US-China Education Review 2016(8A).pdf

US-China Education Review A Volume 6, Number 8, August 2016 (Serial Number 63) David Publishing David Publishing Company www.davidpublisher.com Publication Information: US-China Education Review A (Earlier title: US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly in hard copy (ISSN 2161-623X) by David Publishing Company located at 616 Corporate Way, Suite 2-4876, Valley Cottage, NY 10989, USA. 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NSD (Norwegian Social Science Data Service), Database for Statistics on Higher Education (DBH), Norway Universe Digital Library Sdn Bhd (UDLSB), Malaysia Excellent papers in ERIC Summon Serials Solutions Polish Scholarly Bibliography (PBN) Turkish Education Index Google Scholar CNKI J-GATE Scribd Digital Library Airiti Academic Key Electronic Journals Library (EZB) CiteFactor, USA Subscription Information: Price (per year): Print $600 David Publishing Company 616 Corporate Way, Suite 2-4876, Valley Cottage, NY 10989, USA Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: [email protected] D DAVID PUBLISHING David Publishing Company www.davidpublisher.com SJournal Index Scientific Indexing Services New Jour Pubicon Science Sherpa Romeo Scholarsteer WorldCat Infobase Index Free Libs Pubget CrossRef US-China Education Review A Volume 6, Number 8, August 2016 (Serial Number 63) Contents Curriculum and Teaching The Effect of Conversational Implicature Instruction on Developing TEFL Students’ Pragmatic Competence and Language Proficiency 451 Ahmed M. M. Abdelhafez Visual Communications and Learning 466 Seda Khadimally Family Learning Resources on Science Language Development of Elementary Students 480 Shin-Feng Chen Project-Based Learning as 21st Century Teaching Approach: A Study in Nepalese Private Schools 487 Dhundi Raj Giri Engaging the Environment and Science Concepts Into Housekeeping Curriculum Through the Development of Disaster Prevention Cap 498 Lin Hung Tai The Influence of Multimodal Teaching on Cultivating Multiliteracies 503 Yue Yuanyuan Educational Technology Hackers: What Role Does Education Play? Joseph J. Jaksa, Anne R. Tapp 508 US-China Education Review A, August 2016, Vol. 6, No. 8, 451-465 doi: 10.17265/2161-623X/2016.08.001 D DAVID PUBLISHING The Effect of Conversational Implicature Instruction on Developing TEFL Students’ Pragmatic Competence and Language Proficiency Ahmed M. M. Abdelhafez  Minia University, Minia, Egypt The current study aimed at investigating the effect of training undergraduate teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) students in interpreting conversational implicatures on developing their pragmatic competence and language proficiency. The instruments of the study included a test of pragmatic competence and a test of language proficiency. The findings of the study revealed the effect of explicit instruction in conversational implicatures on developing TEFL students’ pragmatic competence and language proficiency. The findings also revealed a significant positive correlation at the level of 0.730 between the participants’ pragmatic competence and language proficiency. The findings were discussed in light of previous literature and contextual factors and implications for English as foreign language (EFL) classroom pedagogy were highlighted. Keywords: conversational implicature, teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) students, pragmatic competence, language proficiency, pedagogical implications Introduction Considerable attention has been recently given to the teach ability of pragmatics (Murray, 2011; Rose, 2005), particularly to the value of explicit teaching of pragmatic theory in classroom settings (Blight, 2002; Lee, 2002). Eslami and Eslami-Rasekh (2008) supported the definition of learners’ pragmatic competence as “the ability to use the language to express a wide range of functions as well as interpret their illocutionary force in discourse according to the socio-cultural context in which they are used” (p. 178). Garcia (2004) highlighted the difference between processing linguistic meaning and processing pragmatic meaning. Whereas the learners focus on linguistic information, such as vocabulary and syntax in the former, they focus, in the latter, on contextual information which express the speaker’s attitudes and feelings using indirect utterances that must be inferred by the hearer. The current study aligns with other studies that focused on explicit teaching of pragmatics (e.g., Murray, 2011) to non-native teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) students and attempts to explore some implications for theory and practice. The importance of conversational implicatures in expressing a message indirectly is well-established (Bouton, 1994). Conversational implicatures are dealt with in Grice’s pragmatic theory, which is considered a theoretical underpinning for pragmatics research. Murray (2011) highlighted that Gricean theory could be an accessible framework for accessing and approaching second language (L2) learners’ experienced difficulties in  Ahmed M. M. Abdelhafez, Ph.D., lecturer, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Faculty of Education, Minia University. 452 TEFL STUDENTS’ PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY inferring indirect or non-literal speaker meaning. At the heart of Gricean theory of pragmatics is the cooperative principle, which Grice (1975) defined as “Make your conversational contribution, such as is required at the stage it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged” (p. 45). He identified four maxims to guide a speaker’s contribution in conversation to achieve the cooperative principle. These are: 1. Quantity: Information provided is of an appropriate amount; 2. Quality: Information has adequate evidence to be believed as true; 3. Relation: Information is relevant to the topic; 4. Manner: Information is said in a way that does not set out deliberately to confuse. A speaker may not observe these maxims accidently (infringement) or deliberately to create an implicature that is to be noticed by hearer. Implicatures are created by speakers to convey various communicative effects (such as irony or understated negative evaluation). The hearer is expected to notice that the maxim has been breached, consider why this is the case, and infer the intended meaning together with any other information that can be retrieved from the way in which it was conveyed. Inability to notice implicatures will result in various forms of pragmatic failure and miscommunication. Murray (2011) pointed out that all communications take place on multiple levels simultaneously and that there is always a potential for unintended (or at times) deliberate mismatches between a speaker’s meaning and a hearer’s understanding. There is a need to examine the role of pragmatic instruction in supporting non-native speakers (NNS) of English to understand and interpret conversational implicatures. Bouton (1994) stated that “Little attempt is made in the English as a second language (ESL)/English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom to make learners aware of implicature as a tool of communication or to give them practice at using it in English” (p. 157). This is, in spite of the fact that learners with different cultures experience, difficulty understanding implicatures that have been routinely communicated in the English speaking environment (Bouton, 1988). Although pragmatic competence is part of the knowledge base of teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) professionals, little attention is usually given to pragmatics in teacher education (Vásquez & Sharpless, 2009). Eslami and Eslami-Rasekh (2008) asserted that teacher education program neither focus on pragmatic aspects of language, nor train the teacher candidate in teaching pragmatic dimensions of language. Garcia (2004) asserted the need for research on pragmatic comprehension to understand this important component of communicative competence. Literature Review Relevant previous studies were reviewed with regard to the effect of explicit teaching of implicatures on developing pragmatic competence and language proficiency as well as the relationship between pragmatic competence and language proficiency. Bouton (1994) investigated the extent to which non-native English speaking international students could interpret conversational implicatures compared to native speakers and the effect of explicit instruction on developing NNS’ ability to interpret conversational implicatures of various types. The participants took a test of conversational implicatures in American English. They were asked to choose the correct interpretation from four alternatives following each dialogue. The findings revealed that the non-native students performed significantly poorer than native speakers. They also revealed that non-native learners of English achieved progress in interpreting conversational implicatures after explicit instruction. Adopting a quasi-experimental, pre/post-test design, Eslami and Eslami-Rasekh (2008) investigated the TEFL STUDENTS’ PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY 453 effect of pragmatic instruction on developing EFL learners’ language competence in general and pragmatic competence in particular. The participants were 25 master of art (MA) students studying teaching English as a second language (TESL) at Najafabad Azad University in Iran. The findings revealed that explicit pragmatic instruction by providing input enhancement in the L2 classroom, raising L2 learners’ awareness about the input features, and engaging students in productive class activities and language use precipitated and facilitated TESL students’ pragmatic development to a considerable degree. Eslami and Eslami-Rasekh’s study raises awareness of the importance to equip EFL professionals with pragmatic competence as part of their teacher education as well as the importance of teaching pragmatics in the ESL/EFL classroom. Murray (2011) explored the ways of developing the pragmatic competence of 11 NNS teachers in order to facilitate their work as primary and secondary school English for speakers of other languages (ESOL) teachers in Australia. Her study was mainly qualitative and used a multiple choice inference task consisting of 10 questions to train the participants in interpreting conversational implicatures through a nine 3-hour-session pragmatic training program. She found that the overall success rate for the group in doing the task was 56%. However, the teachers were readily able to apply their understanding of Gricean pragmatics to a post-hoc analysis of their responses to the task of inferring conversational implicatures. Murray’s study draws attention to the pedagogical implications of training ESOL teachers in pragmatic competence. Farahian, Rezaee, and Gholami (2012) investigated the effect of direct instruction of developing 64 intermediate university EFL students’ pragmatic competence. Adopting a pretest-posttest design with a treatment group and a control group, data were collected by means of a written discourse completion test as well as self-report. The findings revealed that the instructional intervention resulted in gain in L2 pragmatic ability of the experimental group. The author implied that L2 learners’ pragmatic competence development is a prerequisite for the development of communicative competence. They highlighted the role of L2 teachers in fostering pragmatic competence among their learners. Tuan (2012) attempted to investigate the effect of explicit teaching of conversational implicatures on developing 40 Taiwanese college EFL learners’ pragmatic competence and the relationship between the learners’ pragmatic competence and language proficiency. The instruments included a web-based implicature test and a Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) test. The instruction lasted for 10 weeks. The findings revealed a statistically significant difference in the learners’ implicature competence in favor of the post-test as well as a positive correlation (r = 0.82) between the learners’ implicature competence and English language proficiency. The researcher highlighted the necessity of direct or guided instruction in implicature to equip the learners with pragmatic competence. To investigate the relationship between language ability level and comprehension of implicature, Roever (2001) conducted a study on 181 German high school students, 25 Japanese college students in Japan, 94 ESL students at an American university, and 14 native speakers. The participants were asked to select one of four answer choices that accurately conveyed the meaning of the implied utterance. The findings revealed a positive correlation with ability levels. In the same vein, Cook and Liddicoat (2002) compared the abilities of English language learners with high proficiency and low proficiency to understand linguistic knowledge and contextual knowledge. They found that low proficiency learners focused mainly on interpreting linguistic information relying on bottom-up processing. They failed to understand contextual information. On the other hand, high proficiency learners were able to understand both linguistic and contextual knowledge, and achieved higher levels of language processing automaticity. 454 TEFL STUDENTS’ PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY Based on her study on 15 Korean NNS of English with high language proficiency to investigate their ability to interpret conversational implicatures as compared to 15 native speakers of English, Lee (2002) found that high proficiency of English influenced the accuracy of pragmatic comprehension. She suggested that high language proficiency would facilitate the non-native learners’ ability to derive the same meaning from conversational implicatures as native speakers. With a similar focus, Taguchi (2005) investigated whether L2 proficiency affects pragmatic comprehension, namely, the ability to comprehend implied meaning in spoken dialogues. Participants included 46 native English speakers at a United States (U.S.) university and 160 Japanese students of English in a college in Japan who were at different L2 proficiency levels. They took a 38-item computerized listening task measuring their ability to comprehend conversational implicatures of different types. The results of the study revealed a significant L2 proficiency influence on accuracy of comprehension. The previously-reviewed studies highlight the role of explicit instruction in conversational implicatures in developing EFL learners’ pragmatic competence and language proficiency. They also highlight the relationship between language proficiency and ability to interpret conversational implicature. According to Kondo (2008), pragmatic instruction sensitizes learners to cultural differences and variables involved in language use. The current study aligns with this view and aims to create a level of awareness through which the participants could be more cognizant of implicatures and more able to notice the relationship between language choices and the effectiveness of communication as highlighted by Takahashi (2005). Pragmatic competence is undertaken as a part of a broader program to prepare TEFL students for the workplace. TEFL students are expected to be able to comprehend the meanings implied in conversational implicatures and communicate these meanings to their prospective learners. The current study attempts to find out whether training TEFL students in inferring conversational implicatures could develop their pragmatic competence and language proficiency by helping them recognize and interpret different types of implicatures. The study seeks to prepare participants to avoid pragmatic failure and to be ready for the intercultural communication needs which they would face on starting their work as EFL teachers. Context of the Study Understanding conversations in the target language represents a challenge to EFL learners. The problem is exacerbated when the conversations are embedded with implied meanings. The researcher observed the difficulties TEFL students face in understanding and interpreting conversational implicatures while teaching an advanced conversation course to fourth-year TEFL students in one of Egypt’s state universities. To dig deep into the extent of the problem, the researcher administered a pre-test of pragmatic competence to find out about the participants’ ability in understanding conversations in the target language. Their average score percentage was as low as 44.5%. This motivated the researcher to train the participants in conversational implicatures to develop their ability to understand implied meanings in EFL conversations and ultimately to develop their ability to communicate in the target language. TESOL professionals urgently need to understand implicature to avoid pragmatic failure. Pragmatic competence training, an integral component to initial teacher preparation programs, could enlighten prospective teachers about the role of linguistic and cultural factors underlying conversation. They need to be well-equipped for their future career as EFL teachers who are expected to help their prospective pupils achieve successful communication as well. TEFL STUDENTS’ PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY 455 Questions of the Study The questions of the current study are the following: 1. What is the effect of training TEFL students in conversational implicatures on developing their pragmatic competence? 2. What is the effect of training TEFL students in conversational implicatures on developing their language proficiency? 3. What is the correlation between TEFL students’ pragmatic competence and language proficiency? Hypotheses of the Study The hypotheses of the current study are the following: 1. There is a statistically significant difference between means of scores obtained by the participants in the pre/post-measurements of the test of pragmatic competence favoring the post-test; 2. There is a statistically significant difference between means of scores obtained by the participants in the pre/post-measurements of the language proficiency test favoring the post-test; 3. There is a statistically positive correlation between the participants’ pragmatic competence and their language proficiency. Research Design The current study adopts the quasi-experimental pre/post-test one group design to test the first and second hypothesis. In addition, the Pearson correlation coefficient is used to verify the third hypothesis. The study also draws on the interpretive paradigm to describe and interpret the participants’ responses to the test of pragmatic competence taking into consideration the context of the study and relevant literature. Participants The sample of the study consisted of 31 undergraduate TEFL students at the Faculty of Education in one of Egypt’s state universities studying a course in advanced conversation. The researcher was course instructor and delivered the instructional activities. Instruments of the Study Instruments of the study were two tests: the test of pragmatic competence and the TOEIC test. The test of pragmatic competence consisted of 20 multiple-choice items measuring ability to interpret non-literal utterances in American English, to be completed in 30 minutes. The test was developed by Tuan (2012) and was based on Bouton’s work (1999). One item of the test was replaced with a new one to suit the mode of applying the test. The test items were deliberately chosen, because there already existed a literature on their use, and the test items had been extensively trialed and validated (Bouton, 1999; Murray, 2011). The preferred multiple choice responses had originally been developed on the basis of actual native speakers (NS) interpretations of speakers’ meaning in a set of scenarios, while the distractors were adapted from the most common NNS “incorrect” answers. The TOEIC test was used in the current study to measure the participants’ language proficiency and consisted of two parts: listening comprehension and reading comprehension. In the listening test, the participants were asked 100 items in four sections to demonstrate how well they understood spoken English. The entire listening test lasted for 45 minutes. In the reading test, the participants were required to answer 456 TEFL STUDENTS’ PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY several types of reading comprehension questions based on reading a variety of texts. The reading test consisted of 100 multiple choice items in three parts and lasted for 75 minutes. The test was based on Edmunds and Taylor’s (2007) TOEIC. As emphasized by Schedl (2010), the test has been widely recognized as a worldwide standard in the assessment of international English use. Materials The training material consisted of mini-conversations representing the four maxims of the Gricean model (flouted). The participants were expected to recognize and interpret the implicatures individually and in groups. As a part of out-of class study, the participants were given a group assignment to submit at least 50 formulaic expressions and their interpretations. The aim of this activity was to familiarize the participants with the implied meanings of what is being said. Procedures The instructional activities of the course were presented following Blight’s (2002) four-stage-classroom procedure for explicit instruction in conversational implicature. These four stages were: (1) theory presentation; (2) Gricean analysis of a model conversation; (3) interpretations of implicatures in the model conversation; and (4) group interactions of a range of social interactions. Activities were designed to familiarize the participants with pragmatic theory and to evaluate the impact of the prior awareness-raising sessions on ability to infer implicature, to provoke discussion and to allow participants to become more aware of individual areas of potential communicative difficulty. The Gricean framework was the tool that helped elicit the participants’ responses and reflections and their underlying linguistic and cultural factors related to the use of conversational implicatures. The choice of the Gricean model of implicature is justified in terms of the intercultural learning of TEFL participants who have access to native culture and are learning about the target one. The participants were also asked to explain the main elements of the Gricean model to make sure they understand the new concepts. The activities also consisted of items covering breaches of the four Gricean maxims. These activities included open-class discussion of real-life communicative events in which an implicature would be created and/or inferred. During classroom discussion, the participants were asked to infer and interpret (in pairs and groups) a set of conversations with various types of implicature. They were trained in how to flout a conversation. They were also asked to write scenarios of conversations representing the various kinds of conversational implicatures, i.e., quality, quantity, relation, and manner. Some activities focused on raising cultural awareness that is associated with the use of conversational implicatures. The participants were invited to reflect on the reasons for their responses while inferring implicatures as well as the obstacles that stood in the way of their attempt to infer and/or interpret implicatures. Class discussion also dealt with the reasons why some items had proven to be difficult. The participants were also asked to write their ideas and reflections on cultural attitudes to the use of implicatures with particular reference to the Egyptian cultural patterns of implicature use. They were also given a context inference activity, in which they were encouraged to use the conversations provided to infer the experiential and cultural context in which the conversations occurred. Duration of Training The training program took place while the researcher was teaching a conversation course to the TEFL STUDENTS’ PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY 457 participants. It occurred in 12 four-hour sessions over a period of three months during the first term of the academic year 2013/2014. This is in addition to two sessions for administering pre-tests and post-tests. Data Analysis Data consisted of the participants’ responses to the pre/post-tests. The data were analyzed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS). The t-test was used to compare means of scores of the participants in pre/post-measurements of the test of pragmatic competence and the language proficiency test. Pearson correlation coefficient was used to measure the correlation between the participants’ pragmatic competence and language proficiency. Results Based on quantitative data analysis using t-test and Pearson correlation, all three hypotheses of the study were confirmed. As for the first hypothesis, the t-test results revealed a statistically significant difference at the level of 0.05 between means of scores obtained by the participants in the pre/post-measurements of the test of pragmatic competence favoring