Organicity of the Hindu temple

Organicity of the Hindu temple Dr |Uday Dokras  I Organicity of the Hindu temple Dr |Uday Dokras Organicity of the Hindu temple constitutes an integral part of a whole also known as part of the fundamental. Starting with the one celled Dashavatara Temple which is an early 6th century Vishnu Hindu temple located at Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh having a simple, one cell square plan and is one of the earliest Hindu stone temples still surviving today. Built in the Gupta Period, it shows the ornate Gupta style architecture. 1880 sketch of 9-squared Dashavatara temple plan (not to scale, some parts not shown) https://www.academia.edu/89359446/4_The_4_sided_Hindu_Mandir_temple_plan The Dashavatara temple has a high plinth (jagati) and is set with a basement porch. The temple provides steps in the center of all sides of the platform to let the pilgrim enter the temple from all four directions. The temple faces west, with slight deviation to the south that enables the setting sun's rays to fall on the main idol in the temple. The plinth is square with a 55.5 feet (16.9 m) side, about 9 feet (2.7 m) above the bottom step (called the moon stone) of the shrine. Each corner of the platform has an 11 feet (3.4 m) square projection with remnants of a shrine. The plinth was molded in four parallel courses, each molding about 0.95 feet (0.29 m) thick. Above the four moldings, rectangular panels separated by pilasters ran all along the plinth with friezes narrating Hindu texts such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Some of these friezes are now in museums such as the National Museum in Delhi. These show, for example, the narratives from the Krishna legend. On the platform is a nine squares layout. The surviving Vishnu temple is in the middle square. The sanctum is a square with 18.5 feet (5.6 m) side. Its doorway is intricately carved with reliefs. The images on the top of the lintel of the sanctum and walls show Vishnu and Lakshmi, flanked by Shiva, Parvati, Indra, Kartikeya, Ganesha, Brahma and others. The outer wall of the sanctum on three sides have niches with sculptures of Vishnu legends: Gajendra-moksha flying in with Garuda, Nara-Narayana seated in lalitasana position, and Anantasayi Vishnu in reclining position. On the top of the sanctum is the remnants of sikhara of the Dashavatara temple. According to Vats, this sikhara is one of the earliest extant lithic illustration in North India along with the one in Mundeshvari temple in Bihar. The Deogarh temple is built on a square plan, while the Mundeshvari temple is built on an octagonal plan. The Deogarh temple sikhara was pyramidal of receding tiers (tala), with a straight edge. The Dashavatara Temple is closely related to the iconic architectural temple structure described in the Vishnudharmottara Purana, and can be interpreted as an architectural representation of the Chaturvyuha concept and the Pancaratra doctrine, centering on the depictions of the four main emanations of Vishnu: Vāsudeva, Samkarshana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha. Spanning over three thousand years, ancient Egypt was not one stable civilization but in constant change and upheaval, commonly split into periods by historians. Likewise, ancient Egyptian architecture is not one style, but a set of styles differing over time but with some commonalities. The best known example of ancient Egyptian architecture are the Egyptian pyramids, while excavated temples, palaces, tombs, and fortresses have also been studied. Most buildings were built of locally available mud brick and limestone by paid laborers and craftsmen. Monumental buildings were built using the post and lintel method of construction. Many buildings were aligned astronomically. Columns were typically adorned with capitals decorated to resemble plants important to Egyptian civilization, such as the papyrus plant. Ancient Egyptian architectural motifs have influenced architecture elsewhere, reaching the wider world first during the Orientalizing period and again during the nineteenth-century Egyptomania. Step Pyramid of Djoser// Hypostyle column in the Temple of Amun Architecture pyramid, in architecture, a monumental structure constructed of or faced with stone or brick and having a rectangular base and four sloping triangular (or sometimes trapezoidal) sides meeting at an apex (or truncated to form a platform). Pyramids have been built at various times in Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, western Asia, Greece, Cyprus, Italy, India, Thailand, Mexico, South America, and on some islands of the Pacific Ocean. Those of Egypt and of Central and South America are the best known. The pyramids of ancient Egypt were funerary edifices. They were built over a period of 2,700 years, ranging from the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the close of the Ptolemaic period. But the time at which pyramid building reached its acme, the pyramid age par excellence, was that commencing with the 3rd dynasty and ending at roughly the 6th (c. 2686–2325 BCE). During those years the pyramid was the usual type of royal tomb. It was not, as such, an isolated structure but was always part of an architectural complex. The essential components, at least during the Old Kingdom, were the pyramid itself, containing or surmounting the grave proper and standing within an enclosure on high desert ground; an adjacent mortuary temple; and a causeway leading down to a pavilion (usually called the valley temple), situated at the edge of the cultivation and probably connected with the Nile by a canal. Scores of royal pyramids have been found in Egypt, but many of them were reduced to mere mounds of debris and long ago plundered of their treasures. The prototype of the pyramid was the mastaba, a form of tomb known in Egypt from the beginning of the dynastic era. It was characterized by a flat-topped rectangular superstructure of mud brick or stone with a shaft descending to the burial chamber far below it. Djoser, the second king of the 3rd dynasty, employing Imhotep as architect, undertook for the first time the construction of a mastaba entirely of stone; it was 8 metres (26 feet) high and had a square ground plan with sides of about 63 metres (207 feet) each. Once completed it was extended on the ground on all four sides, and its height was increased by building rectangular additions of diminishing size superimposed upon its top. Thus Djoser’s original mastaba became a terraced structure rising in six unequal stages to a height of 60 metres (197 feet), its base measuring 120 metres (394 feet) by 108 metres (354 feet). This monument, which lies at Ṣaqqārah, is known as the Step Pyramid; it is probably the earliest stone building of importance erected in Egypt. The substructure has an intricate system of underground corridors and rooms, its main feature being a central shaft 25 metres (82 feet) deep and 8 metres (26 feet) wide, at the bottom of which is the sepulchral chamber built of granite from Aswān. The Step Pyramid rises within a vast walled court 544 metres (1,785 feet) long and 277 metres (909 feet) wide, in which are the remnants of several other stone edifices built to supply the wants of the king in the hereafter. A structure of peculiar shape called the Bent, Blunted, False, or Rhomboidal Pyramid, which stands at Dahshūr a short distance south of Ṣaqqārah, marks an advance in development toward the strictly pyramidal tomb. Built by Snefru, of the 4th dynasty, it is 188 square metres (2,024 square feet) at the base and approximately 98 metres (322 feet) high. Peculiar in that it has a double slope, it changes inclination about halfway up, the lower portion being steeper than the upper. It comes nearer than Djoser’s terraced tomb to being a true pyramid. A monumental structure at Maydūm, also ascribed to Snefru, was a true pyramid, though not originally planned as such. The initial structure was gradually enlarged until it became a gigantic eight-terraced mass of masonry; then the steps were filled in with a packing of stone to form a continuous slope. The entire structure was eventually covered with a smooth facing of limestone; a geometrically true pyramid was the final result. In its ruined condition, however, it has the appearance of a three-stepped pyramid rising to a height of about 70 metres (230 feet). The earliest tomb known to have been designed and executed throughout as a true pyramid is the Red Pyramid at Dahshūr, thought by some to have also been erected by Snefru. It is about 220 metres (722 feet) wide at the base and 104 metres (341 feet) high. The greatest of the Egyptian pyramids are those of the pharaohs Khufu, Khafre, and Menkure at Giza (see Pyramids of Giza). The Blunted, Bent, False, or Rhomboidal Pyramid, so named because of its peculiar double slope, built by Snefru in the 4th dynasty (c. 2575–c. 2465 BCE), Dahshūr, Egypt. Ivrienen Pyramids of Giza Among American pyramids the best known include the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon at Teotihuacán in central Mexico, the Castillo at Chichén Itzá, and various Inca and Chimú structures in Andean settlements. American pyramids were generally built of earth and then faced with stone, and they are typically of stepped form and topped by a platform or temple structure. The Pyramid of the Sun, with base dimensions of 220 by 230 metres (722 by 755 feet), rivals in size the Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza, which measures 230 square metres (2,476 square feet). Pyramid of the Sun The most famous single pyramid in Latin America is the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacán, Mexico. The