he r ea l s oc a nb enos t r o ngg o v e r nme ntt ha two ul d i mp l e me ntt h i si de o l o g y .Al r e a dyt heGr e e kque s t i o n:" Wha ti st hebe s tg o v e r nme nt ? "i st oo muc hf orDr uc k e r ,be c a us ei nhi sopi ni on,s uc haque s t i o nde ni e sf r e e dom,a si tpr e s uppos e s 6 8 t ha tt he r ei ss uc hat hi nga st heb e s tg o v e r nme nt . I nhi so pi ni on,a" g oodg o v e r nme nt "c a n ne v e rbepl a nne d;t he r e f or e ,heonl yde e mst heor i g i na lChr i s t i a nque s t i ont obec or r e c t : 6 9 " Wha ti saf r e es oc i e t y ? " Hi spa r a doxa ndt hepa r a do xo fpos t mode r ni t yi sc l e a r-b yde ny i ng t hepl a nni ngoft het o t a l i t yoft heg o v e r nme nt ,hepr oc e e dsdi r e c t l yi ns e a r c ho faf r e e c ompa ny .Ho we v e r ,i ti snotonl yaq ue s t i ono fs e a r c hi ngf or ,butr a t he ra l s oo fbui l di ngi t . Be c a us es e a r c hi ngi snodi fe r e ntf r o m pl a nni nga ndbui l di ng ,onl yt hea ppr oa c hi sdi fe r e nt . Fort o t a l i t a r i a npl a nne r s ,hes t a t e s :" Tot a lpl a nni ngi sa c t ua l l yt ot a li mpr o v i s a t i o n"( Dr uc k e r 7 0 1 9 6 5 ,2 0 1 ) . I ns t e a d,hec hoos e st het a c t i c so fobs e r v a t i on71 a ndt a c t f ulr e a c t i ons .Butt he di fe r e nc ei sa g a i nonl yi nt hedi r e c t i ono fa c t i on–i ft hepl a nne r sa r epl a nni ngf r o mt het op do wnwa r ds , i . e . f r o mt hes t a t et os oc i e t y , hi ss e a r c hme t hodi st hee x a c to ppos i t e , f r o ms t a t et o t heg o v e r nme nt .Andbe c a us es oc i e t y-a so ppos e dt ot hes t a t e-i ss ome t hi ngope n,Dr uc k e r na i v e l yt hi nk st ha ti tc a nno tbeat ot a l i t yora bs ol ut e . Or , putot he r wi s e , t heChr i s t i a nf r e e dom a ndi t sf r e ema na r eme t a phy s i c a lpo i nt sbe y ondque s t i on,whi c ha r emount e di nphy s i c a l r e a l i t y .Tot a l i t a r i a ni s msa r ewr o ng ,be c a us et he yf or c eape r s o nt odos o me t hi ng ,ont heot he r ha nd, hedoe snots e ehi sme t a phy s i c sa ss ome t hi ngf or c e f ul , e v e nt ho ug hi tf o r c e spe o pl ee v e n mor e ,i tf or c e st he mt odowha tt he yl e a s tde s i r e–t oma k e( f r e e )de c i s i o ns .Hei sa c t ua l l y f or c i ngpe opl ei nt of r e e dom. Be c a us eo fa l lt hi s ,Dr uc k e rdoe snots uppor tas t r ongg o v e r nme ntbutr a t he ras t r o ngs oc i e t y . Andt heUS Ai s ,i nhi sopi ni on,t heonl yc o unt r y ,whe r eaf r e ei ndus t r i a ls oc i e t yc a nde v e l op 7 2 wi t hf ul lf r e e dom a ndf r e ef r o mr e v ol ut i ona ndt ot a l i t a r i a ni s m. Buta tt hes a met i me ,he wa r nst ha twes houl dnott hi nk" t ha tade f e a to fHi t l e r i s m wi l li ne v i t a b l ybr i nga boutaf r e e 68 "Freedom is possible only if it is firmly believed that there is no such thing as a ‘best government’ - not even a ‘better government’" (Drucker 1965, 129). 69 Ibid. 113. 70 Ibid. 201. 71 Thus he also titled his autobiography Adventures of a Bystander (Drucker, 1997). 72 Drucker 1965, 189. 