Equity in Higher Education systems: the case of Greece

6. Equity in Higher Education systems: the case of Greece George Stamelos1 and Aggelos Kavasakalis2 1 Professor, Department of Primary Education and Educational Sciences, University of Patras, Greece. 2 Department of Primary Education and Educational Sciences, University of Patras, Greece. 6.1 Introduction The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the structure and characteristics of higher education in Greece with the necessary clarification of its features, alongside the focus on the state of (in)equity and (in)equality in the Greek higher education system. 6.2 Historical Development of Higher Education1 The first Greek university was established in Athens in 1837, a few years after the founding of the state, and was the only one in the wider area. At the time, it is neither considered to be, nor dealt with as new, since it is granted historical continuity with the institutes of higher education of the Byzantine period and the schools of Greek antiquity (Schoinas, 1837). Another characteristic is that it attracts students from the wider area since on the one hand Greek was the language of the educated and on the other it wasn’t yet the time for nationalism. The University of Athens was called on in practice to accomplish three missions: a) the formation of a national identity, b) the production of the executive strength of the state, c) to establish contact and coexistence with other universities in Western Europe, and on equal terms in fact, since it was a ‘new very old’ institution. It should be considered particularly successful in terms of these three missions even if it was later accused of conservativism and a close relationship with the state. By 1920, three more institutions had been established, although initially not as institutions of higher education, something that clearly demonstrates the priorities of the policy of the state and its needs: technology (crafts), economy, and agriculture. It should be noted that the creation of these, and later other, ‘schools’ is connected to the French tradition of the ‘Grandes Ecoles’. The establishment of the University of Thessaloniki in 1925 is another point in the history of Greek higher education system. It is the first outside Athens; it is founded a few years after the liberation of the city and its integration into the Greek state, and is related to the failure of the plan to found a Greek university in Smyrna. It is clear that the ‘national’ purposes are given priority without the purposes which refer to the internal political scene being excluded. In fact, the University of Thessaloniki was designed to be more open and liberal in relation to the more traditional and conservative University of Athens. As much in the case of Smyrna, as in [1] the case of Thessaloniki, the figure of Eleftherios Venezelos played a major role, a politician with international prestige and an opponent of the conservative, monarchist party. Until the end of the last dictatorship (1974), other specialized schools of higher education were established, as well as Greece’s third university, the University of Patras. Initially, the University of Patras was exclusively technological and was funded by the World Bank, as part of international geopolitical planning related to the strengthening wave of students leaving the Middle East and going to the then Soviet Union, and was an attempt to limit this. From the fall of the last dictatorship and on, a marked widening of the higher education institutions’ network takes place in repeated waves. This is connected to two main precepts: on the one hand, the demand for the ‘democratization’ of higher education which bases its social legitimacy on the previous exclusions of large sections of the Greek population for political reasons, and on the other hand, a large wave of students going abroad which costs the country significant amounts in foreign exchange. It is necessary to note a final point in the historical development of Greek higher education. A close relationship between the state and higher education which was connected to the formation of the nation state as much ideologically and symbolically as organizationally and administratively, is the reason for the provision of the Greek Constitution regarding the forbiddance of private higher education. Despite that, it should be noted that the private sector either as an individual presence or as a corporate non state presence, was present in the development of higher education in Greece: since the 1930s, the so-called Centers of Free Studies (CFS) have been operating. These are private training structures which did not belong to the Ministry of Education and offered post-secondary school professional training. During the 1990s, these Centers began to collaborate with higher education institutions abroad, usually low status institutions -mainly former polytechnics- from the UK, through a franchising kind of partnership. As a result pressure was exerted on the Ministry based on European case law concerning reciprocal recognition of study titles that is based on EU Directive 48/1989 and then on EU Directive 36/2005. 6.3 The structure of higher education According to the Greek Constitution, higher education is exclusively public/state. It is divided into universities (AEI) and technological educational institutions (TEI). At present (2015) 22 AEI and 14 TEI exist and operate in Greece (Table 6.1). Insert Table 6.1 about here Parallel to the public/state higher education institutions a shadowy private tertiary higher education sector does exist in the form of The ‘Free Studies Centers’, private, post-secondary level structures which, from the 90s and on began to cooperate with foreign universities, mainly English ones. The foreign institutions grant their [2] own degree certificates, which the Greek state is required to recognize according to the European Union (EU) Directive 89/48. This is not being adhered to however, which has led Greece into a legal confrontation with the EU. The temporary solution, which has been arrived at, is the recognition of professional but not educational rights. 6.3.1 University sector of higher education 2 out of the 22 universities the Hellenic Open University and the International Hellenic University have differences in the way they operate. But in general: Studies are organized into three cycles: a) undergraduate programmes of study (bachelor), b) postgraduate programmes of study (master), c) doctoral (thesis). In the first cycle of studies there are no fees. The undergraduate programmes of study generally last four years. In the polytechnic schools, the duration of studies is 5 years, while in the medical schools it is 6. The postgraduate courses last either one or two years. Finally, the doctorates have a minimum duration of three years. This structure is in step with the provisions of the European area of higher education and the Bologna Process since the first cycle is at least three years, the postgraduate 1 or 2 and the doctoral cycle 3 years. 6.3.1.1 Hellenic Open University and the International Hellenic University Since 1992, the Open University has operated in Greece, and it aims to provide another opportunity for lifelong learning since its students should be over 24 years old. The courses are in Greek, although since 2013-14 English language courses have been operating. There are 4 Schools and there are no Departments and the students are chosen through a draw. Those interested submit their application and there follows a public draw for the available places and courses. In this way the institution claims to ensure a representative sample from all the regions of Greece, an element which constitutes a stated objective. The funding for the Greek Open University comes mainly through the students’ fees. The International Hellenic University was established in October 2005 (Law, 3391/2005) and it is Greece’s first public university where programmes are taught exclusively in English. The University is financed by the European Union and the Greek State. It intends to offer only postgraduate programmes aimed at international students who are interested in studying in Greece but also at Greek students seeking an international outlook. 