Teotihuacán was one of the most dominant societies in Mesoamerica; their namesake capital, located northeast of today’s Mexico City, had a population of 100,000 to 200,000 during the fifth and sixth centuries. According to Aztec tradition, the sun and the moon, as well as the rest of the universe, traced their origins to Teotihuacán. More temples have been discovered there than in any other Mesoamerican city. The Teotihuacán built the Pyramids of the Sun and of the Moon between A.D. 1 and 250. Like many Mesoamerican pyramids, each was constructed around a core of rubble held in place by retaining walls. The walls were then faced with adobe bricks, and then covered with limestone. The base of the Pyramid of the Sun measures 730 feet per side, with five stepped terraces reaching a height of some 200 feet. Its massive size rivals that of the Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza. Within the current pyramid is another, earlier pyramid structure of almost the same size. In 1971, archaeologists discovered a cave underneath the Pyramid of the Sun, leading to a chamber in the shape of a four-leaf clover. Artifacts found in the cave indicated the room’s use as a shrine, long before the pyramid itself was built. The Pyramid of the Moon, though similar, was built on a smaller scale; it sits at the north end of the city’s main axis, called the Avenue of the Dead. Teotihuacán also contains a smaller stepped, stone-covered temple-pyramid called the Temple of the Feathered Serpent (an early form of the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl). It was dedicated around A.D. 200, and evidence has been found of some 200 individuals who were sacrificed in the ceremony to honor it. Teotihuacán declined between the seventh and 10th centuries and was eventually abandoned. Recommended for you Maya The Maya, another dominant civilization of Mesoamerica, made temple-pyramids the glorious centers of their great stone cities. One of the most famous, the magnificently carved Temple of the Inscriptions at Palenque (Mexico), was a funerary monument to the seventh century king Hanab Pakal. The tallest Maya pyramid, located in Tikal, Guatemala, dates to the eighth century A.D., before the civilization’s mysterious decline. Another Maya monument, built in the ninth and 10th centuries A.D., is at the center of the city of Uxmal in the Yucatan. Known as the Pyramid of the Magician or Sorcerer, it was (according to Maya legend) built by the god of magic, Itzamná, as a training center for shamans, healers and priests. The Maya city of Chichén Itzá contains the Castillo, or Temple of Kukulcan (“feathered serpent,” the Maya equivalent of Quetzalcoatl). Constructed around A.D. 1100, the 180-square-foot Castillo was constructed over another temple-pyramid built 100 years earlier. Its four stairways have 91 steps each, which combined with the single step at the entrance to the temple adds up to 365 stairs exactly–the number of days in the Mayan year. (The Maya had a complex astronomical and cosmological system, and often angled their ceremonial buildings, like pyramids, so that they would face sunrise or sunset at particular times of the year.) Aztec Pyramids. The Aztecs, who lived in the Mexican valley between the 12th and 16th centuries, also built pyramids in order to house and honor their deities. The elaborate nature of Aztec pyramids and other architecture was also connected to the Aztec’s warrior culture: The Aztec symbol for conquest was a burning pyramid, with a conqueror destroying the temple at its top. Tenochtitlan, the great Aztec capital, housed the Great Pyramid, a four-stepped structure some 60 meters high. At its top, two shrines honored Huitzilopochtli, the Aztec god of sun and war, and Tlaloc, god of rain and fertility. The Great Pyramid was destroyed along with the rest of the Aztec civilization by the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes and his army in 1521. Underneath its ruins, the remains of six earlier pyramids were later found, evidence of the constant rebuilding process common to the Mesoamerican pyramids. Located in the plains surrounding the city of Puebla (founded by the Spanish colonists), the pyramid complex of Cholula (named for the Mesoamerican people that built it) was the largest single structure in pre-Columbian Mexico. Constructed from adobe in four stages of construction beginning around the second century B.C., the Pyramid of Cholula measured 1,083 by 1,034 feet at the base and was about 82 feet high. The warrior Toltecs conquered the region around 1200 and rebuilt the pyramid as their ceremonial center. The Aztecs later claimed it as their own, dedicating it to the god Quetzalcoatl. When the Spaniards destroyed the holy city of Cholula in the 16th century, they built a church atop the ruins of the huge pyramid complex in a conscious attempt to claim the New World for Christianity. Pyramids to the South: Moche & Inca More pyramids can be found in South America, which was home to indigenous populations like the Moche, Chimú and Incas. The Moche, who lived along the northern coast of what is now Peru, built their pyramids of adobe, or sun-dried mud-bricks. The Huaca del Sol (or Holy Place of the Sun) was almost 100 feet tall and built of more than 143 million bricks, while the Huaca de la Luna (dedicated to the moon) was rebuilt multiple times over a 600-year period. Some 80 years before the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro arrived in the Andes, the Inca ruler Pachacuti Yupanqui (A.D. 1438 to 1471) began the construction of a great temple-pyramid, Sascahuamán, in the capital city of Cuzco. It took 20,000 workers 50 years to build the pyramid, constructed from huge stones fitted together without mortar. The Incas, Latin America’s last great indigenous civilization to survive, used the same building techniques to construct their marvelous stone city, Machu Picchu, high in the Andes. https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/pyramids-in-latin-america https://johnwhye.com/2015/08/29/pyramids-and-the-incas/ Mesoamerican pyramids form a prominent part of ancient Mesoamerican architecture. Although similar in some ways to Egyptian pyramids, these New World structures have flat tops (many with temples on the top) and stairs ascending their faces. The largest pyramid in the world by volume is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the east-central Mexican state of Puebla. The builders of certain classic Mesoamerican pyramids have decorated them copiously with stories about the Hero Twins, the feathered serpent Quetzalcoatl, Mesoamerican creation myths, ritualistic sacrifice, etc. written in the form of hieroglyphs on the rises of the steps of the pyramids, on the walls, and on the sculptures contained within. II Introduction In many religions God visits Earth. In Christianity, that moment is the birth of Christ.” On that first Christmas night the Bible tells us about the angel coming to those fearful shepherds and saying, “Fear not, I bring you good news.” What is the real meaning of that good news? The Bible teaches that Jesus Christ was a visitor from Heaven itself. He was God Incarnate. And there were shepherds living out in the fields nearby, keeping watch over their flocks at night. An angel of the Lord appeared to them, and the glory of the Lord shone around them, and they were terrified. But the angel said to them, “Do not be afraid. I bring you good news that will cause great joy for all the people. Today in the town of David a Savior has been born to you; He is the Messiah, the Lord. This will be a sign to you:  You will find a baby wrapped in cloths and lying in a manger.” — Luke 2:8–12 The term Theophany (from Ancient Greek (ἡ) θεοφάνεια theophaneia,[1] meaning "appearance of a deity") is the manifestation of a deity in an observable way.This term has been used to refer to appearances of the gods in ancient Greek and Near Eastern religions. While the Iliad is the earliest source for descriptions of theophanies in classical antiquity (which occur throughout Greek mythology), probably the earliest description appears in the Epic of Gilgamesh. A specific usage for Christians and Jews, with respect to the Bible: theophany refers to a manifestation of the Abrahamic God, a revealed presence sensed by a person. In Hinduism, the manifestations of Vishnu on earth are referred to as Vishnu's avatars. The most popular avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism is Krishna. The most well-known theophany is contained within the Bhagavad-Gita, itself one chapter of the larger epic the Mahabharata. On the battlefield of Kurukshetra, Krishna gives the famed warrior Arjuna a series of teachings, and Arjuna begs for Krishna to reveal his "universal form." Krishna complies and gives Arjuna the spiritual vision which enables him to see Krishna in that form, a magnificent and awe-inspiring manifestation, containing everything in the universe. A description of this theophany forms the main part of Chapter X. Human religious lore includes ancient literary recordings of deities appearing to animals, usually with the animals able to relate the experience to humans using human speech: In numerous creation stories, a deity or deities speak with many kinds of animals, often prior to the formation of dry land on earth. In the Hindu Ramayana, the monkey leader Hanuman is informed by deities, and usually consciously addressed by them. In Chinese mythology, the Monkey King speaks with bodhisattvas, buddhas, and a host of heavenly characters. In Hindu mythology, the gods and their avatars travel from place to place in flying vehicles called Vimana. There are many mentions of these flying objects in the Ramayana, which used by the Lankan king Ravana from Sri Lanka dates to the 5th or 4th century BCE. Below are some examples: From Book 6, Canto CXXIII: The Magic Car Is not the wondrous chariot mine, Named Pushpak, wrought by hands divine. … This chariot, kept with utmost care, Will waft thee through the fields of air, And thou shalt light unwearied down In fair Ayodhyá's royal town. From Book 6, Canto CXXIV: The Departure: Swift through the air, as Ráma chose, The wondrous car from earth arose. And decked with swans and silver wings Bore through the clouds its freight of kings. Erich von Däniken discusses the Ramayana and the vimanas in Chapter 6 of Chariots of the Gods? suggesting that they were "space vehicles". To support his hypothesis, he offers a quotation which he says is from an 1889 translation of the Mahabharata by C. Roy: "Bhima flew with his Vimana on an enormous ray which was as brilliant as the sun and made a noise like the thunder of a storm". "Ancient astronauts" (or "ancient aliens") refers to the idea, often presented in a pseudoscientific[1] way, that intelligent extraterrestrial beings visited Earth and made contact with humans in antiquity and prehistoric times.