15 7 3 s oc i e t y . " Pe o pl e , t i r e df r o mt hewa r , wi l l fr s ta ndf or e mos twi s hf oraf unc t i o ni ngs oc i e t ywi t h 7 4 a nunde r s t a nda bl eor de rwi t hapur pos e ,whi c hc a npr ov i des a f e t y . Andhef e e l st ha tt he wor s tt hi nga bo uta l lt hi si st ha tt he ywi l lber e a dyt os a c r i fc ee v e nf r e e dom t oa c hi e v ei t .But a tt hi spoi nt , wemus ta s k : whe ndi dt he ye v e nha v ef r e e dom, whi c ht he yc a ns a c r i fc e ?Dot he y e v e nk no wt heme a ni ngoff r e e dom?Andl a s tbutno tl e a s t :i si te v e nt he" na t ur a ls t a t e "ofa huma nbe i ng ,t obef r e e ,a spr e s uppos e st heDe c l a r a t i o nofI nde pe nde nc ea mongot he r st oo? Buta l lt he s eque s t i o nsa r eout s i deo fDr uc k e r ' sho r i z on.Hed e e mst ha tat o t a l i t a r i a ni s mo f 7 5 p e a c ea nds a f e t yi se v e nmo r eda ng e r o ust ha nHi t l e r ' st o t a l i t a r i a nr e g i me . Andt he r e f o r e :" Al l t hes c he me sf o rt hep o s t wa ro r de rwh i c hp l a c et hes e c ur i t yo fp e r ma ne ntp e a c ea b o v ea l lo t he r g o a l s-s uc ha s ,f o ri ns t a nc e ,t ha to fawo r l ds up e r s t a t e-c o meda ng e r o us l yc l o s et oa b a ndo ni ng f r e e do ma ndt oat o t a l i t a r i a ni s m wh i c hwo ul db ea l lt hemo r et h r e a t e ni nga si two ul db emuc h 7 6 ha r de rt oa t t a c k , mo r a l l ya ndp h y s i c a l l y , t ha nHi t l e r ' s . " 7 7 Doe st hi ss oundf a mi l i a r ? Ho we v e r , Dr uc k e r ' spr oj e c ti sa l r e a dyas t e pa he a d, i nt hepos i t i on, whe ns oc i e t ydoe snol ong e rr e qui r eas t a t et ol i v ei npe a c ea ndpr os pe r i t y .I tme e t si t so wn ne e ds , a ndi ss e l f s ufc i e nt . Dr uc ke r ' sFr e eSoc i e t y S owha ti shi ss oc i e t y , whi c hi sg r a dua l l ya l s obe c omi ngours oc i e t y , l i k e ?Tef ounda t i o no fhi s f r e es oc i e t yi st heChr i s t i a nc onc e ptoff r e e dom,whi c h,i nhi sopi ni on,i s" t heo nl yc or r e c t c onc e pt " ,e v e nt houg hnote v e nt hi sc onc e pti sa bs o l ut e .Butwi t hi t ,i tbr i ng st heChr i s t i a n c onc e ptoft hehuma nbe i ng . Tei de a lf or m ofg o v e r nme ntf orhi m woul dbes e l f g o v e r nme nt , butbe c a us et hehuma nbe i ngi sa l s opoor ,s omef r e eg o v e r nme nti sne c e s s a r y ,whi c hi sba s e d ont hea c t i v ea ndr e s po ns i bl ec oope r a t i onoft hec i t i z e ns .Te r e f or e" nog o v e r nme ntc a nbe f r e ei nwhi c ht hec i t i z e nsdono ta s s umev ol unt a r i l yt hebur de no fs e l f g o v e r nme nt "( Dr uc k e r 73 Ibid. 107. Ibid. 75 Ibid. 76 Ibid. 77 But this is not the end of it, as Drucker continues with these (prophetic?) words: "If the American century means nothing except the material predominance of the United States, it will be a wasted century. Some people today think that it is destiny of the United States to out-Nazi the Nazi in world conquest and to substitute the Yankee as the master race for Hitler’s Nordics; even some even call that ‘fighting for democracy’. But this way would not lead to America’s strength and greatness but only to her downfall" (Drucker 1965, 190). 74 16 7 8 1 9 6 5 , 1 2 6 ) . To t a l i t a r i a ni s msa r ee v i l , be c a us et he ydi dnott r us tt ha tt hepe o pl ea r ec a pa bl eof s e l f j udg me nt . Dr uc k e r , ho we v e r , doe snotofe rt he m ac ha nc e , t odoi t , butr a t he rde ma ndsi t f r o mt he m di r e c t l y .Andt hi si st hebi g g e s ti s s ue ,a shede ma ndsf r o m pe o pl et ha tt he yma k e de c i s i o ns ,r e g a r dl e s so ft hef a c tt ha tt he s es a mepe o pl ewe r et ool a z yt ot a k ec a r eoft he i ro wn mone y ,whi c ht he y ,a shehi ms e l fde t e r mi ne d,g a v et ot hema na g e me ntt oma na g e .And be c a us eme a nwhi l et hec or po r a t i onor g a ni z a t i onbe c a meas oc i a li ns t i t ut i on,pe o pl ec a nno t e v e nha v ea nymor eo wne r s hi pba s e dr i g ht st oi t ,buta tt hes a met i me ,t he ymus ta c t i v e l y pa r t i c i pa t ei nt hes e l f g ov e r nme nt .I nt hi sc i r c l e ,ane w,f r e es