the post-test. This means that the first hypothesis is accepted. Table 1 below presents the t-test results: Table 1 The T-Test Results of the Pragmatic Competence Test Mean difference Std. deviation 95% confidence t df Sig. (2-tailed) Pre-test 16.68 30 0.000 8.90 2.97 7.81 Post-test 25.85 30 0.000 13.38 2.88 12.32 Lower It is evident from the table above that the participants’ pragmatic competence improved with an increasing mean score of 4.48. This result is similar to that of Tuan (2012) who found that after training her students in conversational implicatures for 10 weeks, their pragmatic competence improved with an increasing mean score of 4.4. As for the second hypothesis, the t-test results revealed a statistically significant difference at the level of 0.05 between means of scores obtained by the participants in the pre/post-measurements of the language proficiency test favoring the post-test. This means that the second hypothesis is accepted. Table 2 below presents the results of t-test: Table 2 The T-Test Results of the Language Proficiency Test 95% confidence t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean difference Std. deviation Pre-test 22.40 30 0.000 57.77 14.35 52.50 Post-test 37.84 30 0.000 75.29 11.07 71.22 Lower As for the third hypothesis, a statistically significant positive correlation was found between the participants’ pragmatic competence and their language proficiency. The Pearson correlation coefficient was 0.730. Table 3 below presents the Pearson correlation results: 458 TEFL STUDENTS’ PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY Table 3 Pearson Correlation Results Post-test of proficiency Post-test of pragmatic competence Pearson correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Pearson correlation Sig. (1-tailed) N Post-test proficiency 1 31 0.730** 0.000 31 Post-test implicature 0.730** 0.000 31 1 31 Note. **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed). It is obvious from the last finding that pragmatic competence correlates positively with language proficiency. This finding resonates with previous studies. For example, Lee (2002) found that high language proficiency facilitates the learners’ ability to interpret implicatures. Similarly, Tuan (2012) found that the learners’ pragmatic competence positively correlated with overall language proficiency (r = 0.82) suggesting that a learner’s pragmatic competence is a crucial element to predict one’s language proficiency. Discussion The current study aimed to investigate the effect of explicit instruction of conversational implicatures on developing TEFL students’ pragmatic competence and language proficiency. The findings revealed a significant impact of instruction in the improvement of the participants’ pragmatic competence and language ability. It is echoed in previous literature that formal instruction is an effective approach to develop non-native students’ proficiency in interpreting implicatures (Bouton, 1994; Broersma, 1994; Rose, 2005; Takimoto, 2006; Felix, 2008). The findings of the current study also revealed a positive correlation between the students’ pragmatic competence and language proficiency, a finding that was supported by previous literature (Roever, 2001; Lee, 2002; Taguchi, 2005; Tuan, 2012). The participants’ ability improved in recognizing and interpreting conversational implicatures representing the four maxims in the Gricean model, especially those related to quantity and quality. The analysis below sheds light on items of the test of pragmatic competence by showing examples of breaching the various types of the Gricean maxims (quantity, relation, quality, and manner). The analysis draws on descriptive statistics of each test item. It also sets the conversations in the contexts of the previous studies as well as that of the current study. The analysis is divided into four sections with examples of breach of each one of the four maxims. Flouting the Maxim of “Quantity” The implicature in item 6 is conveyed, when a person is asked directly for an opinion about a person, object, or action that they do not like, and not wishing to criticize directly, they reply with a favorable comment about a non-central attribute. 6. Jose and Tanya are professors at a college. They are talking about a student, Mark. Jose: How did you like Mark’s term paper? Tanya: Well, I thought it was well typed. (Narrator) How did Tanya like Mark’s term paper? a. He liked it; he thought it was good. b. He thought it was important that the paper was well typed. TEFL STUDENTS’ PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY 459 c. He really had not read well enough to know. d. He did not like it. The participants’ ability to recognize and interpret understated negative evaluation improved at a highly significant level. The percentage of participants who chose the expected answer, choice c, increased from 3.8% in the pre-test to 88.9% in the post-test. This highly significant improvement indicates the positive effect of pragmatic training on the participants’ ability to interpret understated negative evaluation. Initially, the majority of participants (77%) who chose distractors a and b in the pre-test could not distinguish between what was important (i.e., the content of the student’s term paper) and what is less important (the typing and what makes a paper good). It also indicates that training in conversational implicatures is particularly effective in developing pragmatic competence, with regard to recognizing and interpreting understated negative evaluation for the research group. A similar finding regarding the improvement in the participants’ ability in understanding understated negative evaluation is also evident in the implicature in item 7. 7. Toby and Ally are trying the new buffet restaurant in town. Toby is eating something, but Ally can not decide what to have next. Ally: How do you like what you are having? Toby: Well, let us just say it is colorful. (Narrator) What does Toby probably mean? a. She thinks it is important for food to look appetizing. b. She thinks food should not contain artificial colors. c. She wants Ally to try something colorful. d. She does not like her food much. The majority of participants (70.4%) chose the expected answer, choice d, in the pre-test, compared to 34.6% of the participants in the post-test. This item highlighted the cultural variations in interpreting implicature. The significance of color in judgment of the quality of food may not be the same in all contexts. To the Western ear, referring to food as colorful, rather than its content (chicken, beef, and vegetables), could be interpreted as mildly derisive; it can hardly be complimentary to imply that the content of food was not identifiable (Murray, 2011). Murray added that the choice of such a culturally ambiguous attribute as a vehicle for the delivery of faint praise introduces an additional layer of complexity to the interpretation. This could explain why the participants did not agree on a specific answer when responding to this item in the pre-test as 19% of the participants chose distractor a; 15% of the participants chose distractor b; 31% of the participants chose distractor c; and 34.6% of the participants chose distractor d, the expected response. The training had a positive impact on reducing the complexity of interpretation of the implied meaning as 70.4% of the participants chose the expected answer. Again, in item 16 the majority of participants (77.8%) correctly interpreted understated negative evaluation and chose the expected answer, choice a, compared to only 11.5% of the participants in the pre-test. 16. Lee has spent a lot of money on a new suit and he asks his friend, Sandy, about it. Lee: How do you like my new sweater? Sandy: It is an interesting color. (Narrator) What does Sandy mean? a. She does not like that sweater. 460 TEFL STUDENTS’ PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY b. She is interested at the color of that sweater. c. She thinks it is a bore to discuss that sweater. d. She thinks Lee is color-blind. An interesting remark regarding this item of the test is that the vast majority of participants (80.8%) incorrectly chose distractor b in the pre-test. Initially, the participants’ interpreted Sandy’s remark as the intended meaning. On the surface meaning, they considered the color of the sweater as a decisive criterion. This might be the case in some occasions, but not in the context of this conversation, whereas another factor intervened, i.e., the amount of money spent on the sweater as indicated in the opening utterance. In this case, the price of the sweater is more highlighted than its color. The expected answer was supposed to refer to value for money in terms of material or design, instead of just talking mainly about the color of the sweater which is a subsidiary criterion. During the training program, the participants were sensitized to the role of context and remarks between the lines that provided cues for recognizing implied meanings. The impact of training was evident in the improvement of participants’ ability to correctly choose the expected answer. Obviously, the participants decided to look at the deep meaning in conversations, instead of just considering surface meaning as the only criterion for understanding what was said. Thus, they could differentiate between what was said and what was meant. Non-observance of the maxim of quantity usually takes the form of a violation. In this kind of breach, the speaker intends to conceal the fact that he or she can find nothing more complimentary to say. There may be very different cultural responses to the sanctity of frankness (Wierzbicka, 2003). There are indeed occasions where a polite untruth may be the most appropriate response, but many English speakers would feel compromised, if they breached the maxim of quality with a direct lie. Opportunity for cross-cultural awareness-raising in the classroom context with regard to varying expectations regarding truthfulness and tact is salient here. According to Bouton (1988), understated negative evaluation led to less consistent responses with fewer than 80% of NS giving the expected answer. Findings of the current study revealed that the participants benefited greatly from training in recognizing and interpreting understated negative evaluation. This improvement, as echoed in the literature, highlights the role explicit pragmatic teaching could have in developing the ability to interpret implicature, even for NS groups (Bouton, 1994, 1999; Murray, 2011). Flouting the Maxim of “Relation” Implicatures related to the maxim of relation were found to be the easiest for both NS and NNS groups (Bouton, 1988). This could be true for the current study. The participants’ scores in the pre-test were higher than that of any other maxim. One interesting remark relates to item 5 displayed which represents the certainty issue. The participants’ scores in the post-test were lower than those of the pre-test. 5. Jack is talking to his housemate Sarah about another housemate, Frank. Jack: Do you know where Frank is, Sarah? Sarah: Well, I heard music from his room earlier. (Narrator) What does Sarah probably mean? a. Frank forgot to turn the music off. b. Frank’s loud music bothers Sarah. c. Frank is probably in his room. d. Sarah does not know where Frank is. TEFL STUDENTS’ PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY 461 In item 5, 88.5% of the participants chose the expected answer, choice c, in the pre-test; whereas, in the post-test, the percentage of those who chose the expected answer decreased to 70.4%. Murray (2011) provided a useful insight that could explain this unexpected finding. When the speaker commences the utterance with a hedging “well,” it could be taken as an indication of the possibility of ignorance, which points to a clash of maxims. If the speaker has genuine doubts about the status of her knowledge, she may be choosing to deliberately flout the maxim of relation, rather than risk breaching the maxim of quality. Without any phonological evidence of the manner in which “well” is said, it becomes difficult to distinguish between these two possibilities. According to item 5, about a third of the participants chose distractor d in the post-test, which was not their preferred option in the pre-test. Perhaps, as a result of training in pragmatic competence, the participants became more aware of the risk of loss of face that may be experienced when a speaker oversteps the boundary of certain knowledge. Although this is a sort of interference due to training, it does not undermine the benefits of pragmatic training in facilitating understanding of other test items and implicatures. Flouting the maxim of relation provided a useful opportunity for crystallizing cross-cultural insights, and an entry into a review of the language of mitigation and hedging. Keenan (1976) maintained that there are cultural variations in the amount of certainty required before a piece of information can be directly stated. Obviously, some participants became more careful about the issue of certainty than about admission of ignorance, which represents a radical cultural change of attitude. Flouting the Maxim of “Quality” As for the maxim of quality, the training had a significant effect as well. According to the findings, the participants’ ability to understand and interpret violations of the maxim of quality improved significantly. They understood irony behind the literal meaning. An obvious example is item 11. 11. At a recent party, there was a lot of singing and piano playing. At one point, Matt played the piano while Brian sang. Jill was not at the party, but her friend Linda was. Jill: What did Brian sing? Linda: I am not sure, but Matt was playing “Yesterday”. (Narrator) What does Linda probably mean? a. She was only interested in Matt and did not listen to Brian. b. Brian sang very badly. c. Brian and Matt were not doing the same song. d. The song that Brian sang was “Yesterday”. The majority of participants (81.5%) chose the expected answer, choice b, in the post-test compared to only 3.8% who chose it in the pre-test. Obviously, Linda did not like Brian’s singing. If he sang well, she would pay attention to his singing. Instead, she was attracted to piano playing by Matt. Mentioning the name of the song at the end of her answer indicated that Linda actually knew what Brian sang. Yet, she refused to give the usual answer implying that she did not like the singing. In the pre-test, half of the participants chose distractor a, which means that they only considered the surface meaning of Linda’s answer. Only 11.1% chose this distractor in the post-test. Avoiding distractor a means that the participants were concerned more with what was meant rather than what was said. Additionally, they might become aware that distractor a is an inappropriate violation of the maxim of quality. It was not true that Linda did not listen to Brian as long as she was there during the singing. 462 TEFL STUDENTS’ PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY Flouting the Maxim of “Manner” With regard to the maxim of manner, the training was also effective. The findings indicate that the participants’ ability to understand and interpret breaches of the maxim of manner improved. For example, in item 17 of the test of pragmatic competence, 63% of the participants chose the expected answer, choice c, in the post-test compared to 26.9% who chose it in the pre-test. 17. Tom and Jennifer are taking a course together. Tom asked Jennifer about her feelings about the class. Tom: Do you like linguistics? Jennifer: Well, let us just say I do not jump for joy before class. (Narrator) What does Jennifer probably mean? a. She likes the course very much. b. She hates the course. c. She is not very sure about her feelings about the course. d. She wants to leave the course. In the pre-test, half of the participants incorrectly chose distractor a. In the post test, only 14.8% chose it. In addition, the number of participants who chose the expected answer increased. This indicates the improvement of the participants’ ability to decipher ambiguity. Perhaps the participants thought that Tom asked Jennifer about her feelings about the class, and she said she did not celebrate each class with such a leap into the air. The response is relevant, but it is a kind of cryptic and they both know it. There must be a reason for that. Perhaps the lack of a straightforward response is a result of the complicated nature of her true feelings. Maybe she likes some aspects about the class, but not everything. Maybe she likes the content but not the instructor. This might be a warning to drop the subject, unless Tom wants to get into an in-depth conversation. An additional impact of the training program was also achieved. It was noticed from the findings that the participants’ ability to avoid the least suitable distractor improved as in item 3 below. 3. Linda and Ally are having lunch at the campus cafeteria. Linda: The Beetles are coming this Saturday. Ally: I have two term papers due next Monday. (Narrator) What does Ally mean? a. He thinks Linda will help him write his term papers. b. He has no ideas about who the Beetles are. c. He wants to discuss the Beetles in his term papers. d. He is unable to go the Beetles show with Linda. In item 3, 23.1% of the participants chose distractor a in the pre-test. This distractor is obviously the least expected response. However, in the post-test, the percentage of participants who chose the same distractor decreased to only 3.7%. This could be attributed to the effect of training. The opposite happened to distractor b. Initially, it was avoided by the participants, in spite of being closer to the expected answer than choice a. However, in the post-test, more students chose it. The choice of distractor b could be interpreted in light of Ally’s degree of certainty. Given that Ally might be unaware of who the Beetles are, she resorted to changing the subject to avoid being seen as ignorant or uncertain. Pedagogical Implications Ability to recognize and interpret conversational implicatures could inform and enhance teaching (Murray, TEFL STUDENTS’ PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY 463 2011). Daily classroom interaction between the teacher and students and between students and other students depend on conversation. Successful conversations in the classroom will result in effective communication. Farahian et al. (2012) highlighted that pragmatic competence development is a pre-requisite for the development of communicative competence. Thus, the use of conversational implicatures is inevitable for effective communication to take place. Conversational implicatures could be used to serve a variety of communicative purposes. Certain language functions, such as irony, are only carried out effectively through implicatures. This means that learners, especially advanced ones, need to be trained in using them. Fostering pragmatic competence among EFL learners could be one of the L2 teacher roles (Farahian et al., 2012). Implicatures of various types can be implemented for classroom application. Relation implicatures are relevant to the silly questions asked by the students, which may push the teacher to change the subject or use Pope questions as a response. This type of implicature can be also used to explain to the students how ideas can go off-topic and refocuses the learners’ attention to what needs to be achieved. The teacher’s response to students’ questions may influence classroom interaction. A teacher’s utterance in response to a student’s silly question may hurt that student’s feelings and intimidate learners. Murray (2011) argued that the teacher’s inability to distinguish between an utterance that is gently cajoling or bitingly sarcastic can have a long term negative impact on teacher-student and other workplace relationships. She further added that generating a set of obvious or “silly” questions that a teacher might be asked, recording spontaneous verbal responses, and then exploring the match between speaker intent and both the lexicogrammatical and phonological features of their rejoinders could provide the opportunity for those students to notice and possibly pre-empt serious pragmatic failure. Quality implicatures can also be used in the classroom, especially during the meaningful and communicative practice stages of the EFL lesson. Manner implicatures can also have a place in the classroom. Ambiguity is normal in the EFL classroom due to language limitations. This always results in communication failure. Training the learners in how ideas and conversations can be carried out clearly or vaguely can provide good opportunities for recognizing and avoiding ambiguity. Quantity implicatures could be implemented while conducting controlled versus free practice. This is obvious while learning EFL, as learners usually say less than what is required. This is because of language limitations. Thus, learners violate the cooperative principle and could be considered as lacking communicative ability. Target and cross-cultural awareness-raising is part and parcel of the EFL curriculum. Various opportunities emerge while teaching language skills and language aspects that may involve cultural references that are ambiguous to learners. The use of conversational implicatures as an activity is a good approach to achieve this. Specific programs for EFL talented learners could involve the use of figurative language while speaking and writing. These programs could be built around how to recognize and interpret as well as to use conversational implicatures. They can also involve when and with whom these learners can use implicatures. Inability to recognize and interpret implicatures could represent a source of demotivation for EFL leaners and have a negative impact on their sense of self-efficacy while learning EFL. Responses (such as Pope questions) which incorporate an implicit appraisal of the question are not uncommon in classroom contexts. Conclusion The findings of the current study revealed the effect of instruction in conversational implicatures on developing TEFL students’ pragmatic competence and language proficiency. They also revealed a positive 464 TEFL STUDENTS’ PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY correlation between the participants’ pragmatic competence and language proficiency. Research needs to be continued in the fertile area of pragmatics and its role in classroom pedagogy. A study may explore the effect of pragmatic instruction on developing learners’ understanding of when, why, and with whom a person chooses to speak ironically. Another study may evaluate the application level of EFL student teachers’ pragmatic competence in their own teaching. Murray (2011) highlighted that ethnographic research would extend knowledge of implicature in the classroom and help identify instances in which both teachers’ and students’ lack of pragmatic competence leads to communication breakdown. Future research agenda may also include the facilitative role of multimedia resources in reducing ambiguity. A study may examine the effect of using audio and video conversations on developing pragmatic competence. References Blight, R. (2002). Classroom procedure for explicit instruction in conversational implicature. Paper presented at The JALT Conference Proceedings. Retrieved from http://jalt-publications.org/archive/proceedings/2002/142.pdf Bouton, L. F. (1988). A cross-cultural study of ability to interpret implicatures in English. World Englishes, 17(2), 183-196. Bouton, L. F. (1994). Conversational implicature in the second language: Learned slowly when not deliberately taught. Journal of Pragmatics, 22, 157-167. Bouton, L. F. (1999). Developing non-native speaker skills in interpreting conversational implicatures in English: Explicit teaching can ease the process. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Culture in second language teaching and learning. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press. Broersma, D. (1994). Do chickens have lips? Conversational implicative in the ESL classroom. Paper presented at The 8th Annual Meeting of the International Conference on Pragmatics and Language Learning, Urbana, I.L.. Cook, M., & Liddicoat, A. J. (2002). The development of comprehension in interlanguage pragmatics: The case of request strategies in English. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, 19-39. Edmunds, P., & Taylor, A. (2007). Developing skills for the TOEIC test. Compass Publishing. ISBN: 978-1-59966-086-8. Eslami, Z. R., & Eslami-Rasekh, A. (2008). Enhancing the pragmatic competence of non-native English-speaking teacher candidates (NNESTCs) in an EFL context. In E. A. Soler & A. Martínez-Flor (Eds.), Investigating pragmatics in foreign language learning, teaching, and testing (pp. 178-197). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Farahian, M., Rezaee, M., & Gholami, A. (2012). Does direct instruction develop pragmatic competence? Teaching refusals to EFL learners of English. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 3(4), 814-821. Félix-Brasdefer, J. C. (2008). Teaching pragmatics in the classroom: Instruction of mitigation in Spanish as a foreign language. Hispania, 91(2), 479-494. Garcia, P. (2004). Pragmatic comprehension of high and low level language learners. The Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language, 8(2). Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole & J. L. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and semantics (pp. 41-58). New York, N.Y.: Academic Press. Keenan, E. O. (1976). The universality of conversational postulates. Language in Society, 5(1), 67-79. Kondo, S. (2008). Effects on pragmatic development through awareness-raising instruction: Refusals by Japanese EFL learners. In E. A. Soler & A. Martínez-Flor (Eds.), Investigating pragmatics in foreign language learning, teaching and testing (pp. 153-177). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Lee, J. S. (2002). Interpreting conversational implicatures: A study of Korean learners of English. TESOL Korea Journal, 5(1), 1-25. Murray, J. C. (2011). Do bears fly? Revisiting conversational implicature in instructional pragmatics. The Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language, 15(2). Roever, C. (2001). A web-based test of interlanguage pragma linguistic knowledge: Speech acts, routines, and implicatures (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Hawaii, Manoa). Rose, K. R. (2005). On the effects of instruction in second language pragmatics. System, 33, 385-399. Schedl, M. (2010). Background and goals of the TOEIC listening and reading test redesign project. Retrieved from ETS Website https://www.ets.org/research/policy_research_reports/publications/report/2010/itjq TEFL STUDENTS’ PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE AND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY 465 Taguchi, N. (2005). Comprehending implied meaning in English as a foreign language. The Modern Language Journal, 89(4), 543-562. Takahashi, S. (2005). Noticing in task performance and learning outcomes: A qualitative analysis of instructional effects in interlanguage pragmatics. System, 33(3), 437-461. Takimoto, M. (2006). The effects of explicit feedback on the development of pragmatic proficiency. Language Teaching Research, 10(4), 393-417. Tuan, J. (2012). Does fish swim? Teaching conversational implicatures in the EFL classroom. Online Journal of Shu-te Social Science, 7(2), 77-100. Vasques, C., & Sharpless, D. (2009). The role of pragmatics in the master’s TESOL curriculum: Findings from a nationwide survey. TESOL Quarterly, 43(1), 5-28. Wierzbicka, A. (2003). Cross cultural pragmatics: The semantics of human interaction. Berlin, N.Y.: Mouton de Gruyter. US-China Education Review A, August 2016, Vol. 6, No. 8, 466-479 doi: 10.17265/2161-623X/2016.08.002 D DAVID PUBLISHING Visual Communications and Learning Seda Khadimally  University of Phoenix, Arizona, USA Visual representation of content during the design and delivery of instruction emerges as an integral component of the process. Use of visuals that helps transmit a certain message to learners or users of a particular instructional or an industrial product plays a crucial role in active learning. From a pedagogical viewpoint applied in learning and teaching, when learners are provided with a solid instructional product, they get to actively engage in the learning activities with higher cognitive process and apply their newly gained knowledge in real-life cases. This is a view highly congruent with the cognitive processing approach to learning where students become active participants and builders of the content. It is through this understanding that, in this paper, the concept of visual communication in learning and teaching, its support in the learning process, as well as the role of visual literacy and visual intelligence during this process will be discussed and presented with visual illustrations. Keywords: visual communication, instructional design, active learning, cognitive processing approach, visual literacy, visual intelligence, adult English as a second language (ESL) learning contexts Visual Communication Defined In their study regarding principles of design, Costello, Youngblood, and Youngblood (2012) referred to the design elements as the “ingredients used in making visual art” (p. 114). In support of adding visuals to the content of a rather text-rich instructional product, Mayer (2003) argued that “adding relevant graphics to words can be a powerful way to help learners engage in active learning. Overall, [one’s] view of the cognitive stages of how learning works can influence [his/her] decisions about how to design instruction” (as cited in Clark & Mayer, 2011, p. 79). According to Costello et al. (2012), visual communication is an area of study that “investigates the transmission of ideas and information through visual forms and symbol. On a deeper level, it also looks at the cognitive and affective processes that affect the way we perceive (or sense) visual stimuli” (p. 95). Communication through visuals is effective when content and form successfully interact with one another. In the instructional design (ID) terminology, the what (i.e., content) and how (i.e., form) of this message that the designer desires to communicate to the viewers involves an overlap of both elements that influence one’s objective and subjective reality. That is, what one sees and perceives about the same message is highly affected by both the substance of that message and the manner in which it is transmitted to the audience, viewers, users, or in educational terminology, to learners. With respect to this, Hai-Jew (2010) posited that “Meanings may be interpreted at the top level of what is observed and depicted” (p. 270). In regards to the interaction of content and form that plays a considerable role in the way one expresses or communicates his/her message, Costello et al. (2012) provided that while content is the “tangible essence of a work: the stories, ideas, and information that we exchange with others, form is the manner in which content is  Seda Khadimally, Ed.D. candidate, School of Advanced Studies (SAS), University of Phoenix. VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS AND LEARNING 467 designed, packaged, and delivered for consumption” (p. 96). As such, prior to the design of any industrial or instructional product, designers should take several factors into account, including the scope of the instructional project (Clark & Lyons, 2011), the learning context(s), learners’ needs, previous knowledge, experience, educational background, differences in culture, language, visual and verbal intelligences, study skills, preferences, and others. Scholars engaged in the ID literature agree upon the positive impact of conveying meanings to students, trainees, users, or other target market, by including visual aids in instruction (e.g., lesson plans, module or unit-based agenda, weekly syllabi, course curricula, training products, or educational programs, etc.), which explains the extent to which visual communication has considerable effects on pedagogical frameworks, such as cognitive processing and active learning. It is undoubtedly that both sight and perception are significantly affected by how powerfully a designer incorporates both textual and visual data into his/her design product, thereby, leaving not only an objectively impression on viewers or learners—and solely visually stimulating them—but, on a more profound and aesthetic level, lead them to deconstruct information, then construct their own meanings from the delivered message, and ultimately, learn by placing the information in their long-term memory (Larkin, 1998) based on the way they see the design and interpret it in their own reality, which supports ID scholars’ approach to the effect of visual communications on learning. In support of this, Costello et al. (2012) asserted that in the absence of art, design is “either the humdrum repetition of familiar clichés or a wild scramble for novelty. Without the aesthetic, the computer is but a mindless speed machine, producing effects without substance, form without relevant content, or content without meaningful form” (p. 95). Aesthetics is a critical component of data visualization when creating meaningful content. This principle applies to learning and language learning, in particular. Clark and Mayer (2011) argued in favor of this view and stressed that “instructional designers should consider how words and pictures work together to create meaning for the learner” (p. 71). Visual Communication and Its Support on Learning If visual communication is one of visual aids, then it should be particularly pronounced in both formal and informal learning environments, regardless of the subject areas taught. Where learning and teaching activities are involved, the concept of visual communication should especially be pronounced. Effective communication supported with graphic images and added to the textual information can yield significantly positive learning outcomes on the part of the learners who find the content engaging, authentic (Reiser & Dempsey, 2007), practical, applicable to real-life situations, technology-rich, collaborative, and fun. Also, those who design and deliver instructional products by use of an array of images, pictorials, drawings, graphics, charts, and other graphic imagery (Larkin, 1998) can achieve positive learning gains for their students, which they predetermine at the onset of the entire ID process. Clark and Mayer (2011) clearly explained the support of visual communication in learning with their cognitive processing view. An approach to learning in which “providing relevant graphics with text is a proven method of fostering deeper cognitive processing in learners. In short, learning is facilitated when the graphics and text work together to communicate the instructional message” (p. 74). The power of visual representation of content should never be underestimated, especially given the importance to create learning environments wherein the active learning process is fostered. Instructors have the responsibility to guide their students’ cognitive processing in learning, by allowing them to engage in active learning. It is through this type of 468 VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS AND LEARNING learning that learners can make sense out of the material, and then reconstruct information. Needless to state, visuals have to play a tremendous role in this meaningful learning process, because they complement what words alone cannot accomplish on learners’ active learning processes. According to Clark and Mayer (2011), “Multimedia presentations can encourage learners to engage in active learning, by mentally representing the material in words and in pictures and by mentally making connections between the pictorial and verbal representations” (p. 71). These visual representations are often included in online courses, textbooks, or in interactive, online, multimedia presentations that foster active learning for students. Multimedia presentations can additionally help learners engage in the active learning process, due to their ability to make connections between two types of representations: pictorial and verbal (Clark & Mayer, 2011). Use of visuals enriches the content delivered to learners, paving the way for authenticity and ingenuity of instruction. This facilitates learning, for research indicates that learners demonstrate higher interest in the message when they are given visuals rather than when they are presented text. Visuals particularly play an effective role in e-learning environments. Clark and Mayer (2011) posited that “in e-learning, [designers] can use a combination of text and audio, as well as still and motion visuals to communicate [their] content” (p. 17). The author focuses on static illustrations when they recommend that instructional designers that they add graphics to their instruction. The examples to these static illustrations include “drawings, charts, graphs, maps, or photos, and dynamic graphics, such as animation or video” (Clark & Mayer, 2011, p. 70). Of course, what we mean by graphics included in an e-learning or distance learning setting, in a textbook, or in a traditional learning environment should not be there for decorative purposes, which Clark and Mayer (2011) called a “decorative graphic” (p. 71) that may sometimes be redundant, superfluous, disconnected from the text, or off-topic, making the text elusive or even complicated. On the other hand, adding graphics that are relevant and are associated with words can encourage learners to engage in active learning. Anders (2010) provided that the type of visuals, as well as their quality and degree selected during the design process can have direct effects on how instruction will be delivered and how learning will be assessed (as cited in Hai-Jew, 2010). Today, there are an infinite number of learning/teaching environments—both formal and informal—which optimize the power of visuals and take literacy through visuals to the next level. Avatars or alteregos are demonstrated with innovative software, such as Tellagami, Alteregos, or Second Life (SL), the last one created by the Linden Labs, in addition to other virtual reality software. Cognitive science suggests that deeper semantic coding is required for learners’ sense-making. That is, they need to be able to see the visual image and place information into their long-term memory with a certain level of preparedness, which, according to Hai-Jew (2010), is a view supporting human cognition, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills. Besides the frameworks and pedagogies related to imagery use in cognitive learning and information processing theory, Hai-Jew (2010) contended that there are also cultural implications for including visuals in learning and that both the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) culture have a high role in how designers make informed decisions about using these visual aids. Instructional designers need to use graphics and other visual arts as appropriate media to transmit an appealing message that the users or learners can make meanings from. As such, where instructional media and design principles are concerned, designers need to consider ways to arrange and present two-dimensional and even three-dimensional visual elements (Costello et al., 2012) for learners or users of a particular design product. Clark and Mayer (2011) described graphics as “static illustrations, such as drawings, charts, graphs, maps, or photos, and dynamic graphics, such as animation or video. [They additionally] use the term ‘multimedia presentation’ VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS AND LEARNING 469 to refer to any presentation that contains both words and graphics” (p. 70). Use of graphics in design of instruction should be made the major principle in today’s digital classes where we, instructors, are now communicating data through two-dimensional images. After all, today’s generation of learners is considered as “digital natives” (Prensky, 2010). They are also characterized in terms of the manner in which and how fast “they process information, the capacity of processing information that comes from different sources or screens simultaneously (multitasking), prioritizing image over text, living permanently in an online connected world, and attributing a predominantly recreational use to new technologies” (Aymerich-Franch & Fedele, 2014, as cited in Benson & Morgan, 2014, p. 56). Today’s learners are seeking information that is relevant for them, those that are practical, and delivered fast before they move onto the next topic. As such, in digital learning environments where information is consumed in the matter of seconds, emphasis should be put on the inclusion of visual aids in the design and delivery of instruction. After all, graphs are engaging and students can actively participate in some of these interactive multimedia presentations together with the instructor both synchronously and asynchronously. It is thus crucial to underscore that use of graphics is immensely helpful in both design and delivery of the type of instruction that is engaging, motivational, interactive, collaborative, meaningful, and authentic for learners. The substance and form duo proposed in the Deweyian line of thinking can be analogized to “what of a design and the how (the media) of that design” in learning/teaching settings. From an instructional viewpoint, the relationship among the Deweyian artist, the work of art, and the audience (Dewey, 1980) is no different from that among the teacher that is to design and deliver the content, the instructional content created in a visually beautiful manner, and the learner(s) that are to elicit meaning out of that content or message. It is through this triad that higher learning outcomes can be saliently evaluated. Role of Visual Literacy and Visual Intelligence in the Learning Process Clark and Lyons (2011) posited that visual literacy has been under realized for quite some time now when compared to overload of word usage to demonstrate certain content. Thus, in order to show the power of visuals that, according to the author, can leverage instructional design, they proposed readers diverse views of instructional visuals, a visual design model for systematic graphics planning, and planning of graphics to support transfer of learning. With this in mind, an exemplary unit lesson that is visually supported will be demonstrated below. The content delivered both in a formal learning setting and in an informal learning environment through online, interactive technologies is enriched by all graphic imagery incorporated into these tools. According to Clark and Lyons (2011), again, how to best optimize use of graphics in order to illustrate content is of paramount importance. The author posited that including graphics pertinent to the content delivered assists with “fostering deeper cognitive processing in learners. In short, learning is facilitated when the graphics and text work together to communicate the instructional message” (p. 74). Thus, use of graphic images in teaching plays a very important role not only on a pragmatic level, but especially because these visual aids support learners’ cognitive processing, which explains why they are congruent with the “cognitive processing theory,” a learning approach held by Clark and Lyons (2011) in their text. In support of this, Larkin (1998) contended that the best way to demonstrate textual information or data in prose is through “presenting data in the form of graphs, diagrams, flow charts, and other graphics” (Para. 1). There are various forms of graphics that contain non-prose elements in order to accentuate the message of the designer/instructor who attempts to create and deliver an engaging, appealing message, data, or content by use of these elements. In regards to this, 470 VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS AND LEARNING Larkin (1998) also provided that graphics can enable users—or learners—to obtain detailed information of what cannot be visually communicated through textual medium. Graphs, in short, are elements in any content that present non-textual data. How Visual Communication Can Support Learning in Adult ESL Contexts: A Formal Learning Community (The Academic Connections Online Lab—AC4 Online Lab) Much of research on student learning ties to the importance of student experiences in engaged learning. Through their experiences, students see value in the information being taught and learn how to transfer the knowledge to real-world practice. Today’s digital era allows instructors to create learning environments for their students, which are rather active, socially networked, and collaborative. Those that are not necessarily found in traditional formal learning environments. When provided with visual data embedded in well-designed instruction, adult English as second language (ESL) learners become actively engaged in the learning process. Through effective instruction that includes all of the necessary elements of design, the second language learning process is made active, and scaffolding is fostered. It is noteworthy that continuous use of visual and verbal symbols that represent students’ cultures which they can associate with their previous learning experiences not only facilitate their learning, but make the given content highly relevant, engaging, authentic, pragmatic, and entertaining for them. In ESL classes, data visualization needs to be consistently promoted as necessary tools for effective learning and instruction. Authentic activities, cooperative learning via interactive class discussions, technology-mediated learning, guided participation, cognitive modeling, inner-speech, self-talk, reciprocal teaching, and peer tutoring (Ormrod, 2008) can also be practiced through well-designed second language instruction. As much as it has its own science, techniques, and its own methodology to teach with, the second language learning process or second language acquisition is also a form of art via which content is made relevant, authentic, contextualized, and most importantly, “meaningful.” An Exemplary Unit Lesson in an Advanced Academic Preparation ESL Course With this unit lesson, students will understand how to use each online module in the AC4 online lab in order to take various integrated skills tasks, such as in writing and speaking, and to master their performances on what they have learnt about the topic, Microbiology, throughout the course. Gagne, Wager, Golas, and Keller (2005) pointed out that “the idea of mastery requires a change in thinking about instructional design as well as assessment” (p. 274). AC4 online course is a proper mode and rate of instruction in this adult ESL course as far as all of the understanding goals are concerned, because of two reasons: 1. AC4 online lab will not only help ESL students master their own learning throughout the course, but also lead them to get more hands-on with it than ever before; 2. The instructor of this course can more conveniently engage in further instructional practices, each time she provides her students with feedback on their academic performances. Also, she can practice further assessments and evaluations—and for her program—which, in turn, can explain the degree to which AC4 online is a very powerful mode of communication supported with an array of graphic images. The positive learning experience and value created with the AC4 online courseware can be felt both by the instructor and her students in this course. VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS AND LEARNING 471 Understanding and Application of War-Related Vocabulary Through AC4 Online Lab Over the course of six weeks, ESL students will understand and apply different meanings of war-related vocabulary (see Figure 1) in the microbiology unit, wherein they will learn about how they can fight diseases that are infectious. The students will also culminate their performances, by giving an individual five-minute impromptu speech in class or a 15-minute group-based oral report which they are to prepare at home, so they can showcase in class at the end of the unit. The learning goal with such impromptu speaking assignments is to help the students demonstrate their comprehensive understanding of the topic. As they showcase their culminating performances both during the semester and at the end of the course, students can go to YouTube and make their own videos by storytelling/narrating. They can also produce movies by using iMovie or other related movie making software. They can additionally design word clouds through tools, such as Wordle.net. Furthermore, the students can create blogs and wikis where they can upload several materials regarding Microbiology-related expressions, and then demonstrate them in class. They can also build mind/concept maps with a mind mapping tool, such as Inspiration.com, while using online synonmys and antonyms dictionaries, such as Visual Thesaurus.com, just-the-word.com (JTW), or ordandphrase.info/frequencyList.asp. For showcasing the root words and prefixes of academic vocabulary, they will learn until the end of this six-week course, and they can additionally refer to learnthat.org and several such other websites. There are additional technologies by which ESL students in this course can perform their learning, such as PPT (Microsoft Office), Prezi.com (via web), Google Drive, Google Chat, WordPress.Org (for Blogs), Wetpaint,com (for Wikis), Skype, Face Time, LINE, and various other applications for voice and video calls. The fact that the students can find the opportunity to create their own designs, vocabulary lists, slides, wikis, and blogs both audibly and visually will help them excel at their learning at the end of the unit (i.e., Microbiology). The AC4 online lab and such innovative technologies can help the students achieve both content and skills-based mastery. Therefore, by using the modular, online component (AC4) of the textbook, the instructor will work with innovative modules in order to improve each skill. As their instructor and