[2] Proponents suggest that this contact influenced the development of modern cultures, technologies, religions, and human biology. A common position is that deities from most, if not all, religions are extraterrestrial in origin, and that advanced technologies brought to Earth by ancient astronauts were interpreted as evidence of divine status by early humans. The idea that ancient astronauts existed is not taken seriously by most academics, and has received no credible attention in peer reviewed studies. When proponents of the idea present evidence in favor of their beliefs, it is often distorted or fabricated. Well-known proponents in the latter half of the 20th century who have written numerous books or appear regularly in mass media include Erich von Däniken, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Zecharia Sitchin, Robert K. G. Temple, Giorgio A. Tsoukalos and David Hatcher Childress. Kalkin, also called Kalki, final avatar (incarnation) of the Hindu god Vishnu, who is yet to appear. Did the Gods walk the Earth There is no reference in any Hindu literature that Gods had Earth as their abode. According to the scriptures, gods have their own worlds. Only some Gods are powerful enough or interested in taking Avatars on Earth for the benefit of humanity. Humans have been known to travel to those worlds. But need to have great mental control (read meditative ability) to just visit and have a glimpse. But some worlds are out of bounds and needs permission from the GOD of that worldThey were never on the Earth in the first place. They resided in heaven or some other heavenly places. Only one God is supposed to live on Earth- Lord Shiva on mount Kailasha. Only when need arises they would take human forms(avatars) and come to earth to cleanse the Earth of its sins. All stories related to Lord Shiva I have read till now seem to be in the Satyayuga, Treta or Dwapara. The last one I heard is I think in Dwapara, when Lord Shiva was testing Arjuna. I want to know whether there are any stories related to Lord Shiva from the Kaliyuga also.Considering that most of our scriptures were composed or compiled by Vyasa at the end of the Dwapara Yuga or beginning of the Kali Yuga, any description of Shiva's activities in the Kali Yuga would come in the form of prophecies. Now in my question here, I discuss an incarnation of Shiva called Lakulisha, who was the founder of the Pashupata sect of Shaivism:  But I'm not sure whether Lakulisha lived in the Dwapara Yuga or the Kali Yuga. Also, some people consider Adi Shankaracharya to be an incarnation of Shiva.Another thing worth noting is that just as the Alwars, the 12 Vaishnava poet-saints I discuss in my questions here, are said to have encountered Vishnu on various occasions, I expect that if you looked at the life stories of the Nayanars, Shaivite poets living at about the same time, you may find stories of various run-ins with Shiva.  Since most of our scriptures were composed or compiled by Vyasa at the end of the Dwapara Yuga or the beginning of the Kali Yuga, most descriptions of Shiva's activities in the Kali Yuga would be in the form of prophecies. But here are at least some potential activities that Shiva may have done in the Kali Yuga: One thing we know for sure that Shiva did in the Kali Yuga was attend the wedding of Venkateshwara (the Vishnu deity in Tirupati, aka Balaji or Srinivasa. Here is what this excerpt from the Venkatachala Mahatmya of the Skanda Purana says: Then [Venkateshwara] proceeded towards Narayanapuri accompanied by Brahma, Isha [Shiva], Varuna, Yama, Yakshesha, Vasishta and other eminent sages, Sanaka and other Yogins as well as devotees and loyal followers of the Lord. The chieftains of Gandharvas sang. The groups of celestial damsels danced. And when Vishnu took a loan from Kubera to pay for the wedding expenses, Shiva was one of the witnesses, as described in this excerpt from the Sthala Purana (temple scripture) of Tirupati (which you can read here): "The entire Universe is at your beck and call. All my money is yours. I have no control over it. You are its master" said Kubera [to Vishnu]. Finally, Kubera agreed to lend the money required if the necessary document was executed by the debtor. Brahma then dictated a promissory note. The note was executed. "This, the 7th day of the bright-fortnight of the month of Vysakha in Kaliyuga, The debtor is Srinivasa, the creditor is Dhaneswara. Purpose: marriage of the loanee. Amount of loan fourteen lakhs in Ramamudra coins. The loanee should repay it with interest in one thousand years after the loanee's marriage." Brahma and Siva attested as witnesses. The scribe was the loanee himself. After accepting the promissory note, Kubera paid the amount in cash.The loan was handled by another incarnation of Vishnu named Govindaraja, as I discuss here. By the way, The "one thousand years" means years of the gods, which I discuss here; it basically means that the period of the loan would be the entire Kali Yuga. That is why the Tirumala Venkateshwara Temple in Tirupati created the custom of having an Hundi, a box where people could donate money in order to pay off the interest on Kubera's loan. Of course, other temples realized that it was a valuable way to fund temple operations, and nowadays Hundia are a standard feature in Hindu temples. Many people believe that Adi Shankaracharya, the famous proponent of Advaita Vedanta, was an incarnation of Shiva. Some people dispute this because of the story of Shiva appearing before Adi Shankaracharya as a Chandala. But in any case, there are three quotes from Hindu scripture that various people cite as prophecies of Adi Shankaracharya. The first is from this excerpt from the Kurma Purana, which describes the Kali Yuga: Shankara, Nilalohita, will take up incarnations for the purpose of establishing the Shrauta (Vedic) and Smarta (belonging to the Smritis) rites, with a desire for the welfare of his devotees. He will teach his disiciples the knowledge pertaining to the Brahman. And then there are two quotes from the Padma Purana, which if genuine and if correctly identified with Adi Shankaracharya, would paint Advaita Vedanta in a negative light. The first is from this excerpt from the Uttara Kanda of the Padma Purana, where Vishnu says this to Shiva: Being born in the ages like Dvapara and among men in the Kali Yuga make the people averse to me with the sacred texts prepared by you. So also censure me so that the world become better and better. I shall produce this delusion which will delude people. You too, O mighty-armed Rudra, produce sacred texts that would delude people. O you of great arms, produce (the texts) that are false and spurious. Manifest thyself and keep me hidden. Genuine or not, I think it's possible that this verse is referring to Shiva's incarnation Lakukisha, whom I discuss below, rather than Adi Shankaracharya. But in any case, by far the most famous quote that people claim to be a prophecy of Adi Shankaracharya is from this excerpt from the Uttara Kanda of the Padma Purana, where Shiva says this: Vishnu of the form of Buddha proclaimed the false Buddhist doctrine and those of the naked and wearing dark blue garments for the destruction of demons. The doctrine of Maya (illusion) is a wicked doctrine and said to be pseudo-Buddhist. I myself, of the form of a brAhmana, proclaimed it in Kali (age). It shows the meaninglessness of the words of the holy texts and is condemned in the world. In this (doctrine) only the giving up of one's own duties is expounded. And that is said to be religiousness by those who have fallen from all duties. I have propounded the identity of the Highest Lord and the (individual) soul. I stated this Brahman's nature to be qualityless. O goddess, I myself have conceived, for the destruction of the worlds, and for deluding the world in this Kali age, the great doctrine resembling the purport of the Vedas, (but) non-Vedic due to the principle of Maya (illusion) (present in it). Of course, Advaitins would dispute the authenticity of these verses, and I'm inclined to agree with them. Still, there's an interesting analytical point here, which is that Advaita bears some similarity to Buddhist thought. In fact, some scholars believe that Adi Shankaracharya's guru's guru Gaudapada was originally a Yogachara Buddhist, although as I discuss here Advaita tradition identifies Gaudapada's guru as Vyasa's