oc i e t yi sbe i ngbor n:be c a us e pe o pl ewe r et ool a z yt ot a k ec a r eoft he i ro wnpr ope r t y , ane wi ns t i t ut i one me r g e s , whi c h–t o bea b l et ol e g i t i ma t e l yo pe r a t e–r e qui r e sas t r uc t ur e ,t hr oug hwhi c hpe o pl ec oul da c t i v e l y pa r t i c i pa t ei na l l a c t i v i t i e sofs oc i e t y . I fIr e p e a tDr uc k e r ' ss y mp t o ma t i ce x t r a p o l a t i o n:Pe o p l ewe r et o ol a z yt ob o t he rwi t hc o mp l i c a t e d e c o no mi cp r o c e s s e sa ndt he yl e to t he rp e o p l ema na g et he i rc a p i t a l .S oane wf o r mo fl e a d e r s hi p wa sb o r n-ma na g e r s , whoa r eo neo f t hemo s ts uc c e s s f ul f o r mso f l e a de r s h i pi nh i s t o r y . Wi t ht he i r g r e a tp o we r ,l e a d i nga ndma na g i ngc a p i t a lb e c a memo r ei mp o r t a ntt ha no wne r s h i po fi t ,wh i c h me a nst ha to wne r sa c t ua l l yl o s tr i g h t st ot he i ro wnp r o p e r t y .Be c a us eo ft hee no r mo uss uc c e s so f t hema na g e r s ,t he yr e q ui r e dl e g i t i ma t i o n.Andt h i sl e g i t i ma t i o ni sap r o c e s swhe r ep e o p l ea r e f o r c e di nt os e l f g o v e r nme nti nt hee nd. Ac c o r di ngt oDr uc k e r ' s" pur es oc i a lt he o r y " , s oc i e t yc a nonl yf unc t i on, i fe v e r yi ndi v i dua li ni t ha sas t a t usa ndaf unc t i on,a ndi fi t sl e g i t i ma t epowe ri ss oc i a l l yde c i s i v e ." Tee x e r c i s eof 7 9 po we rmus tbeba s e dona ne x i s t i nga nda c c e pt e dba s i cpr i nc i pl e ,i nor de rt obel e g i t i ma t e . " " I ft hes oc i a l l yc ons t i t ut i v es phe r eo fas oc i e t yi so r g a ni z e dont heba s i soft her e s pons i bl e 8 0 de c i s i o noft hei ndi v i dua l , weha v eaf r e es oc i e t y . "( Dr uc k e r1 9 6 5 , 1 1 6 ) Fr e e dom i t s e l fi so nl y af or ma lpr i nc i pl e ,whi c ht husa l wa y sr e qui r e sc onc r e t epr ov i s i o ns ,i nwha twa yi twi l lr e a l i z e i t s e l fi ns oc i e t y . Andt he s epr ov i s i o nsa r et obef oundi nt hes oc i a l l yc ons t i t ut i v ea ndde c i s i onma k i ngs phe r e .Te r e f or e ,ours oc i e t y" mus tbec a pa bl eofi nt e g r a t i ngt hei ndi v i dua l si na 8 1 s oc i a l pur pos e . " 78 Ibid. 126. Ibid. 95. 80 Ibid. 116. 81 Ibid. 192. 79 17 Temi s t a k eo fNa z i s m, a c c or di ngt oDr uc k e r , l i e si nt hef a c tt ha ti tpl a c e dt hepol i t i c a ls phe r e a st hec ons t i t ut i v ea ndi nt hes a met i mei te x t r a po l a t e dpo we rf r o mt hi ss phe r e .Tes oc i a l s phe r et huse me r g e sf r om t hepol i t i c a l , be c a us e " Ac c o r di ngt ot heNa z ic r e e d,t hepa r t yor g a ni z a t i o nsa ndt hea r mya r et heo nl ys oc i a l l ys i g ni fc a nta nd 8 2 c ons t i t ut i v ei ns t i t ut i ons . " [ . . . ]" Tepol i t i c a ls phe r ei sne v e ri ni t s e l ft hes oc i a l l yc ons t i t ut i v es phe r e–e x c e pt , pe r ha ps ,i nas oc i e t ye ng a g e di nt o t a lwa r .[ …]Tepo l i t i c a ls phe r ede a l swi t hpowe r .Andpowe ri sonl yat ool 8 3 a ndi ni t s e l fe t hi c a l l yne ut r a l . I ti snotas oc i a l pur pos ea ndnota ne t hi c a l pr i nc i pl e . " 8 4 Teme a nsa ns we rt ot heque s t i onho wt or e a c hag oa l , notwha tt hi sg oa ls houl dbe . Ando f c our s et hene x tque s t i oni s ,whe t he ri snotj us ti de ol og y ,as e tofi de a s ,t ha tde fne st heg oa l . Butt hi sque s t i onc a nno tbea s k e dwi t hi nDr uc k e r ' sho r i z on. Hes i mpl ydoe sno ts e ei t , be c a us e t heAme r i c a nRe v ol ut i ona spr e Enl i g