6.3.2 Technological sector of higher education The Greek technological educational institutions were established in 1983. They were considered to be an evolution from the previous Centres for Higher Crafts and Professional Education which had been created in the 1970s as higher technical education. The Centres for Higher Crafts and Professional Education as much as the TEI were essentially funded by the World Bank through loans to Greece from 1971 until 1978 (Banque Mondiale 1980: 145). [3] TEI were integrated into tertiary education without any formal relationship with the universities (as was the case with the polytechnics in the United Kingdom). In 2001 they were integrated into higher education, while in 2005 they acquired the right to offer postgraduate courses (2nd cycle). These developments provoked a reaction from the universities, although they were unable to overturn them. 6.3.3 Private tertiary education In Greece since the 1930s, as have already said, the so-called Centres of Free Studies (CFS) have been operating. These are private educational structures that didn't belong to the Department of Education and offered post-secondary school professional education. In addition there are also some educational structures active in Greece, which serve American interests and which are not included with the others since they are not covered by European law. In these cases, pressure is applied mainly through the action of the World Trade organization (WTO) and the provisions of GATS (Hepnet2 2013). Today a specialized legislative framework3 is being developed for these private training structures. These degrees are being recognized as professional certification in the Greek and international private sector and as educational certification internationally. The present terminology for CFS is Colleges. There are 38 of these colleges and their main characteristic is that they already use either in their title or subtitle the foreign institution with which they work. Finally these private structures often seem to form associations for the provision of training (educational) services for levels 3,4 and 5 of the European Qualification Framework, while they are applying pressure for provision of levels 6 and 7 (bachelor and master). 6.4 Greek Higher Education- current characteristics 6.4.1 Access and enrolment in higher education 6.4.1.1 Public higher education Greece has chosen an access system to the first cycle (bachelor) of higher education (common for AEI and TEI) based on national examinations after graduation from high school (upper secondary school). These exams are especially demanding. They involve specific preparation of candidates to the extent that a student with remarkable performance in secondary school but without extra preparation has little chance of success in Departments/Schools (academic units) that are in high demand. So the type of preparation and its quality (private lessons, tutorial, etc.) seems to play an important role in access, especially in Departments/Schools of higher education that are in high demand. Consequently, the cost of such preparation (it is estimated at around 14,000 euros for the duration of study in secondary education) have a crucial impact on success in higher education mainly not in access itself but as far as the chosen academic unit and its location are concerned. Finally, it seems that the great development of higher education that took place in Greece from 1984 to 2004 (with emphasis on the 1996-2004 period) resulted [4] in a massification of higher education in terms of access, but the specialized access to prestigious Departments/Schools remains an issue related to the economic and social level of the candidate’s family (Sianou-Kyrgiou 2008; Sianou-Kyrgiou and Tsiplakidis 2011; Stamelos and Paivandi 2015). Indeed, it seems that the education level of the mother and the father's profession are those that have a major impact (Paizis 2014: 639). More specifically, the number of students to be admitted to each academic unit is decided on by the ministry of education following the departments’/schools’ recommendations4. Just after the completion of the national entrance exams, in May, the students complete a form with a list of the departments/schools they prefer, electronically. The number of students to be admitted to an academic unit, and the performance of candidates who have chosen this department/school in the national exam, create an ‘entrance pass mark’. The candidates’ two basic criteria for choosing a department/school are the Department’s/Schools’s subject matter and its geographical location. In recent years, due to the economic crisis that Greece is facing the criteria of a Department’s/School’s geographical location has become the most important in order to reduce the overall cost of their studies. Access to programmes in the second cycle (Master) is decentralized. Each academic unit decides on the criteria and the procedure for choosing candidates. More often, written exams are used as a first filter, followed by an interview as a final choice filter. However, choice based on CV also exists, even though it is not the main model. Access to the third cycle takes place through personal contact with the supervising professor, and after his acceptance, with the approval of the Department/School. It should be noted that one professor can’t take on more than five (5) students. So the 3rd circle is based on the personal master-apprentice relationship between supervisor and supervisee and is highly dependent on this personal basis since doctoral schools5, which are a new organizational option in other European higher education systems, do not exist for the time being in Greece. Of course it should be noted that with the most recent legislative regulation, which has now begun to be applied gradually, the third cycle of studies begins to be organized based on the provisions of the EHEA since: "the University School coordinates and organizes its postgraduate and PhD study programmes and assigns their materialization to the academic units or to teams of teachers. The postgraduate and PhD study programmes operate according to the Organization of the Institution" (Law 4076/2012: article 1.3). Finally, it should be noted that the Hellenic Open University and the International Hellenic University have different procedures. In addition, in the school of lifelong learning of higher institutions, one can find new means of access to higher education. Its programmes, while not granting degrees, but attendance certificates, transferable to ECTS, provide recognition that is taken into consideration for typical programmes. In Greece, the recognition of prior learning has not yet been provided for by the Law (Eurydice 2014: 9). This perhaps is the biggest divergence of the Greek higher education system from the criteria of the Bologna Process6. 6.4.1.2 Private Higher Education Access to programmes in Private Higher education is decentralized at the level of each private College. Each College decides on the criteria and the procedure for choosing candidates. A choice based on a candidate’s CV is a common model, sometimes accompanied by parallel exams in a foreign language (usually English), at [5] least for the programmes that are taught in a foreign language. Personal contacts with interviewees are also a common model. 