the moderator of the AC4 online lab, she will facilitate the learning environment for her adult ESL students, which will be conducive to their autonomous and mastery learning in each skill in the English language. The instructor will then hand out a list of Microbiology-related vocabulary words to the students, those that correspond to the readings and listening excerpts built both in the text book, AC4, and also in its interactive, online course (AC4 online). Next, topic-related passages will be read, and vignettes with their transcripts will be audibly presented to them. Throughout this process, the students will be asked to review this vocabulary list, so their vocabulary skills can be assessed with a quick vocabulary test. Students are then to internalize some of the technical words necessary for them to be able to write a five-paragraph process essay about the topic, which will be their culminating writing project as the topic is concluded. The topic title of this take-home writing assignment will be as follows: How to Avoid the Spread of Infectious Diseases. Meanwhile, the students will be additionally assigned to complete take-home, online listening quizzes (see Figure 1), which they can take via the AC4 online, interactive course. The ESL students will understand the purpose and implementation of all of the aforementioned educational technology tools commonly used for exploration, comprehension, demonstration, knowledge, acquisition, application, analysis, synthesis with alternative solutions, and evaluation (Bloom, 1968). With online, interactive reading and vocabulary tests on AC4 site (see Figures 2 & 3 for exemplary reading and 472 VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS AND LEARNING vocabulary activities), the students will especially appreciate the similarities and differences between specific Microbiology-related terms and/or expressions, such as between infection and contagion, or among vulnerable to, resistant to, susceptible to, sensitive to, symptom, syndrome, attack, battle against, be overcome, combat, fight, epidemic, pandemic, etc.. Figure 1. An online listening activity from the AC4 online lab. As shown in Figure 1, this is an online, interactive listening activity from the online lab (i.e., AC4 online), which assists with assessing ESL students’ understanding of the content of Unit 7 (i.e., Microbiology). Figure 2. An online reading activity from the AC4 online lab. VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS AND LEARNING 473 As shown in Figure 2, the aim with this online, interactive reading activity is to support ESL students’ thorough understanding of the topic, Resistance to Antimicrobial Drugs. Figure 3. An online vocabulary activity from the AC4 online lab. As shown in Figure 3, with his gap-filling vocabulary activity from AC4 online lab, adult ESL students are asked to pair up and guess various war-related vocabulary words regarding the context (i.e., humans’ fight with infectious diseases). The students are then to fill in the blanks with these words. This is a useful warm-up activity for students prior to their passing onto subsequent activities in other skills, such as reading and listening. The scaffolding component in this activity can especially lead to an understanding that the course instructor applies a constructivist learning approach. Analyzing this unit lesson, it is thus possible to assert that the instructor of this adult ESL academic preparation course has adopted and implemented a constructivist approach to her students’ learning processes—from design to delivery to evaluation. By integrating social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978) into their instruction, therefore, ESL teachers delivering the subject matter to older adolescents and/or adults can help their students transform into self-directed learners and a knowledge-building community. The ideal learning environment can be described as one in which English language learning is made active, and scaffolding is fostered. Use of cultural and verbal symbols is promoted as a necessary tool for learning and 474 VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS AND LEARNING teaching. Authentic activities, cooperative learning via interactive class discussions, technology-mediated learning, guided participation, cognitive modeling, inner-speech, self-talk, reciprocal teaching, and peer tutoring (Ormrod, 2008) can also be practiced through this learning pedagogy. As a result, with the implementation of social constructivism in adult ESL classroom applications, linguistically and culturally diverse ESL students’ learning can be improved. Figure 4. Unit 7 vocabulary words via Wordle.net, an online word cloud tool. As shown in Figure 4, by use of this tool, the most frequently used advanced academic words derived from the unit vocabulary are designed and presented to ESL students in a way that they will gradually begin to digest these words, and build upon them as they engage in various vocabulary, reading, writing, listening, and speaking activities and tests. What stands out by use of this technology is that the students will ultimately end up mastering academic vocabulary pertinent to the topic, Fighting Infectious Diseases. Creating Meaningful Learning via Social Media (Facebook) and Mobile Technologies With an Informal Learning Community A plethora online social network sites (SNSs) have emerged due to technological advances today. Some of these are Facebook, Myspace, Twitter, wikis, blogs, and virtual worlds (Bicen & Cavus, 2011, as cited in Benson & Morgan, 2014). Embracing social media tools in the non-traditional, online classroom environment is significant, for they are very powerful tools of learning, and today’s net generation (Glenn, 2000) recognizes their own important role in helping “shape the future of this increasingly global, interconnected society” (Wesch, 2008, p. 7, as cited in Yildiz & Scharaldi, 2015, p. 259). Through SNSs, students can create new forms of expression and new rules for social behavior. They can share their creative works, such as a video they produced, an online, interactive game they designed, or a SNS they customized based on their personal preferences. They can then receive feedback and response both from their peers and their instructors online. This type of feedback is often immediate, and includes breadth of information. Such information exchange greatly adds to these learners’ media skills and knowledge repertoire, particularly providing them with the ability to learn, create, and share at their own pace and based on their own learning needs and personal learning styles, which clearly explains that the social media and the digital world are very likely to lower transactional barriers to students’ autonomous learning in the digital age. VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS AND LEARNING 475 Visual communication on Facebook has considerable potential for adult learners and is cost-effective, because this platform not only supports the type of learning that is socially networked, but also knowledge that is constructed by learners “recreating the content themselves.” Considering the importance of creating meaningful and relevant learning experiences for students both inside and outside of the classroom environment, Ryokai (2012) presented a mobile technology-based learning (mobile learning [m-learning]) model which that not only sustains a personal connection between the student and the learning material, but enables a social constructivist approach to learning, which aligns with Vygotsky’s aforementioned learning pedagogy. Similarly, Park (2011) presented a four-type pedagogical framework of m-learning within the distance education context, including high transactional distance and socialized m-learning activity, high transactional distance and individualized m-learning activity, “low transactional distance and socialized m-learning activity” (see Figures 5-8), and finally, “low transactional distance and individualized learning activity.” Finally, with a highly constructivist, learner-oriented, iterative, informal, and personal approach to learning, Naismith, Lonsdale, Vavoula, and Sharples (2004) proposed a conceptual framework that is situated and based on collaborative work that explains the extent to which mobile technology assisted practices are highly conducive to andragogical learning model and the constructivist learning theory. 476 VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS AND LEARNING VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS AND LEARNING Figure 5-8. Adult ESL students’ use of social media (i.e., Facebook) as an informal learning community. 477 478 VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS AND LEARNING As shown in Figure 5-8, all of these figures above demonstrate adult ESL students’ online interactions on social media (i.e., Facebook) as an informal learning community in an advanced level academic preparation course. Students’ and instructor’s social media use in this particular adult ESL class facilitates their positive communication and dialogue. Furthermore, with this example of an informal learning community, it is possible to observe “the level of unstructured and yet continuous, dialogic interplay” between the instructor of this course and her adult ESL students. Such a dialogic process not only indicates that this is a rather informal learning context, but also demonstrates what Moore (2007) called positive and encouraging teaching behaviors for the entire learner group in this adult ESL academic preparation course. Most importantly, the fact that all of the assignments, tasks, class schedule, as well as class reminders are designed and delivered in a guided manner can lead one to appreciate the type of learning and teaching environment that is constructivist in nature. Given this scaffolding aspect of the course content that is designed, developed, and delivered under the instructor’s initial guidance, and based on the type of feedback she provides both positively and immediately—although asynchronously—one can see the constructivist approach to learning adopted and implemented by the course instructor in this academic preparation ESL course. Conclusion Vygotsky (1978) said, “Well-designed instruction is like a magnet” (as cited in Snowman & Biehler, 2006, p. 49). Drawing on this, it is noteworthy that visual communications play a fundamental role in the instructional design, learning, and teaching process. The essential role of visual communications perceived to lead to improved visual literacy and visual intelligence is especially evident in learning environments where social media tools are involved. Based on the example regarding a specific social media technology (i.e., Facebook) implemented in an academic preparation adult ESL course, the considerable potential and advantages of visual communications and visual literacy were observed under close lens. In this paper, the substantive impact of the concept of visual communications in second/foreign language learning and teaching contexts was the focus of discussion, particularly because it not only constitutes a time-efficient and cost-effective platform, but supports the type of learning that is socially and digitally networked—not to mention the fact that knowledge and meaning are constructed by learners recreating the content themselves. Eventually, any time a visually rich and technologically savvy instructional product is designed and prepared to be delivered to target learners, it should facilitate them with a blend of formal and informal learning environments in which the social constructivist approach to learning is fostered, critical and analytical thinking skills are supported, interaction, active participation, collaborative knowledge building, meaning making, and networked learning are promoted, as well as learning objectives predetermined at the onset of the design are successfully achieved. References Benson, V., & Morgan, S. (2014). Cutting-Edge technologies and social media use in higher education (pp. 1-436). Hershey, P.A.: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-5174-6 Bloom, B. S. (1968). Learning for mastery. Evaluation Comment, 1(2), 1-5. Clark, R. C., & Lyons, C. (2011). Graphics for learning: Proven guidelines for planning, designing, and evaluating visuals in training materials (2nd ed.). San Francisco, C.A.: Pfeiffer. Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2011). E-learning and the science of instruction (3rd ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pfeiffer. Costello, V., Youngblood, S. A., & Youngblood, N. E. (2012). Multimedia foundations: Core concepts for digital design. Burlington, M.A.: Taylor & Francis. VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS AND LEARNING 479 Dewey, J. (1980). Art as experience. New York, N.Y.: Penguin Group. Gagne, R. M., Wager, W. W., Golas, K. C., & Keller. J. M. (2005). Principles of instructional design (5th ed.). Mason, O.H.: Cengage Learning. Glenn, J. M. (2000). Teaching the net generation. Business Education Forum, 54(3), 6-14. Hai-Jew, S. (2010). Digital imagery and informational graphics in e-learning: Maximizing visual technologies. Hershey, P.A.: IGI Global. Issa, T., Isaias, P., & Kommers, P. (2014). Multicultural awareness and technology in higher education: Global perspectives (pp. 1-449). Hershey, P.A.: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-5876-9 Larkin, G. (1998). Notes for a lecture on types of graphics: Graphics in technical communication. In ENG 302 course, Northern Arizona University. Retrieved from http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~larkin/eng302/class/rhetoric/graphics/lesson1-4-2.html Mayer, R. E. (2003). Learning and instruction. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill Prentice Hall. Moore, M. (2007). The theory of transactional distance. In M. Moore (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (2nd ed.). Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum. Naismith, L., Lonsdale, P., Vavoula, G., & Sharples, M. (2004). Literature review in mobile technologies and learning. Retrieved from http://telearn.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/19/01/43/PDF/Naismith_2004.pdf Ormrod, J. (2008). Human learning (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall. Park, Y. (2011). A pedagogical framework for mobile learning: Categorizing educational applications of mobile technologies into four types. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 12(2). Prensky, M. (2010). Teaching digital natives: Partnering for real learning. Thousand Oaks, C.A.: Corwin. Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2007). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (4th ed.). Columbus, O.H.: Pearson. Ryokai, K. (2012). Mobile learning with the engineering pathway digital library. International Journal of Engineering Education, 28(5), 1119-1126. Snowman, J., & Biehler, R. (2006). Psychology applied to teaching (11th ed.). M.A.: Houghton Mifflin Company. Uzunboylu, H., Cavus, N., & Ercag, E. (2009). Using mobile learning to increase environmental awareness. Computers & Education, 52, 381-389. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.09.008 Vavoula, G. N., & Sharples, M. (2008). Challenges in evaluating mobile informal learning. In Proceedings of the m-Learn 2008 Conference (pp. 296-303). Wolverhampton, England. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, M.A.: Harvard University Press. Yildiz, M. N., & Scharaldi, K. (2015). Integrating mobile technologies in multicultural multilingual multimedia projects. In J. Keengwe, & M. Maxfield (Eds.), Advancing higher education with mobile learning technologies: Cases, trends, and inquiry-based methods (pp. 254-277). Hershey, P.A.: IGI Global. US-China Education Review A, August 2016, Vol. 6, No. 8, 480-486 doi: 10.17265/2161-623X/2016.08.003 D DAVID PUBLISHING Family Learning Resources on Science Language Development of Elementary Students* Shin-Feng Chen  National Pingtung University, Pingtung, Taiwan Science language includes specific science vocabulary, semantics, and syntax, which plays an important role in the reading comprehension of science language. Besides, parental social economic status is another important factor which influences the reading comprehension of science language. Parental social economic status, parental jobs, parental educational levels, parental income, and the learning environment of the family have close relationships. Therefore, the purposes of this study were to explore the factors influencing elementary students’ science language ability by using Mplus 6.0 and Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) 18 to construct the structure equation model and to explore how much the elementary school students’ parental educational levels affected the children’s science language. The samples were 1,048 4th and 6th graders from Kaohsiung City and Pin-Tung Country. There were two questions: One was that how much the elementary school students’ parental educational levels affected the children’s science language, and the other was that how much the family learning resource affected the students’ science language. The results showed that there was cause-effect relationship (Chi-Square = 7.559, df = 6, and p = 0.272) and good model fit indicators. It showed that the parental educational levels and the family learning resources would directly affect the elementary students’ achievements of science language. Keywords: science language development, parental education level, family resources, structural equation modeling (SEM), reading comprehension, oral comprehension Introduction Science language plays an important role in the reading comprehension of science texts. It is different from the language used in everyday life, because the language of science typically conveys theories or methods not thought to be used in daily life. Halliday (1993) once said that the basic component of science language was scientific jargon. Without an understanding of science language, a systematic knowledge of science would be difficult to achieve. Science language includes specific terms, semantic structures, and syntax. Aside from its grammatical structure and vocabulary, the science language is important in the learning of scientific knowledge (Fang, 2006; Yang & Chen, 2008). There are multiple factors which affect the usage of science language when learning scientific knowledge. According to McCormick and Zutell (2011), these factors include physical, genetic, emotional, sociological, * Acknowledgement: The author is appreciative of the financial support in the form of research grants awarded to Dr. Shin-Feng Chen from the National Science Council, Republic of China under Grant Nos. NSC 100-2511-S-153-007, NSC 103-2420-H-153-001-MY2, and MOST 103-2410-H-153-001-MY2.  Shin-Feng Chen, Ph.D., associate professor, Department of Education, National Pingtung University. 481 SCIENCE LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF ELEMENTARY STUDENTS educational, cognitive, language, and reading processing variances, while there are unbreakable relationship between science language and science textbook reading comprehension. Therefore, among these factors, family socioeconomic status is considered the most important, because it is deeply correlated with parents’ occupational prestige, education level, and family income (Hwang, 2000). Many research studies have reported that family social economical status (SES). SES variables include parental occupation, parental education level, and family income, and are considered to have a positive impact on the “cultural capital” of their children (Hwang, 2000). Thus, the size of a family’s SES affects the educational resources which can help their child’s learning and in turn facilitates the child’s educational development (Chen, 1998; Hsieh, 2003; Hwang, 1998). The research questions are as follow: First, how much does parents’ educational level affect the science language ability of elementary school children? Second, how much does family learning resource (including math learning resource and science learning resource) affect the science language ability of elementary school children? The main purpose of the present research is to exam the factors which influence the science language of elementary students by building and testing a structure equation modeling (SEM) using Mplus 6 and Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) 18. Variables used in this study include parents’ educational level, family’s financial resources used on education, and the impact of these resources on science language achievement. A concept model of science language for fourth and fifth grade students from two southern cities in Taiwan assessed in this study was created and then tested by means of model fit analysis. The purpose of this analysis was to determine if this model fit the assessed data gathered from these students. Methods This study aims to examine the factors which influence the science language of elementary students by building and testing a structure equation modeling. The following statement will be based on the participants, research variables, hypothetical initial factor model, and analysis. Participants This study examined how the oral and reading comprehension of 4th and 6th grade students were impacted by their parents’ education level and the financial resources their parents used on the students’ education. The assessed population of this study included fourth and sixth graders (N = 1,048) from schools in three areas in southern Taiwan: (1) Kaohsiung County, which included townships outside of Kaohsiung City; (2) Kaohsiung City; and (3) Pingtung County in southern Taiwan. Schools taking part in this study were public supported. Table 1 shows the total number of Grade 4 and Grade 6 students, classes, and schools in Taiwan during 2007 and 2008. Table 1 Total Grades, Students, Classes, and Schools in Taiwan in 2007 and 2008 Area Pingtung County Kaohsiung County Kaohsiung City Total Grade 4 10,828 14,802 18,343 43,973 Grade 6 12,216 16,214 20,486 48,916 Students 23,044 31,016 38,829 92,889 Classes 878 1,072 1,247 3,197 Schools 166 152 92 410 Percent (%) 40.49 37.07 22.44 Note. Estimated average number of students was calculated as 29 (= students total/class total) (Retrieved from http://www.edu.tw). 482 SCIENCE LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF ELEMENTARY STUDENTS A three-stage stratified sampling design was implemented on these data. The sampling design for each stage was as the follows: Stage 1 stratified schools according to the manifest variable of the target population. There were sample lists for each school, and the sampling procedure for what was performed separately. The probability of the school being chosen was determined by the measure of size (MOS) and was estimated by probability proportional to school size. Stage 2 was randomly selecting classes from schools stratified in Stage 1. In Stage 3, all students in the randomly selected classes were identified as the population sample used in this study. Therefore, this population included eight schools, 16 classes, and 273 students from Pingtung County; seven schools, 14 classes, and 370 students from Kaohsiung County; five schools, 10 classes, and 273 students from Kaohsiung City. Thus, the total sample was 1,048 students from a ratio of 8:7:5 schools which reflected the target population. Research Variables Research variables included in this study were one survey questionnaire from Database of Elementary School Children’s Development in Science and the Oral Comprehension and Reading Comprehension of Science Language for Children in Elementary School (Wang et al., 2011; 2012). Independent variables included parents’ education level and family’s expended financial resources on education, which were measured by an item on the students’ survey questionnaire, and the online oral and reading comprehension test scores. Parental education level. In the survey questionnaire from Database of Elementary School Children’s Development in Science, items 9 and 10 assessed the parents’ education level. These items evaluated the highest education level achieved by each parent. Options included “No formal education at all,” “An incomplete grade for a elementary school course,” “Elementary school graduate,” “Junior high school graduate,” “Senior high school or vocational high school graduate,” “5-year junior college program graduate”, “2-year college program graduate,” “University graduate,” “A Master’s degree or higher,” and “Unknown.” Except for the option “unknown,” higher scores represented better education level and vice versa. The internal reliability coefficient of items was 0.830. Family education resources. Data for the families learning resources came from the Database of Elementary School Children’s Development in Science. These data included learning mathematics and science by way of software, videos, reference books, collateral readings (e.g., journals or comic books), and objects for learning (e.g., building blocks, microscopes, plants, and pets). Higher scores on these variables represented expending more learning resources on mathematics and science. The internal reliability coefficient of items was 0.830. Science language ability. The oral comprehension of science language ability was composed by an online test of Oral Comprehension of Science Language (OCSL) for Children in Elementary School. This test included 18 items, each with four possible test answer options. The context of test is mainly about basic science literacy, including three main topics: (1) to identify the question; (2) to collect data and provide proof according to the question; and (3) to make explanations according to the proof they found. The score was estimated from the expected a posteriori (EAP) value by the three parameter logistic (3PL) model of Item Response Theory. The coefficient Alpha to internal reliability coefficient for items on the oral comprehension test is 0.621; test-retest reliability is 0.680; and the criterion-related validity coeffection is 0.50 calculating with the Children Oral Comprehension Test by Lin and Chi (2000). 