ht e nme ntonedoe snoty e tdi fe r e nt i a t ei de aa ndc onc e pt 8 5 f r o mf a i t h. Andbe c a us eo ft hi s ,Dr uc k e rc ons i de r se v e r y t hi ng ,whi c hi snott heChr i s t i a n f a i t h, a ne mpt yi de ol og y . Te r e f or et hepr obl e mi snotonl yf a s c i s m, buta nybur e a uc r a t i cs t a t e : " I nt hepol i t i c a lf e l dt het r e ndha sbe e na wa yf r om t hea c t i v e ,r e s pons i bl epa r t i c i pa t i o noft hec i t i z e ni ns e l f g o v e r nme nta ndt o wa r dc e nt r a l i z e d,unc ont r ol l a bl ebur e a uc r a c y .Anda bo v ea l l ,t hea bs e nc eofal e g i t i ma t e a ut onomousr ul ei ns oc i e t yha sf or c e dt hi sc e nt r a lb ur e a uc r a c yoft hepo l i t i c a ls phe r et oa s s umet hepowe ri nt he s oc i a ls phe r ea swe l l .Noot he rt r e ndo fourt i me ss e e msa s' i ne v i t a bl e 'a st ha tt o wa r dt hea bs ol ut er ul eofa 8 6 pa t e r na l i s t i c , bur e a uc r a t i cs t a t e " Asar e s ul t , o urg oa l ha st obet hef ol l o wi ng : " Wes ha l l ha v et opr e v e ntc e nt r a l i z e dbur e a uc r a t i c 8 7 de s pot i s mb yb ui l d i ngag e nui nel o c a ls e l f g o v e r nme nti nt hei ndus t r i a ls p he r e . " Andwec a n onl ybe g i nt oc ons t r uc tt hi sf r om t heAme r i c a nr e a l i t y . Compa r e dt ot heFr e nc h, t heAme r i c a n Re v ol ut i onha st hea dv a nt a g eofnotbe i nge t a t i s t , a ndt ha ti te me r g e df r o m pe o pl ewhoj oi ne d 82 Ibid. 101. Ibid. 117. In the same way as politics, science and technics/technology are tools, so they too are outside of the sphere of ethical choice. And because of this, objective accuracy cannot support scientific truth but only scientific accuracy (Ibid. 119-120). 84 Ibid. 120. 85 The concept of an ideology is born out of the French Revolution as an aggregation of certain values and convictions, which together formed a specific political doctrine, a path, which society should walk in the future. This gave rise to left-wingers, right-wingers, liberals, etc. The American Revolution, however, did not see this penetration happen and this is why there are still only two powerful parties; therefore the formation of the European-style nation-state never happened, as the United States came into existence from rebellious colonies that gained independence (without doubt) with God’s help. That God is always above everything in the USA can be inferred from the incessant "God Bless America" to the motto "In God We Trust" on Dollar bills. 86 Ibid. 193. 87 Ibid. 203. This is one of the few emphasized sentences in the whole book. 83 18 i nonea r e af orl i f ei nac e r t a i n" di fe r e ntme nt a l i t y " .Al lo ft heAme r i c a npa r t i e s 'hi s t o r y t he r e f or eha sav e r ys t r onga nt i c e nt r a l i s tc ha r g e .Te r e f or e : " Tepa r t yi si nt hes t a t ebutnotoft hes t a t e . I tha snoc ount e r pa r ti na nymode r nEur ope a ni ns t i t ut i on.Teonl y pa r a l l e l si nEur o pewoul dbet hee s t a t e soft hel a t eMi ddl eAg e s-l i k et heAme r i c a npa r t ya nt i c e nt r a l i s t ,r e g i ona l 8 8 a ndnoni de ol og i c a l , a ut onomo usc or por a t i ons . " 8 9 He r e ,t he r ei snophy s i c a lv i ol e nc ea nymor e ,onl yf r e ec o nt r ol-wi t has mi l e . " Abo v ea l l , 9 0 ho we v e r ,Ame r i c a nf r e e dom ha sbe e nr e s t i ngonAme r i c a ni nv i s i bl es e l f g ov e r nme nt . " Due t ot he l a c ko f ot he r hi e r a r c hi c a ls t r uc t ur e s ,t he Ame r i c a n pe opl e ha v e de v e l ope d ne i g h b o r ho o ds-s ma l lc ommuni t i e