son Shuka. In any case, for more information on how Vaishnavism views Advaita, see my answer here. In this excerpt from the Shatarudra Samhita of the Shiva Purana, Shiva tells Brahma about his various Yogeshwara incarnations, which he takes once every Mahayuga. Here is what he says about the present Mahayuga: In the twenty-eighth aeon of Dvapara, there will be Dvaipayana Vyasa, the son of Parashara ,and the most excellent of Purushas [Vishnu] shall be born as Krishna with his one-sixth part, as the foremost of the sons of Vasudeva. Then I too shall be born with the body of a Brahmachari and the soul of a Yogi by means of Yogic Maya to the great surprise of the worlds. On seeing a dead body forsaken in the cremation ground I shall enter into it and make it free from ailments by means of Yogic Maya for the welfare or Brahmins. Then I will enter the holy divine cavern of Meru along with you and Vishnu. O Brahma, I shall then be known as Lakulin. Lakulin, also known as Lakulisha, was a famous Shaivite thinker who introduced Pashupata, an ancient sect of Shaivism which among other things involves smearing ash all over your body; Shiva is described as the originator of the Pashupati vow in this chapter and this chapter of the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata. Just as the Alwars, the 12 Vaishnava poet-saints encountered Vishnu on various occasions, I expect that if you looked at the life stories of the 63 Nayanars, Shaivite poets living at about the same time, you may find stories of various run-ins with Shiva. But I'm not sure if Hindu scripture contains any prophecies of the Nayanars. Mahatmya of the Skanda Purana:  I.One story is of Temple of Baijnath Mahadev, Agar Malwa (MP): The Only Hindu Temple of Lord Shiva Built (Renovated) by a British Couple.  It goes like follows:- The British ruled Indian subcontinent for hundreds of years, and built many churches and cathedrals. But in the 1880s, a Shiva temple in Agar Malwa, Madhya Pradesh, was renovated and almost rebuilt by Lt. Col. Martin as per the wish o her wife — the only Shiva temple ever made by an Englishman in India.In 1879, when there was British were ruling in India, Lt. Col. Martin of Agar Malwa was leading the British army in the war against Afghanistan. Col. Martin used to regularly send messages of his well-being to his wife. The war continued for long & Lady Martin stopped getting messages. She was very upset in the vicinity of Malwa far away from Kabul or Afghanistan.Once riding on her horse, she was to pass by the temple of Baijnath Mahadev. She was quite attracted to the sound of Conch & Mantra. She went inside the Temple and came to know that the Brahmanas were worshipping Lord Shiva. They saw her sad face and asked her problem. She explained everything to them. They told her that Lord Shiva listens to the prayers of devotees and takes them out of difficult situations in no time. With the advice of the Brahmanas she started the “Laghurudri Anushtthan” of the Mantra: “Om Namah Shivaya” for 11 days. She prayed to Lord Shiva that if her husband reaches home safely, then she would get the temple renovated. On the last of the “Laghurudri” a messenger came and gave a letter to her. Her husband had written: “I was regularly sending messages to you from the battle grounds but suddenly the Pathan Muslims surrounded us from all sides. We were entrapped in a situation where there was no scope of escaping death. Suddenly, I saw a Yogi of India with long hair, carrying a Trident (weapon with three pointers- Trishul). His personality was amazing and he was manoeuvring his weapon with a magnificent style. Seeing this great man, the Pathans started running back. With his grace our bad times turned into moments of victory. This was possible only because of that man of India wearing a lion skin & carrying a three-pointer weapon. That great Yogi told me that I should not worry and that he had come to rescue me because he was very pleased with my wife’s prayers.” Tears of joy were falling down to the eyes of Lady Martin while reading the letter. Her heart was overwhelmed with joy and reverence. She fell beneath the stone symbol (Lingam) of Lord Shiva and burst in tears. After a few weeks Col. Martin returned. Lady Martin narrated the whole incident to him. Now both husband & wife became devotees of Lord Shiva. In 1883 they donated Rs. 15,000 for renovating the temple. The information engraved slab for the same is still there in the Baijnath Mahadev Temple of Agar Malwa. This is the only Hindu temple built by the British. And it is not difficult to meet Lord Shiva. Let no one be deceived! Twelve hundred long Divine Years lasting three hundred and sixty earth-years each, shall pass before I Manifest again and bring to the World a New Cosmic Cycle and a New Golden Age. Meanwhile, I shall appear only to My devotees. Verily, know this to be a matter a million times true: to My faithful devotees I shall appear any time they sincerely call upon Me, but not to the others. For, the others even if they saw Me, would fail to recognise Me - as even now they see Me but know Me not. 11 chapter SR II. The origin of the Maheshwari community in Northern part of India is an example of one such story. The story is as follows: Authentic historical literature about the origin of the Maheshwari community is not available. The sole source of information available is in the form of a book "Itihas Kalpdrum Maheshwari Kulbhushan" authored by late Shivkaranji Darak of Mundwa. Based on the book, following is the description of the origins of the Maheshwari community: Suryawanshi King Khadgalsen of Chauhan dynasty was ruling over Khandelanagar state. He was very kind and just king. People lived happily and peacefully in his kingdom. He was always worried of not having a son.One day the king had invited Brahmins and paid great honour to them. The Brahmins were very happy with the king's courtesy and asked him for a boon. The king then expressed his desire for a son. Brahmins said, ``if you worship Lord Shiva, you will be blessed with a very brave and adventurous son, but do not allow him to go towards the north and take bath in the Surya-kund there until he turns 16 years old". If the prince respects Brahmins, he will become a great king else will be reborn in the same kingdom. Hence being blessed by the Brahmins, the king rewarded them with fine clothes and jewelry and respectfully saw them off. The king worshipped God Shiva and was blessed with the boon. King Khadgalsen had 24 queens. After some time, one of the queens, Champawati gave birth to a baby boy. The king was very happy and named the prince as Sujan Kunwar. The prince learned horse-riding, weaponry etc. by the age of 7 years. When he reached the age of 12, enemies were afraid of him. The king was quite satisfied with his work. He was careful not to let the prince go towards the North. Once a Jain sadhu arrived and preached the prince about Jain religion luring him into anti-Shiva beliefs and showed the faults of Brahmins. At the age of 14, the prince opposed Shiva and started practicing Jain religion. He campaigned the Jain religion in East, West and South and banished idol worshipping. He harassed Brahmins and broke their sacred threads (janoi). He forbade all religious activities including yajna and hawan (holy fire). Out of the King's fear, he never went towards the North direction, but who can stop the destiny. Once he went towards the North to the Suryakund with his 72 officers. There he grew angry when he saw 6 Rishis performing a yajna. He ordered his officers to destroy the yajna and harassed the rishis. Seeing this the rishis cursed them to become stone. So, the prince including all his officers and horses became stone. This news spread very quickly in all directions.The King and citizens became worried after hearing this news. King Khadgalsen died of the shock. 16 of his queens became sati (self-immolated) with him. With no protector of the kingdom, neighbouring enemies attacked the state. They divided the state into many regions and merged them into their own states. Even as this happened, the prince's widow and 72 officer's widows cried and went to the rishis. They humbly requested and begged for the lives of their husbands. Seeing this rishi had mercy upon them. However, they said they are not capable enough of revert the curse. They advised the ladies to go to a nearby cave and worship lord Shiva so that the curse can be taken off. All the ladies went to a cage and religiously meditated for appeasement of lord Shiva. After some time, lord Shiva and Parvatiji (lord Shiva's consort) came around the place where the prince and officers were lying in the form of stones. Parvatiji asked what happened and lord Shiva told the whole history. At this time the prince's wife and the officer's wives fell on the feet of Parvatiji and expressed their plight. Seeing this, Parvatiji requested lord Shiva of taking off the curse. Lord took off the curse and freed them of the stone-like state giving them a new life. Everybody fell on lord's feet in reverance.As the prince became conscious, his mind filled with lust seeing Parvatiji's beauty. Seeing this Parvatiji cursed the prince like this: ``O evil man! you will always beg for food and all your coming generations shall beg for food!" These people were called "jaaga" (bhat) later on. The 72 officers said: ``O God! Now we do not have a place to live. What should we do''? So Shivji informed them, that they quit their Kshatriya caste in a previous birth so now they are liable to accept the Vaishya caste. Go to the Suryakund and have a bath. As they bathed, their sword became pen, sword-case became