483 SCIENCE LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF ELEMENTARY STUDENTS The test of reading comprehension of science language was conducted online and assessed by using the Reading Comprehension of Science Language (RCST) for Children in Elementary School. RCST included four components: (1) analysis reasoning; (2) comparison reasoning; (3) interpretation; and (4) evaluation. RCST included 25 items, each with four possible test answer options. The score was estimated from the EAP value by the 3PL model using Item Response Theory. The internal reliability coefficient for items on the reading comprehension online test is 0.74. The test-retest correlations reveled that the test is stable at 0.72. This evidence supported the requirement of internal consistency and stability of test reliability. Table 2 Summary of Variables, Factor Loading, and Descriptive Statistic Measures OV PEL ξ1 FER ξ2 SLA η1 Survey question item A1—Mother’s education level A2—Father’s education level B1—Math learning resources B2—Science learning resources C1—Oral comprehension of science language C2—Reading comprehension of science language FL 0.79 0.76 0.79 0.76 0.68 0.61 M 2.10 2.14 1.36 1.97 0.33 0.04 SD 0.69 0.75 1.08 1.25 1.06 0.58 Skew -0.13 -0.24 0.17 0.09 -0.21 0.30 Kurtosis -0.93 -1.17 -1.25 -1.01 -0.19 -0.54 Note. OV = observed variable; PEL = parents’ education level; FLR = family’s learning resources; SLA = online comprehension science language ability scores; and FL = factor loading. Table 2 shows the smallest value of skew is 0.09 and its largest value is 0.30. The smallest value of kurtosis is 0.19 and its largest value is 0.19. All of values did not violate the assumption of normal distribution (Kline, 2011). Hypothetical Initial Factor Model Figure 1 is the hypothetical initial factor model of the present research. There are four main independent variables: (1) mother’s education level; (2) father’s education level; (3) mathematics learning resources; and (4) science learning resources. This analysis also made use of two dependent variables: (1) oral comprehension of science language; and (2) reading comprehension of science language. The researcher investigated this model by using a SEM of science language and a corresponding causal model. Figure 1. Hypothetical initial factor model. Analysis SEM is a statistical method to process cause-target mode, and it can do path analysis, factor analysis, regression analysis, and analysis of variance. SEM is a statistical methodoly connecting theory mode and real 484 SCIENCE LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF ELEMENTARY STUDENTS data. The first step of defining the theory and concept can be specific theory and concepts, and can also be from experience and literature review. But these theory and concept must have hypothesis and deductive process to make verify the mode (Cherng, Chen, & Chen, 2011). Table 3 shows a covariance matrix of the six observed variable used in the present research model: A1 represents mother’s education level; A2 represents father’s education level; B1 represents mathematics learning resources; B2 represents science learning resources; C1 represents oral comprehension of science language score; and C2 represents reading comprehension of science language score. This covariance matrix was used to run an estimation of the parameters of the SEM and to test the goodness of fit by means of Mplus 6.0. Table 3 Covariance Matrix of Data A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2 A1 0.48 0.31 0.14 0.21 0.15 0.06 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2 0.56 0.17 0.24 0.20 0.09 1.17 0.82 0.12 0.06 1.57 0.25 0.10 1.13 0.25 0.34 Results The following statement will be based on the model estimation, including original parameter estimation and structural regression of model’s parameters. The estimations of the original variables of the developed model are shown in Table 4. The factor loading was between 0.47 and 0.83. The error variances were all positive and significant. Therefore, the result of the estimation fit the standard recommended by SEM scholars (Kline, 2011). Table 4 Original Parameter Estimation OV A1 A2 B1 B2 C2 C1 FL 0.83 1.00 0.65 1.00 0.47 1.00 SE 0.070 0.071 0.061 - t 11.866 9.136 7.745 - Note. OV = observed variable; and FL = factor loading. SEM was applied to the present research as a main statistical technique. SEM is a statistical technique for testing and estimating models of causal relations and can also be used for other analyses, such as path analysis, factor analysis, regression analysis, or analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Cherng et al., 2011). By fitting the observed empirical data to the theoretical model, SEM can be used for theory testing (Chen, 2014; Kline, 2011). The main purpose of using SEM in this study was to test the theory model fit by absolute fit measures, relative fit indices, and Parsimonious fit measures. The goodness of fit indices results were as follows: Chi-Square equals to 0.559 (df = 6, p = 0.272), GFI = 0.998, AGFI = 0.992, NFI = 0.994, CFI = 0.999, RMSEA = 0.016, and CN = 2,329. All remaining goodness of fit indices also demonstrated an acceptable fit. SCIENCE LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF ELEMENTARY STUDENTS 485 Figure 2. Structural regression of model. From the standardized effect size of the latent variables of the factors among science language, parental education level, and family learning resources in Figure 2, the effect of paternal education level on science language was greater than family learning resources, and both had positive and significant effect on science language. The total effect sizes were 0.37 and 0.15 which indicated the higher the parents’ education level and mathematics or science learning resources, the more positive effect would result on children’s performance on oral or reading comprehension of science language. Discussion and Conclusions The purpose of the present research was to investigate the effect of parental education level and family learning resources to the development of science language. Samples were drawn by the probability proportionate to size (PPS) sampling technique from students in Grades 4 and 6 from Kaohsiung County, Kaohsiung City, and Pingtung County. Results indicated that parents’ education level and family learning resources on mathematics and science learning were strongly related to the development of science language achievement among students in Grades 4 and 6. Analyses of model fit to the data revealed an overall model fit of the causal model was accepted (Chi-Square = 7.559, df = 6, and p = 0.272). All indices demonstrated good model fit. These results of model fit supported the above conclusion. Thus, the more learning resources a family could provide, the higher a child’s performance could be seen in science language reading comprehension. This result agrees with previous research results (Chen, 1998; Hwang & Yang, 2006), which support the conclusion that families with higher socioeconomic level have more resources and greater potential to benefit the achievement of their children. Parents’ social economic status also plays an important role in students’ science language learning. The data in this research shows that parents’ educational level influences students’ science language learning greatly. The result is the same as the researchers exploring academic achievement impact factors before (Christensen et al., 2014; Korat, 2011). In conclusion, the assist learning for elementary disadvantage family students is urgent, because only in this way can we upper disadvantage students’ competitiveness. In this study, the impact of the parent’s level of education was more important than the family’s learning resources on a child’s science language achievement. Thus, the direct influence from the parents toward their children was far more important than the learning resources that they could provide. 486 SCIENCE LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT OF ELEMENTARY STUDENTS References Chen, C. C. (1998). A model of ethnic and family background influence on children’s academic achievement—A comparison between aboriginal and non-aboriginal students in Taitung. Journal of Education and Psychology, 21(1), 85-106. Chen, S. F. (2014). Structural equation modeling: The application of Mplus. Tapiei, Taiwan: The Psychological Publishing Co.. Cherng, B. L., Chen, C. C., & Chen, S. F. (2011). Structure equational modeling. In C. C. Chen, B. L. Cherng, S. F. Chen, & T. C. Liu (Eds.), Multivariate analysis. Taipei, Taiwan: The Wunan Publishing Co.. Christensen, D., Zubrick, S. R., Lawrence, D., Mitrou, F., & Taylor, C. L. (2014). Risk factors for low receptive vocabulary abilities in the preschool and early school years in the longitudinal study of Australian children. PLoS ONE, 9(7), 1-19. Fang, Z. (2006). The language demand of science reading in middle school. International Journal of Science Education, 28(5), 491-520. Halliday, M. A. K. (1993). The analysis of scientific texts in English and Chinese. In M. A. K. Halliday & J. R. Martin (Eds.), Writing science: Literacy and discursive power (p. 304). Washington, D.C.: Falmer Press, Taylor & Francis Inc.. Hsieh, M. Y. (2003). A study of the relationship between parental socioeconomic backgrounds and students’ academic achievements. Bulletin of Educational Research, 49(2), 255-287. Hwang, F. M. (1998). The investigation of social class on the difference of control structure and resource distribution in family education. Journal of Culture and Society, 6, 43-73. Hwang, F. M., & Yang, S. A. (2006). A study of the inference of family factors on primary school student’s environment behavior. Journal of Taiwan Normal University: Education, 51(1), 159-183. Hwang, Y. J. (2000). The mechanism of status attainment in Taiwan: A structural analysis of covariance. Soochow Journal of Sociology, 5, 213-248. Lin, B. G., & Chi, P. H. (2000). The development of the test of language comprehension. Bulletin of Special Education, 19, 105-125. Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York, N.Y.: The Guilforad Press. Korat, O. (2011). Mothers’ and teachers’ estimations of first graders’ literacy level and their relation to the children’s actual performance in different SES groups. Education and Treatment of Children, 34(3), 347-371. McCormick, S., & Zutell, J. (2011). Instructing students who have literacy problems (6th ed.). Boston, M.A.: Allyn & Bacon. Wang, J. R., Chen, S. F., Tsay, R. F., Chou, C. T., Lin, S. W., & Kao, H. L. (2011). Development of an instrument for assessing elementary school students’ written expression in science. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 20(2), 276-290. Wang, J. R., Chen, S. F., Tsay, R. F., Chou, C. T., Lin, S. W., & Kao, H. L. (2012). Developing a test for assessing elementary students’ comprehension of science texts. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 10(4), 955-973. Yang, W. G., & Chen, S. W. (2008). A comparison of the discourses of science texts in English and Mandarin on Newton’s First Law of Motion. Journal of National Taiwan Normal University: Mathematics & Science Education, 53(1), 113-137. US-China Education Review A, August 2016, Vol. 6, No. 8, 487-497 doi: 10.17265/2161-623X/2016.08.004 D DAVID PUBLISHING Project-Based Learning as 21st Century Teaching Approach: A Study in Nepalese Private Schools Dhundi Raj Giri Kathmandu University, Lalitpur, Nepal;  Center for Activity Based Instruction (ABI), Lalitpur, Nepal Learners learn the best when they are engaged in learning by doing. In order to cope with the 21st century problems, learners need to be prepared with 21st century skills and project-based learning (PBL) can be one of the best 21st century teaching approaches. This article focuses on PBL, 21st century skills, the 21st century learners, and 21st century schools as workplace, teachers’ perceptions and practices of PBL, learners’ motivation and engagement in PBL, challenges and learning enhancement in Nepal as English as a foreign language (EFL) context. Likewise, the author has also discussed about the research questions, data collection, data analysis, and implication of the study. This research article can give insightful information about PBL in EFL context in Nepal. Keywords: project-based learning (PBL), 21st century skills, school as workplace, motivation, prolonged engagement, global issues, 21st century knowledge and skill Introduction Tell me and I forget. Show me and I remember. Involve me and I understand. —A Chinese proverb. As the proverb above goes, it is a widely accepted idea that learners learn better when they are engaged in real life situations or experiential learning. So, the learners’ engagement in the teaching learning activities plays a vital role in their learning achievement. More engagement of the students results in the higher level of achievement. However, teaching learning practice in Nepalese context is quite contrary, where teachers sweat in the classroom teaching and students remain as passive listeners following orders and instructions of the teacher. As Defelice (1996) stated, “Teaching in monolingual/monocultural, and non-English speaking environment at a time can be frustrating” (p. 43). Everything gets changed over the certain span of time. Today’s children are not going to learn as their parents did. Even the teaching learning methods we practiced in the past may not fulfill the needs and demands of 21st century learners. Highet (2008) expressed that methods in any country alter every generation or so, as the structure and ideals of society alter. To meet the ever-changing needs of students in the modern world, educators need to have forward thinking and change the traditional way of thinking in order to incorporate the new ways of learning. Karn (2007) also mentioned that language teaching in general and English language teaching (ELT) in particular have tremendously changed over the centuries. In this dynamic world, in order to tackle the challenges of the new era in learners, project-based learning (PBL) can be an effective method in enhancing the learners’ learning achievement in English as a foreign language (EFL) context.  Dhundi Raj Giri, M.Phil., scholar in English Language Education (ELE), School of Education, Kathmandu University; Promotion and Development director, Center for Activity Based Instruction (ABI). 488 PROJECT-BASED LEARNING AS 21ST CENTURY TEACHING APPROACH Project-Based Learning (PBL) PBL is a practical and research oriented method of teaching in which learners get prolonged engagement in creating, building, and testing what they have created or designed in collaboration with other learners, both inside and outside the classroom. According to Stripling, Lovett, and Macko (2009), “Project-based learning is the instructional strategy of empowering learners to pursue content knowledge on their own and demonstrate their new understandings through a variety of presentation modes.” Students are engaged in different stages of activities for the task completion in which they go through in-depth investigation through interview, observation, lab, and library research accumulating the required information. Blank (1997), Dickinson et al. (1998), and Harwell’s (1997) project-based instruction is an authentic instructional model or strategy in which students plan, implement, and evaluate projects that have real-world applications beyond the classroom (as cited in Brewster & Fager, 2000, p. 4). As project-based learning is more focused on students’ activities, they are involved in the planning, designing, and implementing the project in real life situation in collaboration with co-learners and the teacher who provides scaffolding in their learning. Moreover, “Learning activities are interdisciplinary, long term, and student-centered, rather than short and isolated lessons” (Challenge, 2000; Multimedia Project, 1999; as cited in Brewster & Fager, 2002, p. 4). From very beginning to the end of the project work, students are engaged in variety of activities—discussion on the topic, its scope, task division, working with the community people in course of field study, preparing the draft, editing, and presenting the project details in front of the classroom. So, students are engaged in such a meaningful way, they construct the knowledge on their own, rather than just depend on the readymade knowledge, prescribed by the teacher or in textbook. Thus, students’ engagement in real life issues and collaborative approach can be essential for developing variety of skills, communication and presentation skills, critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, research and technical skills, and management skills, similar to Pearlman (2006) who emphasized on the 21st century skills to cope with 21st century problems and issues. Therefore, the learners need to be equipped with these 21st century knowledge and skills. Moreover, it is, as Grant (2002) said, “learner-centered strategy that affords learners the opportunity for in-depth investigations of worthy topics and the learners are more autonomous” (p. 1). Therefore, student-centered strategy and varieties of activities integrated with real life problems and issues in PBL play a vital role in enhancing the learners’ achievements. However, the present textbook driven teacher-centered traditional teaching learning practices has been found unable to guarantee these 21st century skills in the learners. In such scenario, it is necessary to foster these skills in the young generation. Otherwise, they will be left far behind. As a result, our young generation will have to struggle to be the part of the globalized world. As Pearlman (2006) further said, “Societies need citizens who are smarter, more creative, and more capable of leading, managing, collaborating, and networking with productive people around the world.” Such multi-dynamic work force can be prepared only though providing them abundance learning opportunities in real life situation, engaging them in varieties of projects, where they work together with other fellow learners as per their needs and demands. So, PBL, in such situation, can serve as an authentic strategy for enriching the 21st century skills in the learners. School as Workplace for 21st Century Learners As students spend around 13 years of time in school from pre-school to secondary level (in Nepalese context), they bear a big responsibility to prepare the learners for their life, fostering the knowledge and skills PROJECT-BASED LEARNING AS 21ST CENTURY TEACHING APPROACH 489 required to survive and thrive in the 21st century global market. However, the traditional schools are not found to be as much productive as they should be, because not only the school graduates, but also most of the university graduates are found lacking the required knowledge and skills: communication, creativity, innovation, research and technical skills, and so on, to perform their responsibilities efficiently in their day to day life. It is because learners get rare or no opportunity for independent learning environment, engaging them in creativity and critical thinking, and working in collaboration with their team. Schools, at present, consist of unmanageable number of students in congested classrooms, and teach through one way lecture method where students have to listen to their teacher passively. So, this kind of teaching learning practices can hardly bring the expected result. Therefore, it is necessary to restructure our schools or classrooms as workplace where students can learn independently, working in collaboration, using not only the paper, pens, and textbooks, but also varieties of technological tools and sufficient learning resources. In such situation, PBL can be a milestone for preparing students as global citizens with knowledge and skills to tackle the problems and issues in 21st century global market. As Pearlman (2006) said, students should be provided with working environment involving computers, group work, planning, presentations, team teaching, etc.. Therefore, they are engaged in creating building and testing what they have made under the guidance of their teacher through scaffolding. Creating the efficient learning environment in the classroom is necessary to change the classroom situation as a workplace, where as Grant (2002) expressed that the learners are more autonomous, as they construct personally meaningful artifacts that are representations of their learning (p. 1). Therefore, it is necessary to create the collaborative and interactive learning environment where the learners can construct new knowledge and skills through collaborative approach. The classroom should be like family environment where the students try to support each other for a new adventure full of all kinds of new experiences, through which they can develop new relationships (Broz, 1999, p. 161). 21st Century Learners The 21st century learners are smarter, dynamic, and more informed who are flooded with abundant information and options, due to the advancement of variety of social media, and have better access to limitless sources of information (Perlman, 2010). Due to excessive use of internet and computer technology, learners have access to vast resources in their finger tips, so they can find whatever, wherever, and whenever. Therefore, learning can take place anywhere anytime. Despite such opportunities, they also have greater challenges to adjust in this 21st century globalization. Moreover, the traditional Nepalese teaching learning practice is not likely to fulfill the needs of time, since it is also difficult to develop the required knowledge and skills in the learners needed to overcome the 21st century global challenges. The author thinks it is the time to rethink about the existing teaching learning practices and what sort of human resources you need to produce to face the challenges in the uncertain future. In this context, learners need to have prolonged engagement in variety of meaningful multidisciplinary hands-on activities, creating a self-directed and independent learning environment as per their needs and interests in collaborative approach. The smarter and better communicators, collaborators, and performers can be produced for the workplace and society of the future (Pearlman, 2006). Data Collection In order to understand the teachers’ perceptions and practices of PBL in Nepal and its scope in EFL context, the study used a purposive sampling method to select research participants. We selected five in-service English language teachers in EFL context. We used interview and participant observation as research tools to collect the 490 PROJECT-BASED LEARNING AS 21ST CENTURY TEACHING APPROACH necessary data required for this purposed study. After the selection of the research participants, the author interviewed them dealing with the research questions. It was a semi-structured interview. The author also led the discussion on the issues that had occurred in the course of interview, besides the major research questions, based on their experience and the issues they had raised. Besides interview, we also observed some of their classroom practices regarding the PBL to capture the actual practices, so that we could collect the rich data. Research Questions In order to assemble the data required for the purposed study, the author designed “How does PBL contribute to enhancing 21st century skills in the learners in EFL context?” as the major research question along with other subsidiary questions: 1. What is the teachers’ understanding and practices of PBL in EFL context? 2. How is the learners’ motivation and engagement in PBL in EFL context? 3. How does PBL enhance knowledge and skills in learners? 