sf orv a r i o usne e ds .Be c a us et he yha dnot hi nge l s e , t hi swa s t heonl ys e ns i bl et hi ng t o de v e l op .Butt hene i g hbor hood s y s t e mi nc l ude sa l ls or t sof or g a ni z a t i ons , e v e ns e l f he l pc l ubs , whi c h, t hr oug ht he i ro pe r a t i on-unk no wi ng l y-" di s c ha r g e qua s i g o v e r nme nt a lf unc t i ons ;nori st hei ndi v i dua lme mbe ra wa r eoft hef a c tt ha thet a k e s pa r ti nt hes pont a ne ousc ommuni t yg o v e r nme nt .Ye tt he s ea s s oc i a t i o ns ,whi c ha r euni quet o 9 1 t heUni t e dS t a t e s , dog o v e r n. " S owea r el i v i ngi nt hepr omi s e dl a nd, a spe opl ea r enotl ook i ng f orhe l pf r o mt hea r i s t oc r a c y ,pol i c ea nd s i mi l a ri ns t i t ut i ons ,butt he yr a t he rj oi nt he a ppr o pr i a t ec l uborc ommuni t y ." Te s es pont a ne ousa ndv ol unt a r ya s s oc i a t i onsa r epe r ha ps 9 2 t hes t r ong e s ta nt i t ot a l i t a r i a nf or c ee x t a nti nt hepr e s e ntwor l d. " But , a tt hes a met i me , t he ya r e t hes t r ong e s ts pont a ne ousme c ha ni s msofs oc i a l ( s e l f )c ont r ol , whi c hdonote v e nne e das t a t e , be c a us et he ya ut o ma t i c a l l ype r f o r mi t sf unc t i on.Ati t sc or e ,t he ya r ea l wa y spot e nt i a ll oc a l mi l i t i a s , a nda r et husnotf a rf r o mt hes a y i ng : " Whoi sg oi ngt ode f e ndme , i fIa m notg oi ngt o 9 3 doi tmy s e l f-pe r ha pst hes t a t e ? " Ter i g htt obe a ra r msi spr ot e c t e de v e nb yt hec o ns t i t ut i on, s ome t hi ngv e r ydi s t a ntf r om t heEur ope a ni de aoft hes t a t e s o v e r e i g nt y . S ot hi si saf r e e ,nonr e v ol ut i ona r ya ndnont ot a l i t a r i a nwa yo fde v e l opi ngaf r e ei ndus t r i a l s oc i e t y . Andt hi si sa l s ot hepos t mode r nv i ol e nc e , whi c hdoe sno tc omea smuc hf r o m" a bo v e " a nymor e ,i . e .t hr oug ht hes t a t eo ri t sr e pr e s s i v ea ppa r a t us ,bute v e rmor ef r o m" be l o w" ,f r o m 88 Ibid. 171. The fact that parties are non-ideological means nothing but that they are pre-ideological and thus preEnlightenment - they are of an environment, which has yet to develop the concept of ideology, not to even mention politics. 89 And if there is none, there is Prozac and a host of related products of contemporary society to help us out. 90 Ibid. 172. 91 Ibid. 92 Ibid. 172. 93 Probably the juiciest display of this is the legendary documentary by Michael Moore "Bowling for Columbine" (2002). 19 s oc i e t yi t s e l f .I tc ome sf r o ms oc i e t y ,ha ppe nsi ns oc i e t ya ndi si nfi c t e dupons oc i e t y ;t hi s 9 4 me a nst ha ts oc i e t ya c t ua l l ype r f or mi ngv i ol e nc eupo ni t s e l f . * " Wedonotk no w wha tpur pos et hi si ndus t r i a ls oc i e t ywi l lbes t r i v i ngt of ul fl l ,oronwha t e t hi c a lpr i nc i pl ei ti sg o i ngt obeba s e d.Al lwek no wt oda ya bo utt hef ut ur ea r et hef o r ma l r e qui r e me nt so faf r e ea ndf unc t i oni ngs oc i e t y ,t hec o ndi t i onswi t houtwhi c hi tc a nno tbe 9 5 f r e e . " I fwek ne w,wewoul dbet ot a l i t a r i a npl a nne r s ,butno wwea r eonl ypoorbe i ng s ,who a r eonl yt r y i ngt ofndout , a ndt hi spoor ne s sa ndl a c ko fk no wi ngma k eusf r e e . We l l , Dr uc k e r i st r y i ngt ohe l pus ,a ndt hushei mme di a t e l yofe r st hef r s ts ol ut i on-t ous et hewa ro ft he t i me( WWI I )f or" c ons t r uc t i v epur pos e s " .I ns t e a dofi te nda ng e r i ngourf r e es oc i e t y ,wec a n us ewa rt og i v ee v e r yi ndi v i dua ls oc i a ls t a