6.4.2 Social dimension of public higher education Greece had very limited access to its higher education. At the end of the 1970s the success rate of university candidates was just above 10 per cent (11 per cent) while for the technical institutions (nowadays the TEIs) it was slightly higher, at 12-13 per cent. Consequently, the total candidate success rate was not higher than 25 per cent. This fact drove thousands of young Greeks abroad to continue their studies, which resulted in Greece appearing in the top positions for export of students, for a long period of time (Stamelos 1990). The social demand for the ‘democratization’ of higher education was very intense. During the last decade and despite some differentiations the success rate is now at about 80 per cent. Of course, it should be emphasized that while the system widened, and the success rate increased, the ‘social demand’ transformed from a demand for democratization to the demand for entrance to a particular Department/School and in a particular city. Finally, the massification of the first cycle of studies led to the increase in demand for studies in the second cycle. This cycle (Master) developed dynamically together with the development of the network of institutions of higher education, especially during the 1990s, up to the point that at present a Master degree tends to be considered the basic degree for good career progression. 6.4.3 Students’ participation in higher education 6.4.3.1 Public higher education Table 6.2 provides information on the total number of students in the first cycle of studies (bachelor) in Greek universities in the academic year 2013-147. It is apparent that women outnumber men. Insert Table 6.2 about here It has to be noted though that women are overrepresented at ISCED 5a, but not ISCED 5b levels and ISCED 6. The Greek trend is in line with the European levels for ISCED 5a and ISCED 6, but not at the level ISCED 5b. But we will come back to the issue of gender in paragraph 6.5.1. Next, we are going to give aggregate data for the development of higher education in Greece during the decade 2001-2011 in relation to the EU27 Member States (EU27) (Eurydice 2011; Paizis 2013: 468-470). So, in the first decade of the 21st century:  In EU27 higher education has increased by 35 per cent. Greece had the second biggest development. [6]  Access in the Greek higher education system takes place mainly through national exams after secondary education and therefore the range of entrance age is small: 85 per cent of students are below 28.6 years old.  In Greece prior learning is not yet recognized, something that restricts the access of vulnerable social groups. Having a secondary education degree continues to be a prerequisite for access to higher education. European reality is divided: 14 countries recognize prior learning and 13 do not recognize it.  Greece follows the main European trends in the gender distribution per scientific field. So there are areas where women dominate and others where men do. We are going to develop this issue later.  As we will see below, Greece follows the fees-free model for the first cycle (bachelor) and offers limited social support during studies. Germany, Austria, Hungary and Lithuania are also in this category of European countries. However, Greece is the only country in the EU27 where even the limited grants and other aids are based solely on performance indicators and not on other criteria.  Greece does not seem to achieve the European target for 2020 to have 40 per cent of young people aged 30 to 34 holding a higher education degree, although it is not far away from this target. The main reason for this failure is not the access policies but the phenomenon of the abandonment of studies.  In Greece the percentage of graduates from Universities (ISCED 5a) increased by 23 per cent and from TEI (ISCED 5b) by 68 per cent. The growth rates in the EU27 were 53 per cent and 31 per cent respectively. Therefore, the trend in Greece was the reverse of the European trend. Finally, the increase in PhD’s (ISCED 6) was 46 per cent in Greece and 26 per cent in the EU27.  In 2010 in Greece 26,835 foreign students were enrolled. 50 per cent were from Cyprus and 20 per cent from Albania. Conversely, 29,091 Greeks were studying abroad. It should be noted however that during this period (2001-2010) Greece is the country among the countries of EU27 with the largest decrease in students studying abroad (in 2001 the corresponding number was 61,694 Greek students abroad). 6.4.3.2 Private higher education The Greek statistical agency does not provide formal data concerning studies in Greek private higher education (at private Colleges). In general, students who choose to study in private colleges of higher education are mainly students who have completed their studies in secondary education and either as candidates took part in the national entrance examinations to a public higher education institution but their results were not satisfactory, or they choose not to take the national entrance examinations and just graduated from secondary education. If these students wish to study on a higher education course they have the option of either finding a place at a university abroad or studying at a private college in Greece. The cost is obviously lower in the case of the second choice and for this reason many students obtain their undergraduate degree from a private college. Then if they choose to continue their studies with a 2nd cycle degree they go to a university abroad which usually collaborates with the private college. [7] 6.4.4 Fees in higher education studies 6.4.4.1 Public higher education The undergraduate programmes remain free of fees with the exception of those at the two specific universities (Hellenic Open University and International Hellenic University). The postgraduate programmes do have fees with strong differentiation. According to Eurydice (2015: 18) tuition fees range from 3,625 to over 12,000 euros per study program. It is characteristic that the prerequisite for approval of a postgraduate program (Master) by the Ministry of Education is the official report of its financial sustainability. Finally, the 3rd cycle of studies (Phd studies) is free. However, the trend towards a formal structuring of doctoral level studies (doctoral schools) is a sign of a movement towards the creation of doctoral programmes with fees. 6.4.4.2 Private higher education The annual fees for an undergraduate course differ among the private higher education institutions (Colleges). But it is much lower than the annual cost of UK universities (an amount of 9,000 UK pounds 8 after the last period increases), which is the main country that Greek students go to when they decide to study aboard (and not in Greek public sector higher education). 6.4.5 Funding in public higher education In Greece the funding system has, more or less, similar characteristics to those in most European countries. Formulas estimating the amount of public funding from the annual state budget do exist and they are connected to the number of students enrolled in each university. It should be noted that besides the regular annual national budget, higher education institutions have two other sources of public funding. They can, with a decision by the Ministry of Finance, the body responsible for public investment, and the Ministry of Education, be allocated urgent funding from the Public Investment Budget and through the Special Research Grants Account (SRGA) from which the institutions' research activity is funded. It should be noted that in those Institutions of Higher Education in Greece that have the greatest research activity, the SRGA budget may be equal to, or on a number of occasions exceed, their regular budget. To the above complex of funding possibilities should be added the Institutions' potential to increase their funding to a significant extent through various European programmes, which is important given the overall reduction in public