4. What are the opportunities and challenges in implementing PBL in Nepal as EFL context? Data Analysis Here, the author has analyzed the data using interview and observation as the research tools. Based on the data, the author has generated altogether four themes to answer the research questions. Theme 1: Teachers’ Perception and Practices on PBL At present, PBL has been a hot cake in different schools and colleges in Nepal. So, it is found that most of the schools have warmly welcomed this approach and accepted it as an integral part of academic activities, though most of the project works are limited for the sake of project work without having as much learning as it should be. However, it could be taken as a positive sign that new methods of teaching and approaches have been introduced in traditional Nepalese educational practices. In response to the question regarding the perception towards PBL, Tirth, similar to Grant (2002) stated, “It is a quite new, democratic, scientific, useful, research-based, and practical kind of learning where students learn working in the real life situations.” In this sense, PBL is a learner-centered on the learners and affords learners the opportunity for in-depth investigations of worthy topics. The learners are more autonomous, as they construct personally meaningful artifacts that are representations of their learning. Moreover, PBL is a student-centered, research based, practical, and innovative kind of learning where they get prolonged engagement on the project works. They are encouraged to consult wide variety of resources, explore the huge number of information relevant to their topic that leads their learning to the in-depth investigation and developing their in-depth knowledge regarding the topic of study. Adding to it, Rameshwor (2016), in response to the author’s question, stated, “As PBL is innovative and practical kind of learning, it is good for preparing the learners for life, rather than just storing the theoretical knowledge in their mind.” In the observation to the project work under the topic—social problems existing in the local area, the author found students engaging in the field of in their local community, interviewing different people, making notes, taking video clips, and taking photographs along with their classroom discussion and Internet surfing for further information in collaborative approach. This way they are encouraged to consult wide resources of information, carefully and critically interpret and analyze the data for finding the possible solution of the problems in collaborative approach. Actually, it helps them to be prepared for life rather than theoretical knowledge. PROJECT-BASED LEARNING AS 21ST CENTURY TEACHING APPROACH 491 Similarly, following the idea of Pearlman (2006), Tikaram focused on the benefits of PBL for enhancing different life skills, Rameshwor claimed, PBL deals with students’ creativity and suitable to new generation. It helps them to develop communication and collaboration skills, creativity and critical thinking skills, management and leadership skills, since students are actively engaged in each and every activity as part of their project works. So, the learners can develop the level of confidence and capability of facing the everyday challenges. The 21st century new generation is and should be different from their forefathers, not only in terms of their needs and interests, but also in capabilities to face the challenges for the uncertain future. Therefore, it is necessary to equip them with different variety of life skills and knowledge, preparing them for life and making them able to face the numerous challenges that may occur in the uncertain future. Sunil (2016), one of the participants, in response to the author’s question, shared his view on PBL highlighting the importance of PBL in the field of academia. He said, Unlike the traditional teacher-centered method, project-based learning is an effective, need-based technique in this 21st century. Students are taught by involving them in the real life issues based on their needs and desires using technologies in teaching learning practices. It is one of the techniques which make learning student-centered where students involve themselves in the learning process. Taking the reference of Sunil, PBL is quite different from the teacher-centered, textbook-limited, and rote learning. It is one of the effective methods of teaching, in terms of its practicality, innovation, students’ engagement, and the use of wide resources of learning where students are actively engaged in the learning by doing process on hands on activities based on their needs, interest, and relevant to their topic. Moreover, the use of technologies, field visits, and working with the community people are integral parts of their study which help them to develop 21st century life skills as mentioned earlier. In this regard, Stripling, Lovett, and Macko (2009) can be appropriate who stated that PBL is the instructional strategy of empowering learners to pursue content knowledge on their own and demonstrate their new understandings through a variety of presentation modes. So, using PBL is taking the learners into the world of experiences through their direct involvement in the real life issues to pursue new knowledge on their own. Underlining the collaboration and cooperation, Surya (2016), another participant, stated, “It is effective and helpful for developing co-operation and collaboration among the group members, since everyone is involved in the real life situations, taking interview, making notes, recording video, and observing for the successful completion of the project work.” Actually, cooperation and collaboration are essential components of 21st century learning. So, it is necessary to equip the learners with these knowledge and skills to cope in the globe market, working with the people having different socio-cultural backgrounds, promoting socio-cultural harmony, and respecting and equally valuing each other with their socio-cultural differences. Theme 2: Learners’ Engagement and Motivation in PBL Creating conducive environment is essential for motivating learners and engaging them in the different activities for higher level of achievement. Unlike the congested and crowded classrooms with little or no resources and teacher-centered one size fits all methods of teaching are almost boring and outdated today. Therefore, motivating the learners and engaging them in meaningful learning has been a great challenge for the teachers. In such frustrating situation, the proper use of PBL can be a great achievement in the field of academia. Actually, motivation is the act or process of providing motive that causes a person to take action 492 PROJECT-BASED LEARNING AS 21ST CENTURY TEACHING APPROACH (Shanks, 2007, p. 24) and it can be both intrinsic and extrinsic. In response to the question to students’ engagement and motivation regarding to PBL, Rameshwor similar to the idea of teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) (2014) shared his strategy of using PBL among his students. He said, First of all, I identify the topic based on the learners’ needs and interests relevant to the curriculum. Then, students are divided into different groups and task is divided among the group members. I provide them with support in each and every step as they need till the final product or outcome is produced. From the above statement, it can be understood that collaborative approach and working in the real life situations are essential for motivating the students for learning. “Motivation is the inner power or energy that pushes one toward performing a certain action” (Ball, 2012, p. 4). And both kinds of motivations, intrinsic and extrinsic, have been used in the above process. Such as working in collaboration, visiting field, interviewing, observing the real events in the real life situation, and communicating with the community people can be extrinsic motivation, whereas developing the certain knowledge and skills—communication, collaboration, and critical thinking can be the intrinsic motivation for the learners just like. As a result, students feel that they have a stake in their own learning which increases their learning and performance, and Sunil, supporting the idea of Tikaram, also expressed the similar line of thought. In addition, in the course of the naturalistic participant observation, the author found the most of the learners being excited to participant in the each and every step of project based learning. All the learners were engaged in their project work during/out of the school time. They were engaged in creating building and testing what they have made under the guidance of their teacher through scaffolding. As a result, the successful completion of the project work was possible. So, for the successful completion of the project work, students should be provided with the working environment, involving them in varieties of activities on computers, planning, presentations, and team teaching in collaborative approach. By getting helping hand of their teacher, the author found each member from each group actively took part in each step up to the classroom presentation of their project work with full confidence and excitement. They had covered almost all the areas of their project work. Students’ engagement was far better than usual classroom teaching, since each and every individual student was enthusiastically engaged in the project work with high level of motivation, as they were provided with the full autonomy. As project works are long term, interdisciplinary, student-centered, and integrated with real-world issues and practices, learners are engaged in meaningful learning (Shanks, 2007, p. 24), moving beyond the rote learning and memorization. As a result, students’ motivation in learning increases. Adding to the idea of Tikaram and Sunil, Surya shared his opinion focusing on the different opportunities the learners get in PBL. He said, They have several opportunities while working on PBL, such as involving in the real life issues and real life situations and communicating with the community people. They also get opportunities to have real life experiences, develop communication, technological skills, management skills, and leadership as they differently visit the different organizations in the community communicating with the real experts rather than just depending on the teachers’ lectures and textbook. Actually, it is human nature that everyone wants to get new experience with fun which is possible through collaborative approach. In PBL, students get more choices to their voice and teachers are the guide on their side rather than sage on the stage. So, students’ motivation is high in PBL, since more the educators give students choice, control, challenge, and collaborative opportunities, the more motivation and engagement are likely to PROJECT-BASED LEARNING AS 21ST CENTURY TEACHING APPROACH 493 rise (Toshalis & Nakkula, 2012, p. 27). Thus, the real learning takes place. Comparing the traditional classroom, Tirth further stated that the traditional classroom is like one way traffic, since teacher is active and students are passive, whereas in PBL, teacher provides them with instruction for the work, planning and facilitating them in the different stages of project work. In this sense, students’ choice to their voice and continuous support from the teacher from beginning to the successful completion of the project is another factor for motivating the students for prolonged engagement in the different stages of the project work. Theme 3: PBL and Enhancement of Knowledge and Skills Enhancement of knowledge and skills is inevitable for successful learning. It is necessary to equip learners with both knowledge and skills to help them to survive and thrive in the 21st century global context. In the course of designing and implementing several project works, PBL has been found to be one of the effective and best approaches for 21st century learning. Tirth, regarding this issue, shared his opinion similar to the idea of Meganathan (2011). He said that when learners work together on a particular idea/topic, they collect information, ideas, observe language being used, use language in real life situations, exchange views, debate on ideas, write the ideas into a report, edit their writing, and produce the report in a suitable form. Actually, unlike the traditional classroom, PBL provides several opportunities for the learners to work in team on real life issues, working with the real experts, rather than depending only on their teachers. In addition, going beyond the textbook and the classroom contents to memorize, learners are exposed with several aspects of the topic of their study, and encouraged to critically observe every details. The classroom content is connected with the real life issues and students have fun learning while working in their own community in collaborating with other co-learners in new situation with new experiences. Supporting the idea of Tirth, Rameshwor shared his opinion that as project work is interdisciplinary in nature, students get opportunity to develop in-depth investigation and various skills while going through various project works. In the course of the naturalistic participant observation, the author found that some of the project works integrated with two or more subjects—English and social studies. For instance, one of the project works was designed focusing on the content from social studies under the topic social problems existing in the local area and it was to be presented in the form of report writing. From this project work, it can be understood that students, working on the various stages of the project work, can develop the in-depth information about the concerned topic. Tikaram also shared his view in the same line of thought. He said that group work is the very essential part of PBL. Students get opportunity to work in team that helps them to develop the interactive, communicative, and collaborative skills at the same time. As there is active learning in PBL, the learners are encouraged for the variety of research-based activities that develop their problem solving skills. Sunil, adding on it, said, “As project work is an integration of different things, it deals with different aspects of the topic.” He further said that it develops students’ level of confidence, critical thinking, and social skills, working inside and outside the classroom situation. Actually, this idea of PBL is really noteworthy, since group collaboration lies in the heart of project work which provides them an ample opportunity to work both inside and outside the classroom. The learners are engaged in varieties of works according to the nature of project works that enable them to develop the most essential skills, like collaborative skills, time management skill, critical thinking, technical skills, research and social skills, and so on, which are known as 21st century skills. In the same way, as they get opportunity to work outside the classroom in team according to their needs and interests, it gives them a sense of excitement to undergo through the different stages of project work. It provides the learners with higher level 494 PROJECT-BASED LEARNING AS 21ST CENTURY TEACHING APPROACH of learning outcome. Adding to it, Surya said that PBL can be very useful to get the real life experience outside the classroom. Working outside the classroom is another essential feature of PBL, especially in real life experience, so that learners can develop their critical thinking and problem solving skills. Working in/outside the classroom and visiting the field, PBL provides an opportunity, as Chard (2014) shared her opinion that project learning is in-depth learning in which children can take some ownership of their work and through which they have choices that they can make but choices that are designed together by the child and the teacher, so they are not entirely whatever the child wants to do, but choices from among alternatives. To make it short, PBL helps students to seek the answers of different questions—what, why, how, and when, for example, to satisfy the curiosity and expectations of the learners regarding the topic their study. Theme 4: Challenges of PBL in Nepalese Context From the above discussion, PBL has been found to be an effective and demanding approach of teaching for the 21st century learners. However, its successful implementation may differ in different contexts. Actually, for the successful implementation of PBL, it requires spacious rooms with adequate resources, modern technologies, and trained and experienced teachers to guide and motivate the learners for in-depth investigation of the topic of study. In the course of interview, in response to the question, Tirth expressed, “No skilled manpower is available to implement PBL in the classroom in Nepalese context.” The author agrees with his idea in a sense that the concept of PBL is new in Nepalese context, so only a few schools have used it, actually not as the part of main teaching method rather as extracurricular activities. Besides, it is the ground reality that Nepalese teaching learning system is still dominated by textbook-limited and teacher-centered teaching. Therefore, it is hard to find skilled and trained teachers with sufficient knowledge and skills to successfully implement it. Further, he said that in most of the cases, the textbook teaching is regarded as curriculum. So, as most of the teachers focused on teaching and completing the contents, they hardly manage extra time for conducting the project works and have prolonged engagement of the learners. Therefore, when anybody talks about conducting project works, most of the teachers have the common voice, “It is not possible in our context.” In such case, successful application of PBL can be challenging. Dealing with the challenges of using PBL in Nepalese context, Rameshwor also shared his opinion regarding the matter of time management. He said, “Nepalese teaching learning practice is based on fixed textbooks which teachers must complete within the allocated time frame. So, teachers cannot go beyond the textbook for such project work, even though learning outcomes is higher.” In the same way, supporting Rameshwor and unlike idea of Bass (2014) about the role of teacher, Tikaram quite contrarily said, “We teachers are the sage on the stage, but not the guide on the side of the students which is the great hindrance to implement PBL.” Successful implementation of PBL in classroom, as the author has already mentioned above, teachers’ role is important. However, the trained and skilled human resources who can properly design and implement the project works relevant to the learners’ needs and interests, ability to control and guide the learners, and motive the learners for independent learning, is lacking in Nepalese context. The existing teachers who are habituated for teaching in textbook-limited and teacher-centered method may have hard time for successful implementation of the project work. Further, he added that there are various emerging trends and issues in ELT and even though we are master or Ph.D. degree holders, we are not very aware of such things. The author agrees with him in a sense that theoretical knowledge is not enough for practical application of the PBL and which is lacking in most of the teachers in Nepalese context. Actually, 21st century teachers need to PROJECT-BASED LEARNING AS 21ST CENTURY TEACHING APPROACH 495 be a constructivist teacher who can create the learning environment for the learners, where learners can independently consult and explore the wide resources and construct the knowledge on their own. However, this is what is lacking here. Regarding this issue, Tikaram also put his view in the same line of though. He stated that it is also difficult to use it in rural area, because there is difficult to find out professionals to provide the relevant information. Further, he said, “There is also lack of the resources, professionalism in teachers who can create such learning environment.” Another burning challenge in implementation of PBL is the lack of resources, especially in rural areas where it is very hard to find out the resourceful person to make the in-depth study of subject matter. Similarly, it is another bitter reality that most of the teachers lack professionalism, research and technological skills, and study habits. Rather they take this teaching profession as time pass, so that they do not have to be jobless, unless and until they do not get other opportunities. Likewise, Tikaram, regarding this issue, put his view that students have to go to the field and library to collect the data. In-depth study lies in the heart of PBL. Time and again, students have to visit the library, use internet, and field visit for data collection, but the reality is that most of the schools do not have library. And those which have, they are not equipped with the sufficient resources. So, they are maintained just for show. PBL is useful in terms of as Pearlman (2006) said in generating smarter, more creative, and capable manpower by managing, collaborating, and networking with productive people around the world. However, finding the teachers, Sunil, further expresses that it is challenging in our context who can successfully handle the project in teaching learning activities. Similarly, Surya pointed another genuine challenge in our context that students, most of the students, feel difficult while going through PBL, because they are habituated in traditional kind of classroom teachings. Rameshwor, again in this issue, expressed although there are several teaching training programs held by the Ministry of Education and various private organizations in the different intervals of time, they have not been able to address the current trends and issues. To sum up, from the above discussion, it is vivid that PBL is an effective approach of teaching and one of the best approaches of teaching, suitable for the 21st learners. It has a big scope in Nepalese context, because it can be an effective tool to revolutionize the traditional educational practices of Nepal. Moreover, it can be an effective tool for producing the smarter and multi-dynamic human resources with both in-depth content knowledge and life skill needed to cope with the 21st global challenges of the uncertain future. However, there are several challenges in its successful implementation. Therefore, it is necessary to address these several challenges proving adequate resources and training to the teachers in current trends and issues. Implications of the Study This research study is made based on the findings and conclusions of the intensive interview of the five research participants who have been directly or indirectly involved with the PBL in their teaching learning pedagogy as an integral part of their classroom teaching. Based on the ideas they have expressed, the author could finally draw the following implications. The author is hopeful that these implications would be helpful for us as well as any EFL teachers as well as other subject teachers for effective teaching learning practices, providing the opportunities for the learners to learn with real life experience outside the classroom engaging them in meaningful learning. Moreover, it can be also useful for those teachers, educators, policy-makers, and teacher training experts who have been exploring the ways to bring out changes in the present teaching learning system. Similarly, it will also help the learning in a different learning environment. 496 PROJECT-BASED LEARNING AS 21ST CENTURY TEACHING APPROACH PBL is a practical, research-based, and effective approach of teaching which provides opportunities for the learners to work in real life situations working in collaboration. There is high level of motivation of the learners for their active and prolonged engagement for in-depth investigation of the topic. Due to their high level of motivation and in-depth investigation, the learning achievement is high. It is an interdisciplinary in nature suitable for the 21st century learners for preparing them for 21st century global context variety of 21st knowledge and skills. However, there are several challenges for the successful application of PBL in Nepalese context, due to the lack of material resources, skilled and professional human resources, and crowded classrooms. Adequate material resources, trained and skilled human resources, use of information and communication technology (ICT), and spacious classroom are necessary to make the PBL a success. The traditional classroom should be developed as a workplace equipped with necessary equipments for the 21st century learners. The role of teacher must be transformed from authoritarian to facilitator, coordinator, initiator, guide working with the students and students from passive listeners to co-workers, meaning makers, active learner, team builder, and manager, etc.. Conclusion This research article deals with PBL which is a very new concept in teaching learning system in the context of Nepal. PBL is a modern, research-based, and practical teaching approach which provides an ample opportunity for the learners to work along with the guidance of the teacher who provides them with necessary scaffolding. So, the role of teacher and student is quite different in comparison of the traditional classroom. Teacher plays the role of facilitator, guider, co-learner, and co-worker manager who creates the learning environment for the learners, whereas the role of students is also to be active learner, meaning maker, and so on. The traditional congested classroom needs to be transformed as a workplace with sufficient space, so that students can perform various activities in collaboration. It has been an effective approach for active and prolonged engagement of the learners with high level of motivation. Although there are several challenges in the successful application of PBL, there are also several opportunities for the learners. Using PBL as an integral part of teaching learning practices, students can develop variety of knowledge and skills needed for the 21st century global context with in-depth information. The successful implementation of PBL is possible, only through managing adequate material resources and teaching learning practices, and managing necessary pre-requisites, the sufficient learning resources, and skilled human resources in Nepalese context. References Ball, B. (2012). A summary of motivation theories. Retrieved from http://www.yourcoach.be/en/employee-motivation-ebook.pdf Bass, S. (2014). Project-based learning: A short history. Edutopia. Trending: Teach visual literacy with social media (Originally published in Sept. 9, 2011). Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org/sylvia-chard-project-learning Brewster, C., & Fager, J. (2000). Increasing student engagement and motivation: From time-on-task to homework. Publisher: North West Regional Education Laboratory. Retrieved from http://www.nwrel.org/partnerships/pubs/building.html Broz, B. (1999). A pedagogy of community and collaboration: A beginning in teaching in the 21st century. In A. Robertson & B. Smith (Eds.), Writing pedagogies to the college curriculum. New York, N.Y.: Falmer Press. Retrieved from http://www.questia.com/read Chard, S. C. (2014). Project learning (originally written in 2001). Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org/sylvia-chard-projectlearning Deffelice, W. (1996). Using story jokes for real communication. English Teaching Forum, 50(2), 43-44. Grant, M. M. (2002, Winter). Getting a grip on project-based learning: Theory, cases, and recommendations. Meridian: A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal, 5(1). Retrieved from http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/win2002/514 PROJECT-BASED LEARNING AS 21ST CENTURY TEACHING APPROACH 497 Highet, G. (2008). The art of teaching. Surgeet Publications, New Delhi, India. ICAL, Quality Teacher Training (2014). Classroom focus. Retrieved from http://www.icaltefl.com Janet, G. (2006). Constructivism: A holistic approach to teaching and learning. Retrieved from http://www.niu.edu/facdev/_pdf/ constructivism.pdf Karn, S. K. (2007). Current trends in ELT around the globe. Journal of Nepal English Language Teachers’ Association (NELTA), 12(1 & 2), 60-66. Lucas, G. (2003). Learning in action! The George Lucas Educational Foundation [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from http://www.edutopia.org Meganathan, R. (2011). Project work to promote English language learning. New Delhi, India: Teach English. Pearlman, B. (2006). 21st century learning in schools—A case study of new technology high school in Napa, CA. In E. Schwarz & K. Kay (Eds.), New Directions for Youth Development. Retrieved from http://www.bobpearlman.org/Articles/21stCentury Learning.htm Pearlman, B. (2009). Making 21st century schools: Creating learner-centered school place/workplaces for a new culture of students at work. Educational Technology. Retrieved from http://www.bobpearlman.org/Articles/21stCenturyLearning.htm Pearlman, B. (2010). Teaching and learning in the 21st century school district [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from http://www.bobpearlman.org/Learning21/index.htm Shanks, N. H. (2007). Management and motivation (Chapter 2). Jpnes and Bartlett Publisher. Smith, B. (1999). Role playing in the interdisciplinary classroom. In A. Robertson & B. Smith (Eds.), Teaching in the 21st century: Adapting writing pedagogies to the college curriculum. New York, N.Y.: Falmer Press. Retrieved from www.questia.com/read Stripling, B., Lovett, N., & Macko, F. L. (2000). Project-based learning: Inspiring middle school students to engage in deep and active learning (Edit in 2009). Publisher: NYC, Department of Education, 52 Chambers Streets, New York. Toshalis, E., & Nakkula, M. J. (2012). Motivation, engagement, and student voice. Students at the center series: Teaching and learning in the area of common core, job for the future project. Retrieved from http:// www.jff.org.pdf US-China Education Review A, August 2016, Vol. 6, No. 8, 498-502 doi: 10.17265/2161-623X/2016.08.005 D DAVID PUBLISHING Engaging the Environment and Science Concepts Into Housekeeping Curriculum Through the Development of Disaster Prevention Cap Lin Hung Tai  National Chi Nan University, Taichung City, Taiwan The purpose of this study is to integrate the environment, science, and housekeeping curriculum through the development of disaster prevention cap. This study tried to develop a new class to integrate science, environment, and housekeeping curriculum to help students practice their scientific and environmental knowledge into real life. There are 600 junior high school students participated in this study, 300 students with eight classes as the control group and the others as the experimental group. The control group were asked to prevent disaster by general way and the experimental group were asked to prevent disaster by using the disaster prevention cap which was designed by themselves. A test about scientific and environmental concepts was developed by the researchers in this study. All of the participants need to complete the test before and after the disaster prevention activities. From the variance analysis, the results showed that the experimental group got significantly higher scores than control group after the treatment in this study. This study successfully developed a new curriculum to engage the science and environment concepts into housekeeping curriculum, and found that students could learn the science and environment concepts well. Keywords: disaster prevention, environmental concepts, housekeeping curriculum Introduction Learning motivation is one of the most important things in students’ learning (Huang & Liu, 2012). Previous studies also mentioned that motivation is one of the key points to promote students’ learning and activities (Hynd, Holschuh, & Nist, 2000; Huang & Liu, 2012; Pintrich, 2003). It means that students will not be active without learning motivation. In 2015, the National Student Clearinghouse Research Center also provided that many high school female students lost their interest in learning science, since they could not find the relationship between science and real life (Huang, Shih, Chen, & Liu, 2015). In this case, we need to reflect that how could the science which junior or senior high school students learn right now be applied in their daily life? If the answer is not, why should these students need to learn? The gap among scientific knowledge, environmental knowledge, and applications are always huge. For exploring the educational question, this study tried to develop a new curriculum which involved in the science and environment concepts to practice in students’ daily life. Slavin (1997) mentioned that helping students to solve ill-structured problems could improve students’ concepts learning, and the problems which could be occurred in daily life and can not be expected are one kind of ill-structured problems. Based on this idea, this study  Lin Hung Tai, doctoral student, Educational Policy and Administration Department, National Chi Nan University. ENGAGING THE ENVIRONMENT AND SCIENCE CONCEPTS 499 designed a new curriculum—“How to protect yourselves in earthquake” to be the main teaching subject. In this study, we integrate the environmental, science, and housekeeping curriculum through the development of disaster prevention cap. We want to help students practice their scientific and environmental knowledge into real life. On the other hand, since the National Student Clearinghouse Research Center (2015) mentioned that a lot of female students could not find the relationship between science knowledge and real life, this study want to design a curriculum module to let students know that the knowledge will always be useful in their daily life. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to develop a new curriculum—design a disaster prevention cap, to integrate science, environment, and housekeeping curriculum and help students practice their knowledge into real life. Research Design There are three parts will be introduced in the section of research design, which included in the introduction of participants and instrument, the procedure of research design, and the details of curriculum design. Participants and Instrument There are 600 junior high school students participated in this study (N = 600, mean age = 13.6), 300 students with eight classes as the control group and the others as the experimental group. All of these students are from the same junior high school which located in the central of Taiwan. They are all Grade 8 students. Besides students, there are three science teachers, one art teacher, and one housekeeping teacher involved in this study. In this study, the “junior high school students’ scientific and environmental knowledge about life” questionnaire which included in scientific and environmental concepts was developed by the researchers in this study. There are 12 items included in this questionnaire. The scales are follow the Likert’s five point scale theory. The total scores are 60 points. The contents involved of science concepts (eg., What kind of materials could pretect your head most?), environmental concepts (eg., What could you do first when earthquake occurred?), and housekeeping concepts (eg., What kind of sewing methods could make your cap strong?). All of these questions are single choice. The reliability is Cronbach α = 0.81. Procedure of Research Design In the beginning of this study, all of the students needed to complete the “junior high school students’ scientific and environmental knowledge about life” questionnaire to be the pre-test. After completing the pre-test, both the control and experiment group students were been taught the scientific and environmental concepts about earthquake in Taiwan in their science class. Then, the control group students were asked to review the matter needing attention when earthquake occurred, while the experiment group students were joined in the curriculum of this study. After teaching the knowledge of earthquake, the science teacher will teach the experimental students the notion of disaster prevention and the suitable materials to produce the disaster prevention cap. The experimental students will design their own disaster prevention cap in art class, after they complete the science class. At last, the experimental students need to complete their own cap by themselves in the housekeeping class. The last step of this study was asking all students to complete the “junior high school students’ scientific and environmental knowledge about life” questionnaire again to be as post-test data. The period of the research time is about six months, and the procedure is shown in Figure 1. 500 ENGAGING THE ENVIRONMENT AND SCIENCE CONCEPTS Figure 1. The procedure of research design. The Details of Curriculum Design In this study, the experimental students will be treated by the new curriculum which is designed by the author (see Figure 2). Figure 2. The details of curriculum design in this study. In the beginning, the science teachers will teach the experiment students both the science theory of earthquake, such as plate movement theory and the chemical materials which could protect their bodies better, such as fire prevention materials. After science class, the experimental students were asked to design their own disaster prevention cap in art class, and to produce their own disaster prevention cap by themselves in the housekeeping class (see Figure 3). Figure 3. Students’ disaster prevention cap. ENGAGING THE ENVIRONMENT AND SCIENCE CONCEPTS 501 Results This study aimed to develop a new curriculum to integrate science, environment, and housekeeping class and help students practice their knowledge in their daily life. All the students were asked to complete the “junior high school students’ scientific and environmental knowledge about life” questionnaire before and after the curriculum which is designed by this study. For clarify the effects of the treatment in this study, the data were calculated by t-test. Table 1 shows the two group students’ average scores and standard deviation (SD), and the results of t-test. The results from Table 1 indicated that the two group students got similar performance in science and environment knowledge before this research. However, the experiment group students got significant higher scores than control group students after this research. It means that the curriculum which the author designed in this study could improve students’ performance of science and environment knowledge. Table 1 The Results of T-Test Between Two Groups Before and After the Treatment Before/After treatment Pre-test Post-test Group Control Experiment Control Experiment Average scores (SD) 47.0 (7.2) 46.1 (6.9) 48.0 (5.9) 53.8 (5.7) t-value 0.29 -2.23* Note. *p < 0.05. Table 2 The Results of Paired T-Test (Pre-Test vs. Post-Test) Between Two Groups Group Control Experiment t-value -1.8 -7.1*** Sig. 0.107 0.000 Note. ***p < 0.001. For clarifying the improvement situation between the control and experiment groups, this study further calculate the paired t-test between these two groups (see Table 2). The analysis from Table 2 shows that the control group students got the similar scores before and after this research, while the experiment group students got significant higher scores after this research than before. The results confirmed that the curriculum which is designed by this study could improve students’ performances in science and environment knowledge. The informal interview data proved that the students needed to integrate all concepts about earthquake to produce their own earthquake disaster prevention cap. To make their own cap could improve students’ motivation to learn about the concepts of earthquake. For producing a suitable and applicator earthquake disaster prevention cap, they needed to know the scientific and environmental concepts of earthquake well. Some students mentioned that they tried their best to produce the cap, because they believe that the earthquake disaster prevention cap is stronger needed in real life in Taiwan. The informal interview data demonstrate that the aim of this study—to integrate knowledge to apply in daily life, does really work in this study. 502 ENGAGING THE ENVIRONMENT AND SCIENCE CONCEPTS Conclusion One of the most important things to promote students to learn is learning motivation, while the most important reason why people need to learn is using the knowledge to solve problems in daily life. Hence, this study tried to combine the knowledge of science and environment from daily life and help to promote students’ learning motivations and knowledge applications. From the statistic analysis, the results of this study indicated that this study successfully developed a new curriculum to engage the science and environment concepts into housekeeping curriculum, and found that students could learn the science and environment concepts well. References Huang, C. F., & Liu, C. J. (2012). Exploring the influences of elementary school students’ learning motivation on web-based collaborative learning. US-China Education Review A, 2(6), 613-618. Huang, C. F., Shih, C. S., Chen, G. J., & Liu, C. J. (2015). The relationship between drawing stereotypic images and female students’ science learning motivation. US-China Education Review B, 5(10), 665-672. Hynd, C., Holschuh, J., & Nist, S. (2000). Learning complex scientific information: Motivation theory and its relation to student perceptions. Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 16(1), 23-57. National Student Clearinghouse Research Center. (2015). Reserch center news. Retrieved from http:// https://nscresearchcenter. org/ Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A motivational science perspective on the role of student motivation in learning and teaching contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667-686. Slavin, R. E. (1997). Design competitions: A proposal for a new federal role in educational research and development. Educational Researcher, 26(1), 22-28. US-China Education Review A, August 2016, Vol. 6, No. 8, 503-507 doi: 10.17265/2161-623X/2016.08.006 D DAVID PUBLISHING The Influence of Multimodal Teaching on Cultivating Multiliteracies Yue Yuanyuan  Qu Fu Normal University, Shandong, China With the development of economic globalization and technological advances of communication, modern means of communication has already transformed from traditional letter writing and meeting face-to-face to multimodality which is the composition of two or more than two means of representation and communication. The traditional literacy based on reading and writing has been unable to meet the needs of learners in multimodal age. In such a social context, cultivating students’ multiliteracies has become a tendency in language education. The multimodal discourse analysis theory within Halliday’s systemic functional grammar provides a theory framework for multiliteracies. Scholars at home and abroad have done some studies on theory frameworks of multimodality. Comparatively speaking, not much attention has been paid to study the impact of multimodal teaching on multiliteracy training in college English class. Based on previous studies, the paper explores the impact of multimodality in cultivating college students’ multiliteracies. Keywords: college English, multiliteracies, multimodal teaching Introduction At present, as human beings have marched into a new age, economic globalization, cultural diversification, and informationization in social life are developing rapidly, which increasingly influence and change people’s daily lives. New technologies have been playing significant roles in modern society. With the proliferation of those new technologies, the means of human communication are getting rich and colorful. The ways of expression and transmission of meanings keep changing as well. Today’s technological advances of communication have made it very easy for people to communicate with each other. With the help of diverse effective tools, communication can be conducted without the limitation of time and space. Our modern means of communication have already transformed from traditional letter writing and meeting face-to-face to smart phone, video software, and instant messenger. In other words, people no longer use certain simple mode or media to communicate. The traditional literacy based on reading and writing has been unable to meet the needs of learners in multimodal age. In such social context, the connotation of literacy has undergone a significant change. The way of getting knowledge transformed from the traditional way that is focused on language to multiliteracy which is composed of semiotic systems. The change has a great impact on our foreign language teaching and learning. How to cultivate students’ multiliteracies through multimodality and help them adapt to the economic globalization, cultural diversity, and communication diversification became an urgent task for foreign language education reform.  Yue Yuanyuan, lecturer, Foreign Languages Research and Teaching Department, Qu Fu Normal University. 504 MULTIMODAL TEACHING ON CULTIVATING MULTILITERACIES The concept of multiliteracies was raised by the New London Group which was composed of 10 academics. They came together in 1996 concerned about how literacy pedagogy might address the rapid change in literacy due to globalization, technology, and increasing cultural and social diversity. The result of the academic discussion was a paper named Pedagogy of Multiliteracies: Designing Social Futures (New London Group, 1996), which is a landmark for the studies on multiliteracies. From then on, linguists and educators around the world have been doing extensive research. Abroad, the main representatives are Kress and Van Leeuwen, Thwaites, Williamson, Spiliotopoubs, Knight and Corrigan, etc.. It is Kress and Van Leeuwen who first brought about the multiliteracies. They studied the theory on the basis of Halliday’s socio-semiotic theory. They first studied the visual aspect of multiliteracies. They have expanded Halliday’s socio-semiotic theory to visual grammar and think images can express meaning as language does. In Spiliotopoubs’s (2005) opinion, multiliteracies mean people can understand a various modes of discourses through a variety of information transmission and information networks. In China, many scholars have already showed their great attention to multiliteracies study. Among the domestic scholars, Professor Hu Zhuanglin (2007) first started the relative studies. He pointed out that multiliteracies cover both cultural literacy and technological literacy. And participants not only can read text information, but also have the ability to explain the symbols and images, to use the multimedia technology and other tools, such as the Internet. Multimodality It is generally believed that the traditional view of literacy does not meet the needs of modern communication in today’s globalized society any more. Being able to read and write is no longer qualified in today’s technology-dominated world. Therefore, how to cultivate multiliteracies ability becomes the key element in nowadays language teaching. Here we are, multimodality jumped into our horizon. Multimodality had emerged out of scholarship published in the last decade of 20th century. To start with, we had better figure out the other two terms: media and modality. They discussed thoroughly on the relation between modes and media in this way. A whole other set of skills is involved here: technical skill, skills of the hand and the eyes, skills related not to semiotic modes, but to semiotic media. We use the term “medium” here in the sense of medium of execution. Multimodality is the composition of two or more than two means of representation and communication, such as image, posture, speech, gesture, music, writing, or new configuration of these elements. Multimodality has been widely discussed by the scholars in the field of linguistics and semiotics at home and abroad in recent years. Van Leeuwen (2005) defined multimodality as the combination of different semiotic modalities—for instance, language and music—in a communicative artifact or event. According to Baldry and Thibault (2006), multimodality means the various ways in which a number of distinct semiotic resource systems are both co-deployed and co-contextualised in the making of a text-specific meaning. In China, one of the most constructive researches on multimodality is made by Zhang Delu. His theoretical framework for multimodal discourse analysis (MDA) was based on Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics. Li Zhanzi (2003) introduced Kress’ theory and offered other comprehensive explanations of MDA. Gu Yueguo formed his own analysis framework based on activity theory. The other representatives in this field also include Hu Zhuanglin, Zhu Yongsheng, Zeng Lei, and Ye Qichang, etc.. Comparing to researches abroad, domestic studies of MDA are relatively fallen behind. Meanwhile, those scholars, like Gu Yueguo, Zhang Delu, Zhu Yongsheng, and Wei Hongqin, have done many theoretical and empirical researches on multiliteracies. MULTIMODAL TEACHING ON CULTIVATING MULTILITERACIES 505 As to the traditional classroom teaching, teachers occupy the dominant position in class. Almost all of the language points, grammars, textbook understanding, even exercises are conducted through teachers oral presentation and blackboard-writing. Students seldom get involved in the process. Gradually, the “duck-stuffing” type of teaching makes students lose their motivation to learn, not to mention get fun from learning. On the other hand, the traditional monomodal instruction increased the risk of teachers’ burnout. And teachers are eager to jump out of the awkward teaching environment. The theory of multimodality meanwhile brings about significant change in English teaching and learning. With the multimedia equipment usage in classroom, multimodal instructions dominate today’s language teaching and leaning realm. Multimodal pedagogy gives a huge advantage over the traditional classroom teaching. Multimodal English teaching, combining such modals as words, sound, pictures, color, and typography and involving different sensory modalities, such as visual and auditory senses, is better received by students and is more effective in terms of the development of students’ language literacy, communicative competence, and media literacy than the traditional English