t usa ndf unc t i on,a ndas oc i a lpur pos et os oc i e t y96whi c hi se x a c t l ywha tNa z i s ma l r e a dydi dwi t ht ot a l c e nt r a l i z a t i on. ButDr uc k e r ' ss oc i e t yi sf r e e a ndt ha tma k e si tdi fe r e nt ,be c a us eonl yi nt ot a l i t a r i a ns t a t e st ot a lwa ra l s or e qui r e st ot a l 9 7 c e nt r a l i z a t i on.Tec e nt r a l i z a t i oni sr e qui r e dbe c a us et he ydonott r us tt he i ro wnpe o pl e . On t heot he rha nd,Dr uc k e rt r us t st hepe o pl ei ns i mpl ypr oc l a i mi nga nywor kt obes oc i a l l y f unc t i ona li nt i me so ft ot a lwa r ;i nt hes a met i me , hee x t r a pol a t e st ha tf r o ms uc hav i e wpo i nt , 9 8 s oc i e t ya l s oha sapur pos ef o re v e r y o ne . Hedoe snotwonde r ,whe t he rt hef a c t or ywor k e r a g r e e s ,a nd hec a nnotwo nde r ,be c a us ehes i mpl yk no wst ha tt hewor k e rha st oa g r e e . Te r e f o r e ,t o t a lwa ri sf o rDr uc k e rt hes t a g e ,wh i c hl e a dst oat o t a l l yf r e ea ndo p e r a t i o na lp o s t wa rs o c i e t y .Toa v oi da not he rmor a lc ol l a ps ea ndt hust hede v a l ui ngt hes a c r i fc e sma de ,l i k e a fe rWor l d Wa rI ,t he i ns t i t ut i onsofwa r t i me ,whi c hi nt e g r a t ei ndi v i dua l swe l la nd f unc t i ona l l y ,ha v et obepr e s e r v e d. Be c a us eoft hi s , t hef oc usmos tf a l lo ni ndus t r y ,a ndwi t hi n i ndus t r y ,s oc i a li ns t i t ut i onsha v et obede v e l ope d,s owec a nbui l dape r ma ne nt l yope r a t i ona l 94 And exactly this kind of logic is now spreading, or in Deleuze's words: Focault was "the first to warn that disciplined societies are what we have just about left, what we are no more. We are entering into societies of control that no longer operate by jailing, but rather through constant control and momentary communication... What is carefully being implemented, are new types of sanctions, education, and worries. Open hospitals, healthcare at home etc. are no new discoveries. We can foresee that education will take place in a closed environment less and less, that it will be different from other professional things as well as different things, and that both will disappear to the benefit of terrible permanent education, a constant control of the worker-student or university framework. [...] In the regime of control, nothing is ever finished" (Deleuze 2002, 171). So this is what is now roaming Europe and what has been American reality for a long time, and the model on which Drucker began to build more than sixty years ago. 95 Drucker 1965, 195. 96 Ibid. 205. 97 Ibid. 206. And he expresses the same thing in a more actual way: "To conclude from their [totalitarian] experience that free nations also have to become completely centralized for total war ignores the basic difference between the totalitarians and the free people: that they are slaves and we are free." (Drucker 1965, 206-207). Is not this the same motto under which American soldiers are bringing democracy to other countries? 98 Ibid. 205. 20 s oc i a lor g a ni z a t i on.Te r e f or e ," Tepl a ntmus tbema dei nt oaf unc t i oni ngs e l f g o v e r ni ng s oc i a l c ommuni t y . I tmus tbema dec a pa b l eofs e r v i ngi ndus t r i a l s oc i e t yi nt hes a mema nne ri n 9 9 whi c ht hev i l l a g es e r v e dt her ur a l s oc i e t ya ndt hema r k e tt heme r c a nt i l es oc i e t y . " I nf e uda ls oc i e t y ,t hec e nt r a ls oc i a li ns t i t ut i onwa st hev i l l a g e ,i nt heme r c a nt i l es oc i e t y ,t he ma r k e t ,a ndi nt hei ndus t r i a ls oc i