funding due to the economic crisis Greece is experiencing9. At this point we have to make a more analytical note concerning the reduction of the public funding of Greek higher education during the years of economic crisis. [8] In a report prepared for KANEP/GSEE10 Paizis analyzed and studied the education system of Greece from 2001 until the academic year 2012-13 and managed to reflect the impact of the economic crisis in Greece on public finance of the higher education system. Indicatively: As far as the financing of higher education through the Ministry of Education is concerned it is noted that although in 2009 the university institutions were subsidized by the total amount of €241.7m, recording a significant increase of 62.8 per cent compared to the corresponding financing for 2004, two years later, in 2011 they were subsidized by the total amount of €164.0m, recording a significant decrease of 47.4 per cent compared to the corresponding grant for 2009 (Paizis, 2014b: 149-150). Compared to the broader economic situation in Greece in the same period, in the three years 2005-2008 (before the onset of the economic crisis) it recorded an overall increase in the allocation of higher education institutions’ operational costs of 23.4 per cent which is higher than the corresponding increase in the country's GDP in the same period (21.8 per cent). In the next period 2008-2012, i.e. the start of the financial crisis in Greece, the whole allocation of operating costs record a significant decrease of -38.9 per cent much higher than the corresponding decreases in economic indicators during these four years (Paizis, 2014b: 484). Moreover, a synthetic study of Eurydice shows that Greece was the EU country with the largest effects (decreases) in the funding of higher education due to the current economic crisis (Eurydice 2013). As expected, under the present economic crisis the funding in Greek higher education should probably worsen. As confirmation of the previous thought, and based on data from a report by the European University Association (EUA) on the Public Funding Observatory: Greece continues to cut back on higher education funding, with a drop of around 11 per cent during 2014, following a 24 per cent cut in 2013. And it should be noted that these figures do not include staff costs, as university staff are civil servants and as such are affected by across-the-board cuts in the public service (EUA 2014: 7). The overall trend for the period 2008-2014 as far as Greece is concerned is for a decrease in public funding in excess of 40 per cent (EUA 2014: 10). 6.5 State of Equity/ Inequity in higher education 6.5.1 Gender Overall the picture for the academic year 2013-14 is that more women are studying in the public university sector, at undergraduate and postgraduate level. Moreover the data from the Greek statistical agency shows that they seem to perform better than men as far as the time required to finish their studies and the dropout rates are concerned. In table 6.3 the overall picture for the postgraduate cycles (the second and the third, Master and PhD respectively) is presented. Again the percentage of women that participate in the 2nd and 3rd cycle of studies at university level is 52.7 per cent11. [9] Insert Table 6.3 about here In order to further analyze the issue of gender we have to remember that from the data of the previous table (Table 6.2) it could be concluded that the percentage of women studying in the 1st cycle during the predetermined duration of a study programme is 58.2 per cent in AEIs and 47.8 per cent in TEIs. The difference in participation concerning gender between AEI and TEI conceals a significant variation in the study objects. Indeed, there are overwhelmingly more women in specific areas such as the humanities and social sciences (about 80 per cent of new-entrants) and medical (about 75 per cent). In contrast, in other areas, such as engineering studies, men predominate (women are less than 20 per cent, of new entrants). Finally, in some areas both genders are equally represented (e.g. Business Administration or Science) (Paizis 2014: 271). However, in 2011, it was expected, concerning the entrance into a Department/School of Higher Education, that 65 per cent of women of similar age and only 50 per cent of men of the same age would enter (ibid 268). Another issue that emerged with the massification of higher education is that of delaying or abandoning studies. In Greece, the problem is important12. Thus, the Greek statistical agency has created a category of "students" that it calls "beyond the normal study time". Indeed, the ratio of "students in normal period of studies" to "beyond normal period of time" students is 1:1 Indeed, 51.5 per cent of the registered students in the 1st cycle are beyond the expected time for the completion of a study programme. Moreover the delay or postponement of studies is gender related. The percentage of men that delay or postpone their studies is even bigger than the average quoted above: 56.6 per cent of the men are studying in a semester beyond the time needed for the completion of the study programme. At this point it should be noted that Greek legislation has chosen not to present the student withdrawal process. This is due to the fact that the first cycle has no tuition and after (n+2)13 years of study the student loses all student privileges or facilities, therefore there is no cost for the state. This point, however, is a source of tension and numerous discussions with intense political conflict. On the other hand, this phenomenon seems to be linked directly with the inadequacy of the level of development of higher education and the labor market in Greece. Indeed with the existing data even before the economic crisis, the employment prospects of graduates were not attractive (Paizis 2014a: 475-478). Another important issue concerning gender in the Greek higher education system from a different perspective is the participation of women on the academic staff of the universities (AEIs) and Technological Institutions of higher education (TEIs). In table 6.4 an overall picture of Greek academic staff in the academic year 201314 is presented. Insert Table 6.4 about here [10] In the university sector the overall percentage of women working as academic staff is only 31.0 per cent. So the 58.2 per cent of women students of the 1st cycle are being taught by only 31.0 per cent of women academic staff. In addition, as appears from the data the Institution with the lowest percentage of women participating as academic staff is the Technical University of Crete, with 19.8 per cent. The University of Piraeus follows with 19.9 per cent and then the other Technical University, the National Technical University of Athens (22.2 per cent). This means that in the two Technical Universities and in the University of Piraeus only 1 out of five members of academic staff are women. Respectively the picture in the technological institutions’ sector (TEIs) is slightly better as far as gender is concerned. The overall percentage of women academic staff is 35.5 per cent with the lowest participation of women on the academic staff being at the TEI of Thessaly at 19.8 per cent. 6.5.2 Students’ social background As an overview, Greek higher education presents the same features as most countries. Students from families with a low educational level are under-represented. Indeed, it seems that the importance of the mother’s educational level has greater impact than that of the father’s. However, Greece is part of the group of countries with a strong upward educational mobility. Specifically, in 2009, in the 21 EU countries that provided data, the average number of young people with a higher level degree than that of their parents was 39 per cent, while in Greece it was 49 per cent (Paizis 2014a: 472). This put Greece in 5th place among the 