teaching. Multimodal teaching plays a significant role in stimulating interest and enthusiasm in learning foreign language and culture, and improving academic performance. In order to figure out the answers to the questions above, both qualitative and quantitative studies are conducted in this paper. The involvement of multimodality in class is mainly through the application of multimodal PowerPoint (PPT). Besides, teachers’ classroom multimodality discourse also plays a role. Research Design This paper aims to explore how multimodal instruction works in cultivating students’ multiliteracies ability. Therefore, the paper can provide some meaningful references to college English teaching reform. Universities should positively change the traditional teaching mode, methods, and teaching content, attaching great importance to cultivating multiliteracies ability. The study mainly involves two questions: (1) To evaluate the cognition of the multiliteracies ability among non-English majors; and (2) To testify the positive impact of the multimodal teaching on college students’ multiliteracies training and confirm the effectiveness of multimodality instruction as well. The study will be conducted through questionnaire and class observation. There are two questionnaires. All the students involved in the two questionnaires are freshmen of non-English majors. One of the questionnaires is to investigate college students’ awareness and ability of multiliteracies. The other is designed to inquire students’ recognition and attitude to multimodal teaching methods, like the application of the PPT courseware and teachers’ multimodal discourse analysis. In order to obtain the first-hand data, the research will be conducted among real college non-English major students. The author carried out 10 weeks of classroom observation. Two parallel classes involved in the process. One is the experimental class (EC). Meanwhile, the other class is the control class (CC). The age of these non-English major participants generally ranged from 19-20 years old. They have undergone the English level-based test when they just entered college. The two classes are both normal classes. The overall English level of those participants is basically the same. Through the author’s usual contact and classroom observation, the participants revealed no obvious differences in learning motivation, interest, and learning habits. And individual differences are too little to affect the validity of test data. In the control class, traditional teaching method is widely used which is mainly through teacher’s presentation and explanation. Whereas, in the experimental class, multimodal teaching goes through three class links, including the introduction to text, 506 MULTIMODAL TEACHING ON CULTIVATING MULTILITERACIES explanation to language points, and exercises. Outside the classroom, the students in EC are strongly recommended to find the video and audio references, or pictures via Internet and other multimedia. At the end of the experiment, students both in the CC and EC will take a test, the result will be used to evaluate students’ academic performance and figure out the impact of multimodal teaching in developing students’ traditional reading and writing literacy, video-audio literacy, and multimedia-based literacy. Conclusion Through the above study, there are some conclusions and suggestions implied. First, multimodal teaching instruction can stimulate students’ learning enthusiasm and strengthen their learning initiative. Multimodal teaching has a positive impact on cultivating college students’ multiliteracies, especially their video-audio literacy, social communicative ability, and multimedia-based literacy. Second, the role of a teacher in traditional English class should transform from the dominant to the participant, which means that teachers do not play the main characters in nowadays classes. What the teachers should do is to create an environment with the help of multimodalities for the students to study by themselves. In multimodal classrooms, the close cooperation between teachers and students is the same critical. Teachers should intentionally guide students to get access to multimodalities. For instance, the teacher can arrange students’ homework after class to make PPT courseware in which some multimodal elements should be applied, like sounds, images, cartoons, charts, and so on. In the process of finishing their homework, students can achieve a better understanding about various semiotics. Third, multiliteracy training cannot be done without certain material guarantee. Teachers should select and integrate different modalities in an effective and efficient way, therefore students can utilize varieties of multimodal resources to create and convey ideas. Teachers should make use of various kinds of teaching aids to make the multimodal surroundings in classes, like texts, sounds, videos, PPT coursewares, and Internet. Cultivating students’ multiliteracies needs not only the hard works of both teachers and students, but the encouragement and support from college administrators. They should provide college English teaching process with necessary multimodal facilities and updates equipment. Some teaching resources should be assigned to teachers use and easily accessed by students. Last but not least, the assessment of multiliteracy teaching and students’ performance is of great importance. Especially, the students’ academic performances cannot be merely judged by their final written examination. Their performance in class, such as presentation of PPT or their role play, should be a part of their final score, which can well encourage students to emphasize and promote their multiliteracies. References Baldry, A., & Thibault, P. J. (2006). Multimodal transcription and text analysis. London: Equinox. Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (Eds.). (2000). Multiliteracies: Literacy learning and the design of social futures. London: Routledge. Gu, Y. G. (2007). On multimedia learning and multimodal learning. Computer-assisted Foreign Language Education, 29(2), 3-12. (in Chinese) Halliday, M. A. K. (2000). An introduction to functional grammar. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Hu, Z. L. (2007). Multimodalization in social semiotics. Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 29(1), 1-10. (in Chinese) Hu, Z. L. (2007). PowerPoint—Tool text genre style. Foreign Language Education, 28(4), 1-5. (in Chinese) Kress, G. (2000). Multimodality. In B. Cope & M. Kalantzis (Eds.), Multiliteracies: Literacy learning and the design of social futures. London: Routledge. Kress, G. (June, 2000). Multimodality: Challenges to think about language. TESOL Quarterly. Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the new media age. London: Routledge. MULTIMODAL TEACHING ON CULTIVATING MULTILITERACIES 507 Kress, G. R., & Van Leeuwen, T. (1996). Reading images: The grammar of visual design. New York, N.Y.: Routledge. Kress, G., & Van Leeuwen, T. (2001). Multimodal discourse: The modes and media of contemporary communication. London: Arnold. Li, Z. Z. (2003). Social semiotic approach to multimodal discourse. Foreign Languages Research, 20(5), 1-8. (in Chinese) New London Group. (1996). Pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 60-93. Norris, S. (2004). Analyzing multimodal interaction: A methodological framework. London: Routledge. Royce, T. D. (2007). Multimodal communication competence in second language context. In T. D. Royce & W. L. Bowcher (Eds.), New directions in the analysis of multimodal discourse. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Spiliotopoulous, V. (2005). Developing multiliteracy in adult ESL learners using online forums. International Journal of the Humanities, (1). Thwaits, T. (1999). Multiliteracies: A new direction for arts education. Retrieved from http://swin.edu.au/aare/99pap/thw995 28.htm Van Leeuwen, T. (2005). Introducing social semiotics. London: Routledge. Wei, Q. H. (2009). A study on multimodality and college students multiliteracies. 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Tapp  Saginaw Valley State University, University Center, USA With the instant availability of information on the Internet and lack of exposure to digital citizenship, students’ temptation to become a hacker and potentially execute destructive acts using technology is real. The message of digital citizenship needs to start early in the education process and be reinforced at every level. It is essential to embed these lessons of ethics within curriculum. Teachers need to be leaders of digital citizenship in their respective schools and communities. Keywords: character education, digital citizenship, cybercrime, ethics, liability Introduction Teenage hackers are not news today. Junior high school-aged students have demonstrated their ability to create a virus or worm, perform illegal downloads, and gain illegal access to documents or systems. Ethics in computing needs to be addressed at an early age, well before middle school. Historically, children learned from adults through direct observation, apprenticeships, and schooling, and adult behavior was modeled through various interactions. As technology progressed, the adults on television, films, and other media began to play a larger role. Yet, teachers, parents, neighbors, coaches, religious mentors, and other face-to-face, real-time interactions still exerted a viable influence on children. Today, children can now learn directly from experts and become experts themselves via the Internet or with software without face-to-face mentoring or interaction. In many cases, adults feel that children know more about how to manipulate the technology. The Internet is a powerful environment for enhancing the transfer of social and emotional skill development. It is replete with teachable moments when young people are challenged to exhibit self-control, engage in critical decision-making, and express feelings while demonstrating respect and tolerance for others. Many districts have a 1:1 technology use plan and are encouraging students to being their own electronic devices to class. As schools have increased the amount of access students have to cyberspace, the application of social skill training to this setting has become increasingly apparent (Berson, 2000, p. 159). Today’s Internet or World Wide Web was designed to be a medium for communication and interaction. The unfortunately reality is that today’s Internet was not designed nor intended to be protected. Because of this harsh actuality, deviance and crime run rampant. The term “hacker” is often misused or misrepresents the actions by the individual. Typically, “hackers” are individuals who gain unauthorized access into computer networks as a sort of an “electronic joy-ride.” The actions of a hacker are simply to investigate or look around the end user’s system or site. Conversely, an individual who gains unauthorized access into a computer network or system, with the intent to cause damage or harm, is actually “cracking” into the system. Society as a whole Joseph J. Jaksa, Ph.D., associate professor, Department of Criminal Justice, Saginaw Valley State University. Anne R. Tapp, Ph.D., professor, Department of Teacher Education, Saginaw Valley State University. WHAT ROLE DOES EDUCATION PLAY 509 refers to all individuals gaining unauthorized access into a computer network or system as a “hacker,” regardless of malicious intent. These individuals can be curious school children seeing the amount of access they may be able to gain within a computer or network system as well as more seasoned cyber criminals seeking destruction, profit, or both. Hackers are commonly classified into four different categories according to their ability and desire. “Script kiddies” are novices when it comes to hacking. They have very little experience intruding into electronic systems and developing programs to carry out these tasks. The script kiddie may use a hacking program that has previously been developed to gain unauthorized access into computer systems. Advanced and well organized hackers can be classified as “white-hat,” “black-hat,” and “grey-hat” hackers. White-hat hackers actually work for the betterment of the computing system or a specific organization. They attempt to gain unauthorized access into systems to help organizations address and remedy these problems or issues, so others cannot infiltrate the system. Black-hat hackers enter into computer or operating systems without authorization and for the purpose to cause damage or harm. Black-hat hackers are frequently involved in various types or cybercrimes or electronic devious acts. Finally, grey-hat hackers look for opportunities to gain unauthorized access into computer or operating systems, and then commonly notify the organization of their actions or success while informing the organization that they can correct the flaw or show how to correct the vulnerability for some type of fee (Code and Command, 2015). The evolution of a hacker can be a fairly fast process when young students are introduced to computer technology and quickly adapting and integrating into workings of these systems. Implications Education plays a critical role in the solution of this problem, as it affects all-aged students and helps shape the future of society. Schools must lead the effort to ensure that young people learn to use the Internet in a safe and responsible manner, as they are the most universal location where United States (U.S.) students are learning how to use the Internet. Schools are a well-placed, efficient vehicle to provide education to and partner with parents, libraries, and other community organizations to create a community-wide effort. Even today’s rapidly evolving cyber community. Laws have been established to address the threat of hacking. For example, all fifty states in the U.S. have created laws addressing unauthorized access into computer systems (National Conference of State Legislatures, n.d.). In addition, the U.S. Federal Government has also developed laws pertaining to hacking and other unwanted or illegal intrusions (Hacker Law, n.d.). With these laws defined, schools and their districts must understand what type of actions define hacking on the state and possibly the federal levels. In the event, students utilize school equipment and computer infrastructure to commit hacking crimes, the school district could be held liable for the crime or infraction on either a criminal or civil level. Any damage created or caused by a student using school property and infrastructure could result in charges against the specific school district. It becomes imperative that all school districts teaching computer technology or allowing students (and employees) to access the World Wide Web on school property to develop policies and procedures addressing appropriate conduct and actions. Policies should address acceptable and unacceptable practices, while using school or school district equipment of infrastructure and have the policies and guidelines carefully reviewed and vetted by a qualified legal representative. These policies and procedures should include student use and 510 WHAT ROLE DOES EDUCATION PLAY conduct as well as contingency response plans by the school district in the event of an unwanted action by students or by employees. School districts and the educational staff must remember that ignorance is not a defense in our court systems and criminal and civil charges can be brought against a school district for damage caused or created using school-owned equipment and infrastructure. Character education programs seek to impart good values to young people. One potential problem with many of these programs is that they are frequently rule and punishment-based. On the Internet, inappropriate behavior frequently goes undetected and thus unpunished. When working with young people using the Internet, it is important to keep in mind how features of the technology can impact ethical decision-making. As young people grow, their ethical decision-making is largely influenced by external factors. The two most significant external forces are perception of the harm they have caused by their actions, which leads to feelings of guilt and remorse, and fear of detection, which could lead to punishment or loss of reputation according to Kohlberg’s theory of moral development (Crain, 1985). Technology interferes with both of these external forces. When we use technology, we are distanced from recognizing any harm that we may cause. We also feel invisible. As young people are growing up using the Internet, we must enhance their recognition of potential harm caused by their actions and diminish their perceptions that they are invisible. Our character education programs must focus their attention on enhancing internalized control through an understanding of how our actions can cause harm to unseen others. Students who are determined to be at-risk for other behavioral problems, especially school “outcasts,” are also the ones who are most at-risk of becoming involved in negative activities on the Internet. Educators must recognize that any student who does not feel a part of the school community is likely to be finding an online community or an individual predator ready and willing to exploit his or her loneliness. Helping students feel connected and cared for in their home, school, and community takes on even greater importance in recognition of the potential that young people who do not feel connected and cared for are extremely vulnerable on the Internet. Ethical, safe, and socially conscious online behavior may positively transform the nature of social interactions among youth and counter the betrayal, coercion, and deception that accompany destructive behavior. Children develop very powerful theories of the world by the time they are four years of age. A single experience with ethics in high school will not be able to wipe out years of beliefs and behaviors (Gardner, 2004). Even if students maintain the message from age five onward, in adolescence, they are prone to changing their minds. If schools continue the ethics message from an early age throughout the teenage years, they might have a chance to maintain the belief system. A task that is beyond the skill of the individual will cause anxiety. A task which is below the skill of the individual will cause boredom. The task that provides challenge, discovery, and resolving problems gives enjoyment to programmers (Himanen, 2001). The main motivation for hackers was how creative they felt when working on a project. The hacker identity includes solving coding problems, having fun, and sharing code at the same time (Lakhani & Wolf, 2005, p. 6). Ankit Fadia, a 16-year old hacker said, “Hacking really gives you the power to do things that normally people do not know about. It gives you the power to make a computer work the way you want it to work. So, the adrenaline rush associated with hacking.... Initially, it is the forbidden that attracts—Hacking is usually something that is forbidden. So that originally got me interested. And then the knowledge part came in. So, the power of knowledge is really what got me interested in hacking” (Moyes, 2001). WHAT ROLE DOES EDUCATION PLAY 511 An analogy can be made between driving a car and using computer technology. With driving, children from an early age observe adults completing this task. They observe both good and bad examples, hear the standards, learn to distinguish between what is right and wrong, and receive formal training. With computer usage, it is different. Most parents do not possess Internet usages skills to the degree of their children, so how can they exhibit best practices to them? Most teachers cannot write a piece of code on the computer, so how can they exhibit best practices and ethical behavior to future hackers? Educational institutions need to model ethical practices with technology. Presently, there are standards, such as International Society for Technology in Education’s (ISTE) National Educational Technology Standards for Students (ISTE, 2000) as well as other initiatives, such as the Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics (Computer Ethics Institute, 1992), and Digital Citizenship. Nationally, there have been concerns by the U.S. Department of Justice and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) for schools to teach digital citizenship/cyber ethics. The concept of Digital Citizenship was designed to help leaders of technology understand what students should know, how students should appropriately use technology, and how to best prepare students. Digital citizenship teaches appropriate, responsible behaviors for when using technology as well as issues in online safety. There are nine elements to this curriculum introduced in kindergarten and reinforced throughout students’ educational careers: digital access, digital commerce, digital communication, digital literacy, digital etiquette, digital law, digital rights and responsibilities, digital health and wellness, and digital security. The safety and well-being of children is of utmost importance to educators. However, the reality is that few professionals are prepared for this role in terms of technology. As children and youth increase the time they spend online, they also are progressively immersed in an environment that often has been shielded from the oversight and supervision of parents and other significant adults (Cole et al., 2001). In a medium devoid of standards for conduct and codes of ethics, many young people falter in the quality of their online interactions with others, demonstrating instead a paucity of respect, responsibility, honesty, kindness, justice, or tolerance (Willard, 2000). Conclusion Technology is the great equalizer in education, and as such, many children have expert knowledge at their fingertips. The more children with the capability to manipulate computers will, in fact, increase the likelihood of damaging acts to computer systems. If digital ethics are not taught, and challenge and excitement are not found in our schools, the cyber world will continue to be a accepting and exciting space for children. The ethical message needs to be embedded in our own educational technology. Our teachers need to be technology leaders in their respective schools and communities, rather than the children. Parents need more technology training to be able to understand what children are doing with the technology. School leaders must understand the legal issues and perils, and implement proper policies and procedures to protect the wellbeing of their school districts. The message of computer ethics needs to start early and be continually reinforced at every level. References Berson, M. J. (2000). Rethinking research and pedagogy in the social studies: The creation of caring connections through technology and advocacy. Theory & Research in Social Education, 28, 121-131. 512 WHAT ROLE DOES EDUCATION PLAY Code and Command. (March 6, 2015). Computer security news—Types of hackers: Whitehat, greyhat, blackhat. Retrieved from http://www.codeandcommand.com/category/tech/computer-security-news/ Cole, J. I., Suman, M., Schramm, P., Lunn, R., Coget, J., Firth, D., … Aquino, J. (2001). UCLA Internet Report 2001: Surveying the Digital Future Year Two. Los Angeles, C.A.: UCLA Center for Communication Policy. Retrieved from http://www.ccp.ucla.edu Computer Ethics Institute. (1992). The ten commandments of computer ethics. A Project of the Brookings Institution, Washington D.C.. Retrieved from http://www.brook.edu/its/cei/cei_hp.htm Crain, W. C. (1985). Theories of development (pp. 118-136). New York, N.Y.: Prentice-Hall. Gardner, H. (2004). Changing minds: The art and science of changing our own and other people’s minds. Boston, M.A.: Harvard Business School Press. Hacker Law. (n.d.). Hacking. Retrieved from http://www.hackerlaw.org/?page_id=55 Himanen, P. (2001). The hacker ethic and the spirit of the information age. New York, N.Y.: Random House. International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE). (2000). National educational technology standards for students: Connecting curriculum and technology. Washington, D.C.: International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE). Retrieved from http://cnets.iste.org/students/s_stands.html Lakhani, K. R., & Wolf, R. G. (2005). Why hackers do what they do: Understanding motivation and effort in free/open source software projects. In J. Feller, B. Fitzgerald, S. Hissam, & K. R. Lakhani, (Eds.), Perspectives on free and open source software. Boston: MIT Press. Moyes, M. (Oct. 15, 2001). High school confidential (Interview of Ankit Fadia a 16-year old hacker). Retrieved January 27, 2005, from http://www.shift.com/content/web/42/1.html National Conference of State Legislatures. (n.d.). Computer crime statues as of May 12, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.ncsl.org/research/telecommunications-and-information-technology/computer-hacking-and-unauthorized-access-l aws.aspx Willard, N. (2000). Choosing not to go down the not so good cyber streets. 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