e t y ,i tha st obet hef a c t or ya ndl a t e rt hec or por a t i onor g a ni z a t i on.Fr o ms oc i a li ns t i t ut i onsofi ndus t r ywemus tf r s te x t r a pol a t eas e l f g o v e r ni ng s oc i a lc ommuni t yi ng e ne r a l ,whe r es t a t ea ndpo l i t i c sbe c omec ompl e t e l ys upe r fuo us .Te e x t r a pol a t i o n ofChr i s t i a nf r e e dom t hr oug ha ne me r g i ng c e nt r a ls oc i a li ns t i t ut i on c or por a t i on( s ot ha ti t sne wf or m ofr a t i ona ll e a de r s hi pr e c e i v e sa ni r r a t i ona lpr oofa ndt hus l e g i t i ma c y )i se s s e nt i a lf orDr uc k e r ,e v e nt houg hher e pr oa c he dt hee x a c ts a mepr oc e s so f e x t r a pol a t i o nt oRous s e a u,Ma r xa ndHi t l e r .B utwea r es t i l ll e fwi t ht hes a mep r o b l e m:e v e ni f wel e g i t i mi z et hene wl e a de r s hi po fma na g e r s ,t heq ue s t i o no fho wt omo t i v a t ep e o p l ef o ra c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o ni ns e l f g o v e r nme ntwi t ho utf o r c i ngt h e m, r e ma i ns . I nConc l us i on: h eFut ur e , Whi c hI sToda y " Weha v et oma k ei ndus t r ys oc i a l l yme a ni ng f ul . Weha v et obui l di ti nt ot hea ut onomouss phe r ei nwhi c hs oc i e t y 1 0 0 g o v e r nsi t s e l fi nor de rt of ul fl l i t s e l f . " Ter ul eofs oc i e t yi sa l s ot ot a l i t a r i a ni s m,whi c hha ss ha k e noft hes ha c kl e soft hes t a t e ,a nd a c c e pt e dt hes ha c kl e sofi ndus t r i a lo r g a ni z a t i o n.Tot a l i t a r i a ni s mi t s e l fbe g a na tt hee x a c t mome nt ,whe ns oc i e t yus e dt heFr e nc hRe v ol ut i ont ot a k eo v e rpo l i t i c a li ns t i t ut i onsa nd i mpl e me ntt her e publ i ca ndde moc r a c y .Dr uc k e ra l s ona me sRous s e a ua st hef r s tg r a nd t ot a l i t a r i a n, a shi si de a swe r eoneoft hef ounda t i o nso ft her e v ol ut i on. Butt hi r t e e ny e a r spr i or t ot ha t , t he yha dnoc e nt e rt oa t t a c kdur i ngt heAme r i c a nRe v ol ut i ona c r os st heAt l a nt i c . Te s e we r eonl yc ol o ni e st ha tdi dno twa ntt oa t t a c kt heUni t e dKi ng dom a ta l l ; t he yonl ynotwa nt e d t opa ys uc hhi g ht a x e s , whi c hc ons e que nt l yl e dt he mt ot hewi s ho fbe i ngi nde pe nde nt . S ot he y de c l a r e di nde pe nde nc e , s e c e de da ndf oug htt he i rr ul e r s . I ti se s s e nt i a lt onot et ha tac ol onyi s , a ti t sc or e ,onl ya ne c onomi cc e l lofa not he rs o v e r e i g npowe r .I ti sauni t ,ba s e de nt i r e l yon wor k . Butwhe nt hec ol o nyi t s e l fbe g i nst oc ol oni z e( o rwhe nhe rc o r po r a t i o nsbe g i nt os pr e a d 99 Ibid. 205-6. Ibid. 195. 100 21 a c r os st hewo r l d)i tc a nonl ypr oduc emor ea ndmor ee c o nomi cc e l l s , notde moc r a t i cc e l l sf or e x a mpl e . Toda y ' sg l oba l i z a t i oni sno t hi nge l s et ha nt hec r e a t i onofane t wor kofor g a ni z a t i ons , whe r e a sa l lpol i t i c a li ns t i t ut i ons( a ndi de ol og i e s )l os ev a l i di t ya ndpo we r .Buti nDr uc k e r ' s opi ni on, a l l t he s ec e l l sha v et obemor et ha nt hi s-t he yha v et of or ms oc i e t y . As oc i e t y , whi c hi s » as oc i e t yofor g a ni z a t i ons «i nDr uc k e r ' swor ds .Ti si st hepr e s e tofourne wg l oba ls oc i e t y : i ns t e a dofac ommuni t yofs o v e r e i g nna t i ons ,ac ommuni t yofo r g a ni z a t i o nsha st oe me r g e . Ti sc ommuni t ymus tf ul fl la l lhuma nne e ds ,a st hes t a t edi dbe f or e .Butt heor g a ni z a t i on c a nnots a t i s f yt he mi nt hes a mewa y , be c a us