21 EU member countries. As far the family’s professional profile is concerned, it seems that the father’s occupation has a greater effect as the mother’s. There are professions that are over-represented (scientific and artistic professions, office employees, employees in the armed forces, etc.) and others that are under-represented (e.g. farmers, ranchers, fishermen, machine operators, the unemployed etc.) (Paizis 2014b: 472). This general picture is different between AEI and TEI. TEI seems to receive the most disadvantaged. But also internally there seem to be variations both at universities and at TEI (Paizis 2014b: 348). For example, in six (6) Institutions (Athens School of Fine Arts, National Technical University of Athens, University of Crete, Agricultural University of Athens, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki and Athens University of Economics and Business) students whose father is a laborer are strongly underrepresented. Also within an Institution there are Institutions where significant variations as far as this parameter is concerned appear: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Democritus University of Thrace, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, University of Crete, University of Ioannina, University of Patras (ibid.: 349). Some additional detailed information about higher education institutions are presented: 6.5.2.1 Universities (AEIs) According to the last survey by the Greek statistical agency for the academic year 2013-14, 58.1 per cent of first-time registered students were women. Of the total number of first-time registered students, 78.4 per cent were of ‘normal age’ (18 years old). The proportion of first time registered students at the age of 18 years old [11] among women is slightly higher (80.2 per cent). Consequently almost 1 out of 4 students was at least one year older than ‘normal’ entry age. 93.8 per cent of this population has graduated from a Greek secondary school and of those, 90.5 per cent from a public/state secondary school. The foreign first-time registered students were 6.2 per cent of the total, while those born abroad were 8.7 per cent. Finally, 10.1 per cent were working while 2.2 per cent already had another degree from higher education (AEI or TEI). 6.5.2.2 Technological institutions (TEIs) According to the last survey by the Greek statistical agency for the academic year 2013-14, 45.3 per cent of first-time registered students were women. Of the total number of first-time registered students 71.1 per cent were the ‘normal’ age (18 years old). The corresponding percentage for women is 73.4 per cent. Consequently almost 1 out of 4 students was at least one year older than ‘normal’ entry age. 96.8 per cent of TEI first year registered students had graduated from Greek secondary schools. The foreign first-time registering students were 8.8 per cent. Finally, 12.2 per cent were working while 1.7 per cent already had another degree from higher education (AEI or TEI). 6.5.3 Economic factors The picture that is reflected on the students’ social background was formed through a series of filters that have strong economic dimension. We briefly mention three of them. First, the selection of high school and the sector of studies seems to play an important role (Kontogiannopoulou-Polydorides 1999). Secondly, there is the type of preparation for the national entry exams (Sianou-Kyrgiou 2008). Third, is the choice of scientific field and location of studies. Indeed, the latter has emerged as a major dimension in recent years due to the economic crisis. But what is it composed of? The education policy from 1980 onwards, especially in the 90s, focused on the need not only for enlargement, but also for the geographical spreading of the network of higher education institutions. The basic idea was that excluding the area of Athens (Attica) and Thessaloniki (Central Macedonia) each Greek region should have at least one AEI and one TEI14. Thus, the expansion of the higher education network was closely linked to the country's regional development. However, the trend of population dispersion did not follow the central idea of this policy. Instead, an over-concentration of population in the two major centers of the country has been created. Thus, about 40 per cent of the population is located in the greater Athens area and together with the area of Thessaloniki this figure exceeds 55 per cent of the total population. Consequently and given the nationwide dimension of the process of students’ entrance into the public higher education system, each candidate must, in addition to selecting a study programme also select the study location. The possibility of having to move out of the family home increases the cost of studies significantly. So in a period of economic crisis, this dimension seems to acquire a central role in the selection or rather in the limiting of selection of study programmes. It is obvious that the economic status of the family plays a key role in the selection of [12] studies and, as a result, a number of regional institutions, especially those in low demand face survival problems. Indicatively from the data of the Greek Statistic Agency we have selected two Institutions based in Attica (the Athens University and the TEI of Athens) and two institutions based in the Region of Epirus (University of Ioannina and Epirus TEI) in order to see their percentage of new students in the academic year 2013-14 whose family probably15 live elsewhere. This choice was not accidental. We have chosen two Institutions located in Attica (where about 40 per cent of the population of Greece lives) and two institutions from mainland Greece. The percentages of students whose place of birth is different to the location of the institutions and therefore an important proportion of them do not stay in their family home during their studies at the two Institutions based in Attica are: 31.2 per cent and 30.6 per cent for the University of Athens and for the TEI of Athens respectively. For the two Institutions located in the region of Epirus the percentages are 81.6 per cent and 77.6 per cent for the University of Ioannina and for the TEI of Epirus respectively, i.e. 8 out of 10 first-year students were born in another region. 6.5.4 Religion Greece is a very homogeneous country concerning this issue. Over 95 per cent of the population is typically Orthodox Christian. Therefore, this dimension does not exist. It should however be noted that for a small minority of Muslims, Greece has, since 1996, been implementing a positive discrimination policy since it was a vulnerable group with a great tendency to abandon school, Thus, minority high school graduates can enter higher education with a special procedure outside the national exams. 