stick and shields became weighing balance. All officers became Vaishya. As lord Mahesh (aka Shiva) gave them this lesson, they were called Maheshwari Vaishya. When rishis came to know that everybody has been freed of curse, they asked God: ``O God! how will our incomplete Yajna will be completed''? Hence God preached to the officers that now onwards these rishis are your guru and you accept them as such. God told the rishis that they do not have anything as of now but when they have some occasion in their home they will give you material things to the best of their capabilities. You should teach them to follow their religion. Rishi accepted them as their pupils and each rishi accepted 12 pupils. Following is their description: (1) Parik from Parashar rishi (2) Dadma from Dadhichi rishi (3) Adigol from Gautam rishi (4) Khandelwal from Kharik rishi (5) Sukuwal from Sukumarg rishi (6) Saraswat brahmin/purohit from Sarasur rishi. After some time of leaving Khandela all settled in Didwana. From these 72 officers, 72 nukh (clans) came into existence and from these nukh, depending upon the business, peta-nukh (sub-clan) came into existence. This day was the ninth day of Jeth-sud month. This day is celebrated as "Mahesh Navami'' by Maheshwaris. In Kali-yuga Lord Siva appeared in the 8th Century as Sankaracharya.In the Padma Purāṇa Vedic text it is stated that the Personality of Godhead ordered His Lordship Śiva to deviate the human race from Him (the Personality of Godhead).The Personality of Godhead was to be so covered so that people would be encouraged to generate more and more population. His Lordship Śiva said to Devī: "In the Kali-yuga, I shall preach the Māyāvāda philosophy, which is nothing but clouded Buddhism, in the garb of a brāhmaṇa." Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 3 Srimmad Bhagavatam Canto 3.14.24, Purport: Māyāvādī philosophers are mostly worshipers of Lord Śiva, and Śrīpāda Śaṅkarācārya is considered to be the incarnation of Lord Śiva for preaching godlessness to the Māyāvādī philosophers. Lord Śiva, or Rudra, is the king of the ghosts. Ghostly characters worship Lord Śiva to be gradually guided toward a path of self-realization.Māyāvādī philosophers are mostly worshipers of Lord Śiva, and Śrīpāda Śaṅkarācārya is considered to be the incarnation of Lord Śiva for preaching godlessness to the Māyāvādī philosophers.Ghosts are bereft of a physical body because of their grievously sinful acts, such as suicide. The last resort of the ghostly characters in human society is to take shelter of suicide, either material or spiritual. Material suicide causes loss of the physical body, and spiritual suicide causes loss of the individual identity. Māyāvādī philosophers desire to lose their individuality and merge into the impersonal spiritual brahmajyoti existence. Lord Śiva, being very kind to the ghosts, sees that although they are condemned, they get physical bodies. He places them into the wombs of women who indulge in sexual intercourse regardless of the restrictions on time and circumstance. Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 4 Lord Śiva, speaking to Pārvatī-devī, foretold that he would spread the Māyāvāda philosophy in the guise of a sannyāsī brāhmaṇa just to eradicate Buddhist philosophy. This sannyāsī was Śrīpāda Śaṅkarācārya. Srimad Bhagavatam Canto 4.24.17, Purport: Since Lord Śiva does not incarnate himself unless there is some special reason, it is very difficult for an ordinary person to contact him. However, Lord Śiva does descend on a special occasion when he is ordered by the Supreme Personality of Godhead. In this regard, it is stated in the Padma Purāṇa that Lord Śiva appeared as a brāhmaṇa in the age of Kali to preach the Māyāvāda philosophy, which is nothing but a type of Buddhist philosophy. It is stated in Padma Purāṇa: māyāvādam asac-chāstraṁpracchannaṁ bauddham ucyatemayaiva vihitaṁ devikalau brāhmaṇa-mūrtinā Lord Śiva, speaking to Pārvatī-devī, foretold that he would spread the Māyāvāda philosophy in the guise of a sannyāsī brāhmaṇa just to eradicate Buddhist philosophy.This sannyāsī was Śrīpāda Śaṅkarācārya.In order to overcome the effects of Buddhist philosophy and spread Vedānta philosophy, Śrīpāda Śaṅkarācārya had to make some compromise with the Buddhist philosophy, and as such he preached the philosophy of monism, for it was required at that time. Otherwise there was no need for his preaching Māyāvāda philosophy. At the present moment there is no need for Māyāvāda philosophy or Buddhist philosophy, and Lord Caitanya rejected both of them. This Kṛṣṇa consciousness movement is spreading the philosophy of Lord Caitanya and rejecting the philosophy of both classes of Māyāvādī. Strictly speaking, both Buddhist philosophy and Śaṅkara's philosophy are but different types of Māyāvāda impersonalism dealing on the platform of material existence.Neither of these philosophies has spiritual significance. There is spiritual significance only after one accepts the philosophy of Bhagavad-gītā, which culminates in surrendering unto the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Even though Lord Śiva appeared to preach Māyāvāda philosophy, at the end of his pastime in the form of Śaṅkarācārya, he preached the Vaiṣṇava philosophy: bhaja govindaṁ bhaja govindaṁ bhaja govindaṁ mūḍha-mate.He stressed worshiping Lord Kṛṣṇa, or Govinda, three times in this verse and especially warned his followers that they could not possibly achieve deliverance, or mukti, simply by word jugglery and grammatical puzzles.I recently heard the below. Kali yuga is dominated by evil . At the end Kaliyuga when good and evil go against each other and one will come out as a winner. To conquer evil Shiva comes up with shiva tandavam and crushes the evil. After destruction next cycle starts. While dancing shiva turns/rotates and you could see the back of Shiva's head.what do you find there ? None other than Brahma's face and shiva is smiling. Asura and deva gods are a concept for manu wadi sanathan dharma people following caste system ..all devas have died ..only an asura is alive ..till lord vishnu is protectiing all life forms in universe ..god cannot die on planet earth and ancient hindu civilization oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo CHAPTER III WHY HINDU MANDIRS or TEMPLES? First of all Temple is not built for worshiping, at least this must be understood by now. We have to look at times when these temples were built in the first place. At one time the whole Bharat (India) was considered to be a nation ( land mass) which was spiritually oriented. So there were many ways people were enabling themselves to move towards the ultimate liberation(Moksha), which was the goal of everyone’s life. This is very much a common term(Moksha) used in the Hindu culture. God was never the goal in this culture. So there were many tools used to get to the path of self-realization. Temples was one of them. In the Hindu culture Human system is considered to be a living temple, on this basis it was thought that why not an external temple should be built to be used as a tool. At those times people were so spiritually oriented that they want to use everything to get to the ultimate liberation, so the whole idea to build a temple was based on this: To build an energy system which serves human beings for their spiritual growth. The idea of consecrating stones and other forms has come from there. In the large picture if we see, a human being is suppose to visit a temple to be present in an energy space which will keep them in the path of self-realization. So traditionally before you go to work, the foremost thing to do is you take bath and go to a temple and sit there for some time, not worship or make deals or talk with God. It makes sense because in you daily life you may come across many awful things and situations, so being in a state of balance and equanimity is very necessary and useful and a temple with the right kind of energies is made for that. Of course there are some methods to enable yourself to be receptive towards the energy forms in the temples. Likewise many energy forms are built to serve different purposes in life. In some places you can see the whole city is a living temple like Kashi. The whole idea is to be constantly in presence of the appropriate energies which will make your path easier for spiritual growth and most importantly you will be balanced and equanimous. Nowadays it is very rare to find such energy forms in the form of a living temple but still few are alive. So worshiping has only come later in a very distorted and misinterpreted form of a profound science and technology of temple building and its essence. So going to a temple and worship to God is a very childish and stupid way of using a temple if it is a real one. Not only that, the rituals and thing done inside a temple and the way temple is build has a profound meaning and science behind it and it can be found in “Agama Shastra”. Why do we have temples, churches, mosques, and guru dwaras on every corner of our country when shelter homes and and investment in social development could be of greater use in upliftment of the poor? Let's try to understand the need for religion when the way of attainment of god ( sidhi/enlightenment/salvation) lies within us. Every religion initialised as a set of moralised guidelines for the people to follow in order to achieve a healthier and stable predicament. simple terms it is laid out to assist the layman, the uneducated and the people with restricted consciousness. For example, let's take a hypothetical situation: a world with no religion but with everything else right where it is now ( poverty, hardships, happiness. I hope you get the point. Now in this hypothetical world, people are dying of hunger - as in our real world. They are sleeping on the streets and struggling to feed their families two times a day. What makes you think that an uneducated man, living on the streets with an option to steal from/murder the rich to fulfill his needs will not do so ? (Please don't kid yourself trying yo answer that with ' law enforcement agencies'. no offence meant ) Religion induces fear in such a wayward mind and does in fact help in making the thought process of an individual more moralistic. Religion hence may not be for you and me and for all who hold questions and ability to seek answers, but religion is an essential part of the society nonetheless. Now the question arises why the educated and affluent section of the society follow these guidelines if they were not meant for them? The answer to that question is somewhat based in the functioning of a lucky charm. For example, hypothetically: I have been putting faith in religion and all its customs to get what I want and then finally getting hold of everything I wished for, then I'd credit the religious discipline I followed as preached to me to get where I am. Temples in a way cater to less aware part of society. It is the emotional support system for whose who are in desperate situations and for those who don't want to be in situations as such. Investment in building temples is kind of helping the society too but in a less apparent way. Some feel that millions are being wasted. Religious lands could have been used for factories and employment could have been generated for youths. Parks, worshipping places and community centres are required where people are financially satisfied and need to be culturally/aesthetically satisfied. Temples are built so that It can provide us a surrounding which supports us to pray, be clean in thoughts, and to help us approach towards divinity.You won't be able to pray the same way in market or in office as you pray in the temple.We also have a tradition of keeping a separate room for god ( or for prayer) in our houses. Its like mini temple.You decide to follow a set of rules like keeping silence, taking bath before entering, avoiding utterance of bad words or thinking about bad thoughts ... It helps us to focus towards god and psychologically those set of rules helps your mind with achieving it.Temples are social places where all gather together, sing bhajans and celebrate auspicious days and pray for the benefit of all.The mantras sung there are the prayers which priests chant for the benefit of all, for welfare of people, all living beings and environment. And temples also act as structures which holds our religion, culture and values strong. Temple creates an ambiance, right at home with the resources (silence, absolute cleanliness, a holy yagna fire, pujari, flowers, idol of the deity if required). If you really feel God is everywhere don't you think he will hear you from your home? Why bother wasting fuel driving to the temple? And why bother wasting money on temples when they could be used for building shelters for poor? Temples is another form of God, each and every part or detail of it has a reason and resembles God. The shape of the pyramid enhances the increase in ozone through inside the Temple, Also there is some kind of a copper plate which is placed underneath the Idol, with which the Idol emits the positive power to the Devotes who are around. Coming to the pyramid shape , there are certain theories with which the positive rays or air could pass, one of them is pyramid. You mean the dome like structure on top of the sanctum sanctorum we call them kalasam or Vimanam. most of the Southern Temple architecture is based upon the Dravidian style of temple architecture. They are majorly constructed based upon agamam sasthras. The Agama literature is voluminous, and includes 28 Shaiva Agamas, 77 Shakta Agamas (also called Tantras), and 108 Vaishnava Agamas (also called Pancharatra Samhitas), and numerous Upa-Agamas. Why do most of the Temples in India have a dome or conical shaped structure? We call this system as the Pancha-gopura system which accounts in Shilpa Shastra and Vayu Shastra of Atharva Veda. What are those five? Here are they: MAHA DWAARA GOPURAM: This is the entrance which you see. For famous and ancient temples, such gopurams are built all on the four sides of the enclosure of the place - on north, south, east and west - called as Uttara gopura, Dakshina Gopura, Maha nilaya gopura or East gopura and the Paschima Gopura respectively. Here, Gopuras are also called as Dwaaras sometimes. AYANA GOPURAM: This can be seen only in special temples which comes after the Maha-dwaara-gopuram. A second entrance. ANYA GOPURAM: This means the domes of all the other deities of the temple except the main deity. Anya means others. GRUHA GOPURAM or AALAYA GOPURAM: This is the gopura of the threshold of the main deity. STHAANA GOPURA: This includes at the entrance or at the exit of the town or village where the temple exists. All these different gopuras must fulfill few conditions to make it a TEMPLE. Today we see that wherever a person finds empty space, he builds a temple out of it, just like that - which is wrong. Extremely wrong. Unlike other religions, we Hindus don’t build temples just to go and worship a BIG or a STATUE god. We just don’t bath the Lord’s sacred statue with various fluids like water, milk, turmeric paste, etc. There is scientific reason behind all these cultures we do. Aagama Shastra explains that a temple must be built on the norms mentioned in it. Otherwise, both the temple and its surroundings will disappear in time and their traces even can’t be found. Remember, once a temple is built, you cannot destroy it, until is gets itself destroyed or ruined by the nature. But its the man’s duty to protect a temple. Like a crown on a king, a temple is there for an area/town/city/village. A temple is an ultimate embodiment of the source of energy. And by the word energy, I mean that energy which is cosmic and will make you help yourself in controlling your senses, which might help you remain energetic or patient at diversified situations of your life. In a temple, not just you give energy from your body, but even your body gains energy from the deity. But how? How is this ‘energy transmission’ being done? The answer exists in five conditions. CONDITION #1: We CANNOT build gopuram using simple sand and stones that are just available at us which don’t satisfy the norms of Aagama Shastra. Those materials or rocks which have the capability to capture and reflect the sound waves the most must be chosen. This, a civil engineer only knows. That’s why, once you enter any famous temple, you will observe silence and peace around you and the most fascinating thing is, we feel COOL and temperature in a temple is always less than the atmospheric temperature. CONDITION #2: The structure of the gopuram is the most intricate one to see and must be chosen wise and built aerodynamically. Well, ancient sculptors are so good at making beautiful arts. Then why, they refuse to make such ‘same’ exquisite art on the gopuram? Why they show only their skill of various poses of men and women in the interior of the temple, why not on this gopuras? Well, some do, but most don’t. It is because, the light and the sound waves are so traversed around them that they don’t make any kind of harm to the statue of the residing deity under that gopura. Deity must be protected from all the five elements of nature and must be always guarded with care. You know? When you enter the Garbha-griha of a temple (which only the temple priests are restricted to do, and not others), you feel an increase in your body temperature? This is because the energy is being trapped in the deity and also, it is the centre of gravity of that temple (you can check this out). CONDITION #3: The deities depicted on the gopura will indicate those deities of various forms of energy entering inside through their way. For example, if you see a deity named “Vaaraahi” which is a goddess having the head of a boar and in a saree of crimson red color, then it indicates that moisture, humidity and the temperature control of the room inside are being maintained at the feet of this deity. That means, for every form of energy entering, a presiding goddess will be carved, for that god/goddess is deemed to work to protect the Lord from any calamity entering from His/Her side. Some people might argue on this point that for few Vishnu temples, we see all statues of Lord Vishnu and his Dasavataaras on the gopura, but not different gods. You must remember, each God and his incarnations are all interpretations of various forms of innate energies only. (This is proved in Bhagavad Gita in Vishwarupa sandarshana yoga). CONDITION #4: A gopura MUST be symmetric in any angle of primary points of view (excluding figures of deities). This means, we create a stable and subtle uniform energy collection. CONDITION #5: The area of the base of the Gopura MUST be equal to the area around the prime deity where His energy is dimensionalized. That means, to have darshan (spiritual view) of the Lord’s deity, we must NOT be under the Garbha-griha’s gopura - we must be at its perimeter or beyond that. Only then energy transmission gets done uniformly. We all have iron in the haemoglobin of our blood which becomes magnetic under the cosmic energy of the gopura. All the energy around i.e., from the fire, water, sun, sky, planets, air, earth, thunder, sound and people - all the energy is collected inside. Note that the tip of the gopura will be made out of metal to maximise the energy convergence. now, once this energy is collected from the most sacred deities and the blessings of the Prime deity, it has to be passed on to us. This is done by: 30% of it gets accumulated by concentrating on the deity with your eyes and praising the Lord wholeheartedly so that all of your body fills with vitality and pleasure and a nature of giving thanks to Him for giving you life and letting you what you are supposed to be. This is called as Darshana in sanskrit. After all, life and death are a game to Him. So we bow in respect and conclude to request Him to reside in our hearts and make us pure until we die. The more beautiful the idol, more interest in us to see and thus, more energy gain. This feeling of having the beauty of the idol is different for different perspective views of people. 