ei ti ss t i l l onl yapr oduc t i onc e l l . Te r e f or eDr uc k e ri sag r e a tpe r s ona l i t y ,l i t e r a l l yapr ophe t ,a swes a w wha thewr o t ea nd wa r ne da boute v e nbe f or ea nddur i ngWor l dWa rI I . Butt hemos ti nt e r e s t i ngf a c ti st ha thei s l a r g e l yunk no wna nduna c k no wl e dg e do ut s i deofma na g e r i a lc i r c l e s ,e v e nt houg hhewa s l i t e r a l l yt hefr s tt opr oduc eag r e a tnumbe rofc onc e pt s ,whi c ha r ebe i ngs e r i ous l yde v e l ope d onl yt oda y . Anda l mos ta l l oft het r e ndshef or e t ol dha v ec omet r ue . Ev e nbe f or eWor l dWa rI I , hewr o t ea boutpos s i bl es c e na r i osf ort hewa ra ndt hepos t wa rpe r i od, a nda l mos te v e r y t hi ng wa sa c t ua l l yr e a l i z e d.Al r e a dyi n1 9 5 7 ,i nLa nd ma r k so fTo mo r r o w101heus e dt hewor ds" pos t mode r nwor l d"t ode s c r i bet hewor l d,whi c hc a nnol ong e rbee nc ompa s s e db yt hec a t e g o r i e s ofmode r ni s ma ndmode r ni t y .Wha tL y ot a r df or mul a t e sa st he" r e por tonk no wl e dg e "i nhi s 1 0 2 wor kTePo s t mo de r nCo nd i t i o n, Dr uc k e ra l r e a dyde fne sa st hek no wl e dg ewo r k e rt wo de c a de se a r l i e r . Andwha tBa udr i l l a r dde fne sa sas i mul a c r um i nl a t es e v e nt i e s ,c a nv e r ye a s i l y bede s c r i be db yt hes a mewo r dsDr uc k e rus e sf ort heor g a ni z a t i on.Tec ons t e l l a t i o no ft he or g a ni z a t i on a l s o doe sno ti nc l ude a ny mode r nc a t e g o r i e sa ny mor e . Te r ea r e onl y or g a ni z a t i onsl e fwi t ht he i rs pe c i fce nv i r onme nt s , whi c hde fnet he i rs uc c e s s , a nddi fe rf r o m or g a ni z a t i ont oor g a ni z a t i on. I nt hi sc ont r i b ut i o no nt hebe g i nni ngo fDr uc k e r ' sj our ne y ,wewi t ne s s e dt hef ounda t i ons ,on whi c hhebe g a nt obui l dhi sne ws oc i e t y ,a ndt hef r a i l t yo ft he s es a mef ounda t i ons .Or ,i nt he wor dsofo neofhi sc ont e mpor a r i e swhowa s ,a tt het i me ,ac r i t i cf orTeNe w Yor k e r : 1 0 3 " Br i l l i a nt , pr oduc t i v ea ndofe npa r a do x i c a l i de a s . " 101 Drucker 1999 Lyotard 2002 103 Fadiman, Clifton v: Drucker 1965, III. 102 22 Re f e r e nc e s : Ba udr i l l a r d, J e a n( 1 9 9 3 , [ 1 9 7 6 ] ) . S y mb o l i cEx c ha ng ea ndDe a t h. London: S a g epubl i c a t i ons . -( 1 9 9 9 ,[ 1 9 8 1 ] ) .S i mul a k e ri ns i mul a c i j a,Po p o l nz l o č i n.Lj ubl j a na :Š t ude nt s k az a l ož ba . De l e uz e , Gi l l e s( 1 9 9 2 , [ 1 9 9 0 ] ) . " Dr už bana dz or a " .Fi l o z o f s k iv e s t ni k , l e t ni kXXI I I , š t . 3 , s t r . 1 6 7 1 7 7 . Dr uc k e r ,Pe t e rF .( 1 9 6 5 ,[ 1 9 4 2 ] ) .TeFut ur eo fI nd us t r i a lMa n:ACo ns e r v a t i v eAp p r o a c h.Ne w Yor k : TeNe wAme r i c a nLi br a r y . -( 1 9 9 7 , [ 1 9 7 9 ] ) . Ad v e nt ur e so f aBy s t a nde r . Ne wYor k : J ohnWi l e y&S ons , I nc . -( 1 9 9 9 ,[ 1 9 5 7 ] ) .La nd ma r k so fTo mo r r o w,ARe p o r to nt heNe w" Po s t Mo de r n"Wo r l d,Ne w Br uns wi c ki nLondon: Tr a ns a c t i onPubl i s he r s . -( 2 0 0 5 ,[ 1 9 3 9 ] ) .TeEndo fEc o no mi cMa n:TeOr i g i nso fTo t a l i t a r i s m.Ne wBr uns wi c ki n London: Tr a ns a c t i onpubl i s he r s . Ga s s e t ,Or t e g ay( 1 9 9 3 ,[ 1 9 3 0 ] ) .TeRe v o l to ft heMa s s e s .Lo ndon: W. W. Nor t o n&Co mpa ny , I nc . L y o t a r d,J e a nFr a nc o i s( 1 9 8 4 ,[ 1 9 7 9 ] ) .TePo s t mo de r nCo nd i t i o n:A Re p o r to nKno wl e d g e . Mi nne a pol i s : Uni v e r s i t yofMi nne s ot aPr e s s . 23