6.6 Existing policies concerning inequity and inequality As already mentioned, the basic policy choice concerning first cycle studies is that this cycle is fees-free. As a consequence the need for a comprehensive study support mechanism (scholarships, loans, etc.) is limited. Indeed, in terms of loans, there is no loan system with public funding (Eurydice 2011: 53). So support takes two forms. On the one hand, there is support for the student's family through tax-reliefs and a benefit for the economically weakest families. On this point Greece is consistent with eight other EU countries: Belgium, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Austria, Poland, Slovenia and Slovakia (Eurydice 2011: 54). On the other hand, there is direct support for students. This support concerns either all students or a part of them based on social/economic criteria. In the first case, for example, every student has the right to have a free book per course for all the courses required for the bachelor degree. This measure does not apply to two specific universities (Hellenic Open University and International Hellenic University) and for students who have exceeded the n+2 time limit for obtaining their degree. The most important support though is that all students have free health insurance and care. In the second case, based on family income criteria and/or social criteria (i.e. the number of children in families) some students are entitled to discounts on public transport, free catering [13] services or use of specific restaurants with coupons and priority for the limited places in students’ halls of residence. In addition, there are special procedures for entry into higher education for special categories of students who either come from specific vulnerable groups or who are a priority for the Greek state such as the extensive Greek Diaspora. More specifically: - for individuals with serious illnesses or disabilities (an additional 5 per cent on the number of admissions)16, - for the Muslim minority in Thrace (an additional 0.5 per cent on the number of admissions), - for the Greeks who live/have lived abroad (an additional 8 per cent on the number of admissions), - for foreign students (an additional 8 per cent on the number of admissions). Moreover, students with a place on a study programme located far away from their family’s residence could reregister at a higher education institution which is located close to their family’s residence if they meet certain social and/or financial criteria or could reregister in the city where their brothers/sisters are already studying if there is a corresponding study programme in that location. Finally, although all the policies mentioned are valid it should be noted that from 2012 onwards the support conditions have worsened and the total amounts given for these policies have been reduced. Therefore, an increase in inequalities in Greek higher education is possible during the last five years. Moreover some new measures have been implemented: (a) a limitation is imposed on reregistration of students from regional to central institutions, and (b) reductions in wages and more generally in a family’s income result in limits on candidates’ choices concerning their studies especially for students with poor performance from low and middle income households and wider vulnerable groups. 6.7 Conclusion The analysis in this chapter concerns a survey of possible inequalities in Greek higher education and the policies provided for smoothing them out. The main conclusions from the above analysis are:  The significant expansion of higher education undoubtedly helped important population groups to enter higher education for the first time. However social inequalities do not seem to have been limited, they just changed form. They are not anymore an issue of no access or lack of access, but they are more about the "kind of access". Inequality transferred to the level of Institutional selection and within each institution to the level of study programme selection.  The enlargement of the higher education system seems to reveal a new problem, that of the extension or abandonment of studies.  The abandonment of studies appears to be linked with employment prospects and the level of future remuneration. Greece appears to encounter a significant mismatch problem between development of higher education and labor market needs.  Women represent the majority of students while the dimension ‘gender’ is very strong, creating maledominated and female-dominated courses. [14]  The choice of the Greek State to apply a tuitions-free policy for the first cycle of higher education studies reduced the needs for developing countermeasures to support them. Nevertheless, a series of measures try to facilitate access and the study period. Some of them are addressed to all students and others are aimed at specific student groups, usually on the basis of family income criteria.  Finally, in the period of economic crisis in Greece during the last five years, both the reduction of funds for these policies and the wider worsening of the economic status of students’ families threaten to reinforce existing inequalities. References Banque Mondiale. 1980. Education. Politique Sectorielle. Washington: Banque Mondiale, 3eme edition. Bologna Process. 2007. Towards the European Higher Education Area: responding to challenges in a globalised world. London Communiqué, 18 May 2007. EUA. 2014. Public Funding Observatory. Brussels: EUA. Eurydice. 2013. Funding of Education in Europe 2000-2012. The impact of the economic crisis. Brussels. Eurydice. 2014. Eurydice in brief. Modernization of Higher Education in Europe. Brussels. Eurydice. 2014. Modernization of higher education in Europe. Access, retention and employability 2014. Brussels. Eurydice. 2015. National student fee and support systems in European higher education. Brussels. HepNet. 2013. The Greek Higher Education Institutions in the world rankings, Report 8. Patras: HepNet. Kavasakalis A. 2014. Quality Assurance in Doctoral Education – results of the ARDE project (EUA publications 2013): From QA policies in HE and 3rd cycle HE policies to the Accountable Research environment for Doctoral Education (ARDE) project. An analysis of the EUA publication. Patras: Interuniversity Higher Education Policy Network (http://hepnet.upatras.gr), Study 13. Kavasakalis, Αggelos. 2015 - under publication. ‘Development and enlargement of Greek higher education, 1998-2004: An analysis of strategic and geographical oriented planning: Myths and realities”. Chapter book (In Greek). Kontogiannopoulou–Polydoridis, Gitsa. 1999. Sociological analysis of school performance and evaluation. The entrance examinations: setting performance, integration into hierarchical higher education school performance. Athens: Gutenberg. Law 3391/2005. International Hellenic University and other stipulations. Official Gazette of the Hellenic Republic, First Issue, No, 240, 4 October 2005 (in Greek). Law 3696/2008. The Founding and Operation of Colleges and other clauses. Government Gazette of the Greek Democracy, First Volume, Issue No. 177, 25 August 2008 (in Greek). Law 4071/2012. Arrangements for local development, governance and decentralized administration Integration Directive 2009/50 / EC. Official Gazette of the Hellenic Republic, First Issue, No. 85, 11 April 2012 (in Greek). [15] Law 4076/2012. Issues’ arrangements of Higher Education Institutions and other provisions. Official Gazette of the Hellenic Republic, First Issue, No. 159, 10 August 2012 (in Greek). NESET. 2013. Dropout and completion in higher education in Europe among students from underrepresented groups. An independent report authored for the European Commission by Jocey Quinn on behalf of the NESET network of experts. Brussels: European Commission. Paizis, Nikos. 2014a. The highlights of education - Greek higher education 2012-13. Part A: European and international reference framework (2001-2012). Athens: KANEP/GSEE, ISBN: 978-618-5006-12-9. - - - . 2014b. The highlights of education - Greek higher education Part B: The National Reference Framework (2002-2012). Athens: KANEP/GSEE, ISBN: 978–618–5006–15–0. Presidential Decree (PD) 38, OGF78. 2010. Conformity of Greek legislation to Directive 2005/36/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 7th September 2005, concerning the recognition of professional qualifications. Government Gazette of the Greek Democracy, First Volume, Issue No. 78, 25 May 2010. Schoinas K. 1837. Speeches made by the Rector and the four school Deans on the founding day of the Otto University. Athens: Papadopoulos. Sianou-Kyrgiou, Eleni, and Iakovos Tsiplakides. 2011. ‘Similar performance, but different choices: social class and higher education choice in Greece”, Studies in Higher Education, 36(1): 89-102. Sianou-Kyrgiou, Eleni. 