60% of that cosmic energy is accumulated when you walk around the main gopura in a clockwise direction. This is called as Pradakshina in sanskrit. It means, here, not only we get 60% of energy but we also give 5% of it back to the Lord. This will be a part of the energy accumulation. In sanskrit, Pradakshina means a proper way of wishing and bowing to the Lord or in other words, accepting Him as a whole and wanting Him all our life. 70% of cosmic energy is accumulated when you do good deeds and speak about the Lord’s names. For uttering His name itself is gathering energy. And if we do it in a temple, we gather a lot of it. This is called as Aalaya Kriya. Chanting Lord’s name, meditating, smiling in peace, thinking of Him, chanting mantras and slokas, helping people around, doing our best to keep the temple clean and calm, etc., all come under this. There is no 100% way of gathering all of that cosmic energy. Because, there is no gopura so invented to collect all of the energy. So how do we accumulate much? Very simple, instead of eating all on a go and swell to death, we can eat little by little everyday and become stronger. Same way, have your presence in temples as frequent as possible. That means, visiting a temple daily is surely an integral part of our life. It will cleanse our sorrows and sins make ready for the challenges of the world. More energy means more life and more patience. Visit a temple daily or at least once a week. Remember that. That’s the story behind the ‘domes’ or ‘conical shaped’ structures. Well, I can write more such stories on various elements of a temple. But, I need to conclude to not get you feel bored. Let us try to reunite the roots of Hinduism and give the rishis and ancient sages, a thanksgiving. Please don’t overlook or underestimate any tradition. It has value. For generations, it must be passed on and our people must benefit. Temples symbolise what India was and has to be. They are mystical epitomes of wisdom. Let them be saved and honoured at their level. Why do the different temples of India have different shapes according to the states? India is a union of diverse culture, union of different traditions, union of varied folk rituals which we have unionized under Hinduism. Also, as you are from Gujarat I will cite your own state’s example, that we can observe 4 major Gujarat Cuisine variants within the state, but when we intricately taste to verify we would observe ethnic variations in the cuisine every 200 kilometers any way inside Gujarat, how is that we have so much of variations in Cuisine although the entire state Gujarat grows similar types of staple crops. As the cuisine we in India cannot have one nation one food, one nation one type of temple. India has its strength in strengthening its ethnic culture and local customs. Why do almost all religious places (temples, churches, Gurudwaras, mosques, etc.) have a dome or conical structure? It has got a scientific reason behind the dome shape. In all religious places the deity is placed at the centre of the dome which is pyramid type and all the electromagnetic waves are reflected to concentrate at this centre and the Idol is positively charged. When any devotee touches the feet of idol, it gets a part of the positively charged power from the Idol, in whatever form it may be. Same is the reason why we touch the feet of our elders and they bless us by placing their hand on our head. Base of a temple is shaped as a polygon, any polygon, regular or irregular. A pyramid is defined as a solid with one plane n-sided polygonal face (often conventionally defined as the base or “bottom”) and n (isosceles) triangular faces rising from the edges of the polygon to a common point outside the polygon. Temples are the place where nature and trust in God spreading positive energy. As a major component of nature trees like Peepal have the major role in providing such a peaceful environment because of its own special qualities(releases higher amount of Oxygen during day time- good air is good for physical and mental health). Likewise there are many special trees found in temples . Temple construction, idol worship and temple economy is a Dravidian culture the architecture, operations, management, rituals, propitiations are elaborately detailed in texts called Agamashastra. The architecture takes into consideration of three parts, the size of the main idol (which we call as moolavar) which corelates with the flag post or garudakambha or lotus petal (based on male or female deity) and the outside door which signifies the feet of the deity. The moolavar deity head has to be perpendicular to the moola gopura kalasha which was a secret called Vimana the gopura size and gopura kalasha has to align with appropriate star constellation for appropriate deity, then it is called a temple else I call them merely as a place of worship. Iv TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION Almost all of ancient India's areas have well-developed and high-quality temple architecture. It was affected by climatic, geographical, racial, historical, ethnic, and linguistic diversity, and has a distinctive architectural style. The ancient temple architecture in India may be divided into two categories: Northern Style temple architecture and Southern Style temple architecture. There is also a separate third kind that is a combination of the first two. At the same time, there are regional architectural styles such as Kerala, Bengal, Western, Eastern, and Himalayan. TO RECAPITULATE Parts of a TEMPLE   1. Garbhagriha: It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like a sanctum. In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance. Later it grew into a larger complex. The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of much ritual attention.   2. Mandapa: It is the entrance to the temple. It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular intervals) hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers. Dances and such other entertainments are practiced here. Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named as Ardhamandapa, Mandapa, and Mahamandapa.   3. Shikhara or Vimana: They are mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple. Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples. Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal-like structure. 4. Amalaka: It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North Indian temples. 5. Kalasha: It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples. 6. Antarala (vestibule): Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall (mandapa). 7. Jagati: It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.   8. Vahana:It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or Dhvaj which is placed axially before the sanctum. Three key forms of temple architecture India is a land of rich and diverse art and culture. It is home to a number of architectural marvels, majority of which hold religious significance. Temples of India hold a very distinct place in the hearts of people. In layman’s terms, a temple can be defined as a place of worship. However, on a philosophical level, a Hindu temple represents much more. It is a manifestation of the entire cosmos that represents: earthly world (prithvi), the heavenly world (akasa), the astral world (svarga) and the world below (patala). Therefore, we find beautiful intricate carvings and paintings on the walls depicting not only major deities but also semi-divine deities, mythological creatures, flora, fauna and aquatic life. The temple architecture has evolved over the ages and the style changes along with the changing dynasties and region. While the architecture of Hindu temples varies from region to region, the major components of a temple remain constant: Garbhagriha or the sanctum where the main idol of the deity is housed Mandapa or the portico which leads to the garbhagriha, where the worshipers assemble Shikhara that is the spire above the sanctum Vaahan which is the mount or vehicle of the main deity of the temple Based on geographical location and architectural style, Hindu temples can be characterized under two broad categories—Nāgara, Drāvida. A third style of temple architecture – Vesara is also found. This is a hybrid style with adaptations from both Nāgara and Drāvida style. The distinction can be made by comparing the elevation of the temple, forms of the spire and the plan of the temple. Nāgara Kandariya Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh is an example of Nāgara Style of temple architecture The plan of a Nāgara style of temple is four-sided. The garbhagriha is a perfect square whereas the whole temple plan could be oblong. The garbhagriha or sanctum sanctorum houses the image or idol of the main deity. The pathway leading to the garbhagriha is the