2008. ‘Social class and access to higher education in Greece: supportive preparation lessons and success in national exams’, International Studies in Sociology of Education 8(3-4): 173-83. Stamelos G and Paivandi S. 2015. ‘Editorial: Access in Higher Education in Southern Europe’, Academia, 5: 1-17. Stamelos, George. 1990. Le phénomène « étudiant étranger ». Le cas des étudiants hellènes dans les universités françaises. Thèse de Doctorat. Paris : Université Paris 8. Stamelos G. 2014. ‘The Structure and Characteristics of Higher Education in Greece: 1990 – 2010 Reforms’. In Joshi K.M. & Paivandi S. (eds.) Higher Education across Nations. Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation. Vol.I. 175-246. Stamelos G. and Kavasakalis A. 2015a. ‘Private Higher Education in Greece: an area of tension between national and international education policies’. In Joshi K.M. & Paivandi S. (eds.), Private Higher Education: A Global Perspective, pp. 106-138. India, Delhi: B .R. Publishing Corporation India, Delhi: B .R. Publishing Corporation, ISBN: 9789350502075. - - -. 2015b. ‘Higher Education Governance across Nations: The case of Greece’. In Joshi K.M. & Paivandi S. (eds.), Global Higher Education: Issues in Governance, pp. 34-62. Delhi: B .R. Publishing Corporation, ISBN: 9789350502235. 1 In the first two paragraphs (6.2 and 6.3) of this chapter various parts from the authors’ previous publications of the related books’ series have been used: - Stamelos G. 2014. ‘The Structure and Characteristics of Higher Education in Greece: 1990 – 2010 Reforms’, In Joshi K.M. & Paivandi S. Higher Education across Nations, Vol.I. 175-246. Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation. [16] Stamelos G. and Kavasakalis A. 2015a. ‘Private Higher Education in Greece: an area of tension between national and international education policies’, In Joshi K.M. & Paivandi S. Private Higher Education: A Global Perspective, pp. 106-138. India, Delhi: B .R. Publishing Corporation India, Delhi: B .R. Publishing Corporation, ISBN: 9789350502075. - Stamelos G, and Kavasaskalis A. 2015b. ‘Higher Education Governance across Nations: The case of Greece’, In Joshi K.M. & Paivandi S. Global Higher Education: Issues in Governance, pp. 34-62. Delhi: B .R. Publishing Corporation, ISBN: 9789350502235. 2 Hepnet: Interuniversity Higher Education Policy Network (http://hepnet.upatras.gr). 3 The basic law which determines the functioning of the private institutes (colleges) in Greece is Law 3696/2008 entitled 'Establishment and Operation of Colleges and other clauses' as well as the Presidential Decree 38 of May 2010 entitled 'Adaption of Greek legislation to Decree 2005/36/EC of the European Parliament of the 7th September, 2005, concerning the recognition of professional qualifications' (Presidential Decree (PD) 38, OGF78/2010). At the European level the Directive 89/48/EC and the Directive 36/2005/EC are the basic policy decisions that put pressures on the national laws concerning higher education. 4 The truth however is that these recommendations are rarely taken into account. Indeed, this is an issue that has been highlighted by the evaluation process that took place under the provision of the Hellenic Quality Assurance and Accreditation Agency (HQA) and became a subject of concern in the mass media. This could result in the opening of a discussion for the process’ redefinition. 5 Doctoral schools were established with the specific aim of moving away from a highly individualized model of delivery based on the personal master-apprentice relationship between supervisor and supervisee. Instead, the goal was to enhance institutional responsibility in order to integrate doctoral candidates into a research environment beyond the activities of their supervisor and to facilitate, for example cross-disciplinary research groups. The EUA Trends reports illustrate the rapid development well: from the 2005 Trends IV report, respondents have indicated doctoral education as an important area for reform, and the percentage of institutions with at least one doctoral school (regardless of whether it is at the programme or institutional level) roughly doubled from 2007 to 2010, going from 29 per cent to 65 per cent. In the ARDE questionnaire, this number had risen to more than 80%. Increasing institutional engagement has allowed institutions to develop career services for doctoral candidates and, not least, to establish quality assurance processes, which in many systems had been completely absent. This being said, the move towards a professional management of doctoral education has brought with it a number of processes that are de facto quality assurance processes, but without having been defined as such (Kavasakalis, 2014: 14-15). 6 For more information you may see: http://www.ehea.info/Uploads/%281%29/Bologna%20Process%20Implementation%20Report.pdf 7 The data come from the Greek statistical agency (http://www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE) 8 With the current exchange rates it is about 13,500 euros. 9 With reference to the credits that the 2014 budget foresees, for the whole of the Ministry of Education: For the 2014 financial year, payments for projects funded from national resources, 90,000,000.00 euros and payments for projects funded from community resources, 400,000,000.00 euros. 10 KANEP represents the Greek General Confederation of Labour (GSEE) in the area of Education and Lifelong learning, promoting the agenda of trade unions which includes employment policies, policies for combating social exclusion, and reinforcement of trade union presence in society. 11 In technological institutions (TEIs) the corresponding percentage is 45.8 per cent. 12 This issue is international. Indicatively see NESET, 2013. 13 “n” is the number of years for the period of study for its first cycle programme. 14 For more details see Kavasakalis, 2015 (under publication). 15 The data from the Greek statistic agency shows the birthplace of students and not the place of residence of their families. So obviously the percentage derived from these figures is probably higher than the actual percentage of students studying away from the family home. But in general it gives us an idea of the magnitude of the problem. 16 Special cases of candidates for entrance into Greek tertiary education and the additional places for them are determined ιn a law in 2012 (Law 4071/2012) in particular in article 44 in paragraphs 2 and 3. The special applicants are candidates from large families (three children and more), candidates with a brother or sister, an active student in the first cycle, orphans without either one or both parents or children of unmarried mothers with one or two non-recognized children, parents, children, siblings, spouses who are blind or deaf or kidney patients, on dialysis or suffering from Duchene muscular dystrophy or a category of people with special needs because they have mobility problems due to disability over 67 per cent, children of victims of terrorism. A provision is also made for under-represented social groups or even specifically for the Muslims living at Thrace. - [17] 6. Equity in Higher Education systems: the case of Greece George Stamelos and Aggelos Kavasakalis Tables and Figures of Chapter 6. Table 6.1 Public Higher Education Institutions 2013-14 No. Universities (AEI) No. Technological Institutions of higher education (TEI) 1 National and Kapodistrian University of Athens 1 TEI of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace 2 University of the Aegean 2 TEI of Thessaloniki 3 University of Thessaly 3 TEI of Central Macedonia 4 Aristotle University of Thessaloniki 4 TEI of Western Macedonia 5 Democritus University of Thrace 5 TEI of Epirus 6 Ionian University 6 TEI of the Ionian Islands 7 University of Ioannina 7 TEI of Western Greece 8 University of Crete 8 TEI of Central Greece 9 University of Patras 9 TEI of Thessaly 10 Athens University of Economics and Business 10 TEI of the Peloponnese 11 Pantion University of Political and Social Sciences 11 TEI of Athens 12 University of Piraeus 12 TEI of Pireaus 13 University of Macedonia 13 ASPAITE 14 Agricultural University of Athens 14 TEI of Crete 15 Athens School of Fine Arts 16 Harokopio University 17 University of the Peloponnese 18 University of Western Macedonia 19 Technical University of Crete 20 National Technical University of Athens 21 International Hellenic University 22 Hellenic Open University [1] Table 6.2 Students in undergraduate cycle: Academic year 2013-14 Universities (AEI) TOTAL number of students Number of students in regular semesters Number of students beyond the duration of regular semesters TOTAL MEN WOMEN W/T TOTAL MEN WOMEN W/T TOTAL MEN WOMEN W/T (T) (M) (W) % (T) (M) (W) % (T) (M) (W) % TOTAL 386344 185716 200628 51.9 179784 75213 104571 58.2 206560 110503 96057 46.5 National and Kapodistrian University of Athens 83106 35612 47494 57.1 27040 8739 18301 67.7 56066 26873 29193 52.1 University of the Aegean 15035 6485 8550 56.9 9007 3598 5409 60.1 6028 2887 3141 52.1 University of Thessaly 11812 5698 6114 51.8 8215 3679 4536 55.2 3597 2019 1578 43.9 Aristotle University of Thessaloniki 70638 33859 36779 52.1 31355 12493 18862 60.2 39283 21366 17917 45.6 Democritus University of Thrace 23813 10672 13141 55.2 15096 6292 8804 58.3 8717 4380 4337 49.8 Ionian University 4340 1619 2721 62.7 2449 939 1510 61.7 1891 680 1211 64.0 University of Ioannina 19808 8274 11534 58.2 11304 4057 7247 64.1 8504 4217 4287 50.4 University of Crete 17812 7208 10604 59.5 10821 3958 6863 63.4 6991 3250 3741 53.5 University of Patras 28630 15313 13317 46.5 17050 7972 9078 53.2 11580 7341 4239 36.6 19590 12028 7562 38.6 6420 3463 2957 46.1 13170 8565 4605 35.0 19951 7320 12631 63.3 7288 2270 5018 68.9 12663 5050 7613 60.1 21623 13246 8377 38.7 7502 4275 3227 43.0 14121 8971 5150 36.5 16759 9539 7220 43.1 5917 2646 3271 55.3 10842 6893 3949 36.4 5441 3066 2375 43.7 2381 1187 1194 50.1 3060 1879 1181 38.6 1506 539 967 64.2 772 237 535 69.3 734 302 432 58.9 1727 755 972 56.3 1013 438 575 56.8 714 317 397 55.6 Athens University of Economics and Business Pantion University of Political and Social Sciences University of Piraeus University of Macedonia Agricultural University of Athens Athens School of Fine Arts Harokopio University [2] University of the Peloponnese 5781 2482 3299 57.1 3947 1608 2339 59.3 1834 874 960 52.3 University of Western Macedonia 2782 1216 1566 56.3 2321 945 1376 59.3 461 271 190 41.2 Technical University of Crete 4396 2900 1496 34.0 2654 1662 992 37.4 1742 1238 504 28.9 11794 7885 3909 33.1 7232 4755 2477 34.3 4562 3130 1432 31.4 National Technical University of Athens International Hellenic University Hellenic Open University TOTAL number of students Number of students in regular semesters Number of students beyond the duration of regular semesters Technological Institutions of higher education (TEI) TOTAL MEN WOMEN W/T TOTAL MEN WOMEN W/T TOTAL MEN WOMEN W/T (T) (M) (W) % (T) (M) (W) % (T) (M) (W) % TOTAL 220724 125113 95611 43.3 114547 59775 54772 47.8 106177 65338 40839 38.5 TEI of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace 10818 7056 3762 34.8 6312 3931 2381 37.7 4506 3125 1381 30.6 TEI of Thessaloniki 20081 10113 9968 49.6 11678 5353 6325 54.2 8403 4760 3643 43.4 TEI of Central Macedonia 14047 8118 5929 42.2 7430 4324 3106 41.8 6617 3794 2823 42.7 TEI of Western Macedonia 18621 11100 7521 40.4 7918 4904 3014 38.1 10703 6196 4507 42.1 TEI of Epirus 9730 3632 6098 62.7 6510 2269 4241 65.1 3220 1363 1857 57.7 TEI of the Ionian Islands 3680 1663 2017 54.8 2682 1248 1434 53.5 998 415 583 58.4 25336 13009 12327 48.7 13262 6458 6804 51.3 12074 6551 5523 45.7 TEI of Central Greece 20445 13710 6735 32.9 10900 6901 3999 36.7 9545 6809 2736 28.7 TEI of Thessaly 19318 11356 7962 41.2 10605 5717 4888 46.1 8713 5639 3074 35.3 TEI of the Peloponnese 5462 2657 2805 51.4 3555 1673 1882 52.9 1907 984 923 48.4 TEI of Athens 26301 10878 15423 58.6 14857 5245 9612 64.7 11444 5633 5811 50.8 TEI of Pireaus 23754 18153 5601 23.6 6350 4761 1589 25.0 17404 13392 4012 23.1 ASPAITE 2938 2196 742 25.3 1905 1398 507 26.6 1033 798 235 22.7 TEI of Crete 19706 11085 8621 43.7 10386 5429 4957 47.7 9320 5656 3664 39.3 TEI of Western Greece [3] Table 6.3 Students in postgraduate cycles: Academic year 2013-14 TOTAL number of students (2nd and 3rd cycle) Universities (AEI) TOTAL (T) MEN (M) WOMEN (W) W/T % TOTAL 60080 28407 31673 52.7 National and Kapodistrian University of Athens 14874 6758 8116 54.6 University of the Aegean 1929 835 1094 56.7 University of Thessaly 2453 1037 1416 57.7 Aristotle University of Thessaloniki 9214 4284 4930 53.5 Democritus University of Thrace 3971 1843 2128 53.6 Ionian University 662 267 395 59.7 University of Ioannina 3203 1448 1755 54.8 University of Crete 2368 1047 1321 55.8 University of Patras 3849 2069 1780 46.2 Athens University of Economics and Business 1983 930 1053 53.1 Pantion University of Political and Social Sciences 2336 1048 1288 55.1 University of Piraeus 3231 1735 1496 46.3 University of Macedonia 1668 869 799 47.9 Agricultural University of Athens 665 293 372 55.9 Athens School of Fine Arts 167 70 97 58.1 Harokopio University 797 286 511 64.1 University of the Peloponnese 1301 469 832 64.0 University of Western Macedonia 619 186 433 70.0 Technical University of Crete 562 340 222 39.5 National Technical University of Athens 4228 2593 1635 38.7 International Hellenic University Hellenic Open University Technological Institutions of higher education (TEI) TOTAL number of students (only 2nd cycle) TOTAL (T) TOTAL 1449 [4] MEN (M) 785 WOMEN (W) 664 W/T % 45.8 TEI of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace 188 99 89 47.3 TEI of Thessaloniki 109 39 70 64.2 TEI of Central Macedonia 167 50 117 70.1 TEI of Western Macedonia 130 87 43 33.1 37 27 10 27.0 78 9 69 88.5 TEI of Athens 66 55 11 16.7 TEI of Pireaus 370 259 111 30.0 ASPAITE 69 8 61 88.4 TEI of Crete 235 152 83 35.3 TEI of Epirus TEI of the Ionian Islands TEI of Western Greece TEI of Central Greece TEI of Thessaly TEI of the Peloponnese [5] Table 6.4 Academic staff: 2013-14 Universities (AEI) TOTAL number of academic staff TOTAL (T) MEN (M) WOMEN (W) W/T % TOTAL 10009 6905 3104 31.0 National and Kapodistrian University of Athens 1997 1249 748 37.5 University of the Aegean 343 239 104 30.3 University of Thessaly 500 348 152 30.4 Aristotle University of Thessaloniki 2224 1489 735 33.0 Democritus University of Thrace 630 466 164 26.0 Ionian University 126 81 45 35.7 University of Ioannina 542 396 146 26.9 University of Crete 526 378 148 28.1 University of Patras 802 604 198 24.7 Athens University of Economics and Business 217 159 58 26.7 Pantion University of Political and Social Sciences 247 146 101 40.9 University of Piraeus 186 149 37 19.9 University of Macedonia 277 195 82 29.6 Agricultural University of Athens 215 151 64 29.8 Athens School of Fine Arts 70 50 20 28.6 Harokopio University 71 38 33 46.5 University of the Peloponnese 152 86 66 43.4 University of Western Macedonia 98 65 33 33.7 Technical University of Crete 177 142 35 19.8 National Technical University of Athens 609 474 135 22.2 International Hellenic University Hellenic Open University Technological Institutions of higher education (TEI) TOTAL number of academic staff TOTAL (T) MEN (M) WOMEN (W) W/T % TOTAL 4259 2747 1512 35.5 TEI of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace 135 99 36 26.7 TEI of Thessaloniki 367 217 150 40.9 TEI of Central Macedonia 199 158 41 20.6 [6] TEI of Western Macedonia 299 193 106 35.5 TEI of Epirus 195 103 92 47.2 TEI of the Ionian Islands 85 48 37 43.5 TEI of Western Greece 492 321 171 34.8 TEI of Central Greece 276 193 83 30.1 TEI of Thessaly 222 178 44 19.8 TEI of the Peloponnese 148 107 41 27.7 TEI of Athens 1018 543 475 46.7 TEI of Pireaus 353 274 79 22.4 ASPAITE 95 69 26 27.4 TEI of Crete 470 313 157 33.4 [7]