mandapa where the worshipers accumulate to have darśana. In the early stage of temple construction, the roofs were flat (temple Number-17 at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh). In the next stage of temple construction, the roof became pyramidal. This was the shikhara, a tall spire that tapered at the top. In the later stages, more additions were made to the temple complex. More mandapas were added and the garbhagriha was surrounded by a pradakshinapatha or a circumambulatory path. In some cases, gavaksa (windows) were added to allow cross ventilation for air and light. A Nāgara temple generally rests on a high platform- jagati over which is constructed a small platform called pitha. Rising above this is a smaller platform- adhisthana, which forms the base for the construction of superstructure of the temple. Among the other components of a Nāgara temple are – bhadra, sirsa, amalaka, bijapuraka, rathika. When it comes to decorating the temples, the Nāgara temples are intricately ornamented by carvings and sculptures. The entrance to the temple is highly decorated with images of gods and goddesses, floral and geometric designs. The bottom of the door frame depicts either dvarapalas or Ganga and Yamuna. On the walls and pillars of the temple, the sculptures and carvings depict devakanyas, apsaras, yaksas, yaksis, amalakas and floral garlands. Drāvida Brihadeshwar Temple at Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, is an example of Drāvidian Style of temple architecture The plan of a Drāvida temple, from the plinth to the finial, is hexagonal or octagonal. It is marked by terraces and are often multistoreyed. Drāvida temples are also frequently called Vimana (meaning ship or boat) and are marked by six major angas, namely: Adhisthana: the base of the structure on which the superstructure of the temple stands Pada: the walls which enclose the garbhagriha, with stambhas (pillars) in between Prastara: the beam or the architrave that denotes the end of the garbhagriha walls and the beginning of the spire Griva: the clerestory or rows of windows on the bottom of the spire and above the garbhagriha Shikhara: the spire rising above the griva Stupi: the finial in the shape of a stupa or kalasa that crowns the shikhara The temples of the South are adorned with beautiful and elaborate decorative elements. The carvings of the sculpture are the first thing that catches your eyes. The decoration on the prastara goes around the entire structure just like a hara (garland) would and contains miniature vimana like shrines. The sculptures depended upon the deity to which the temple was dedicated to. For example, if it was a temple dedicated to Siva, one might find figures of bull and bhutas, and if the temple was dedicated to Visnu, it could depict Garuda or eagle. There are variations in styles of vimanas (kuta vimana, sala vimana, panjara vimana) of the temple as well. Vesara Lad Khan Temple at Aihole, Karnataka, is an example of Vesara Style of temple architecture While the Nāgara and Drāvida types of temples have distinctive features of their own, Vesara type adopted from both in variety of ways. Consequently, one might notice a temple with square body at various talas but shikhara and griva to be circular, octagonal or apsidal. Similarly, the body might be oblong but the shikhara and griva could be elliptical. The distinction in this style is in the plan on which the temple’s superstructure is created. It is circular, ellipsoidal or apsidal from the foundation to the pinnacle. More styles of architecture Apart from these major types of temples found in Northern, Southern and Central parts of India, there are numerous more styles of temples with their unique distinctive features. For instance, temples of Odisha have similar components as found in the above-mentioned types but with certain regional individualities. The lower part of the temple is garbhagriha upon which is the elevated roof or shikhara that is called rekha vernacularly. The mandapa in front of the garbhagriha is termed jagamohana. The temples of the hills have a unique tradition of their own. The buildings are built out of wood; also the roof is neither flat nor pyramidal but pitched. The temples, therefore, took the shape of pagodas at times.The forms maybe many but all these magnificent temples narrate a story of rich and diverse cultural heritage of India. During the Gupta period, temple architecture evolved, with the construction of a square sanctuary and a pillared porch. From the flat-roofed, monolithic temples of the beginning to the sculptured 'shikhara' of the later years, there was a steady evolution. Here we will discuss the development of Temple Architecture in India. Evolution of Temple Architecture The progression of temple architecture can be distinguished into five stages: First Stage During this stage, the temples evolved the following characteristics: The temples had flat roofs and were square in design. The portico was constructed with shallow pillars and was placed on a low platform. The structure was built entirely on low platforms. It is exemplified by Temple No. 17 in Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh. Temple No. 17 in Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh Second Stage Most of the elements of the older temples were carried over into this period. The platforms, on the other hand, were taller or upraised. There have also been several two-story temples discovered. A covered ambulatory path surrounding the sanctum sanctorum or garbhagriha was also added during this era. This path was employed as a pradakshina route. AParvati temple in Nachna Kuthara t Madhya Pradesh, for example, there is a Parvati temple in Nachna Kuthara. Third Stage Instead of a flat roof, shikhara appeared at this point. They were, however, still extremely low and curved, almost square. The Panchayatan temple-building style was introduced. Along with the main deity's temple, the Panchayatan form of temple construction included four minor shrines. The main temple was square, but it had a rectangular shape because of an extended mandap in front of it. The secondary shrines were situated on either side of the mandap, creating a crucified form in the ground layout. Examples include the Dashavatar temple in Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh, and the Durga temple in Aihole, Karnataka. Dashavatar temple in Deogarh Fourth Stage This stage's temples were nearly the same, with the exception that the main shrine became more rectangular. Ter temple at Sholapur (Maharashtra) is an example. Maharashtra's Ter temple Fifth Stage Circular temples with shallow rectangular projections were established at this time. The rest of the preceding phase's characteristics were maintained. Maniyar Math in Rajgir is an example. Maniyar Math in Rajgir Styles of temple Architecture Different temple architecture styles emerged in different parts of India under different religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. Building cranes tower over a new AYODHYA Hindu temple that was consecrated with Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi in attendance on Monday. What are the differences between ancient and modern Hindu temple architecture? Ancient Hindu temple architecture and modern Hindu temple architecture can differ in several aspects due to changes in architectural styles, materials, techniques, and cultural practices over time. Here are some general differences: Architectural Styles: Ancient Hindu temple architecture showcases distinct regional styles such as Nagara, Dravidian, and Vesara, each with its unique characteristics in terms of layout, structure, and ornamentation. Modern Hindu temple architecture often incorporates contemporary architectural styles and techniques, reflecting a fusion of traditional and modern influences. Construction Materials: Ancient temples were primarily constructed using local materials like stone, brick, and wood. Modern temples may still use these traditional materials but can also include modern construction materials such as steel, concrete, and glass. Iconography and Sculptures: Ancient temples were adorned with intricate sculptures and carvings that depicted various deities, mythical stories, and religious symbolism. Modern temples may still incorporate traditional iconography but can also feature modern sculptural elements, statues, and artistic expressions. Technology and Engineering: Modern temple construction benefits from advances in technology, engineering, and architectural design. This allows for more precise construction, efficient use of materials, and innovative structural elements. Regarding the renovations of old temples under Prime Minister Narendra Modi's regime, specific details and updates can change over time. However, a few notable initiatives have been undertaken to modernize and enhance the visitor experience of certain temples. For example: Kashi Vishwanath Temple, Varanasi: The Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi underwent extensive renovations under the "Kashi Vishwanath Corridor" project. The project aimed to provide improved accessibility, enhance facilities for pilgrims, and open up space around the temple complex. Somnath Temple, Gujarat: The Somnath Temple, one of the twelve Jyotirlinga temples dedicated to Lord Shiva, also underwent renovations to improve infrastructure, visitor amenities, and enhance the overall pilgrimage experience. These renovation projects typically focus on creating better infrastructure, providing modern amenities, ensuring proper crowd management, and preserving the architectural heritage of the temples. They aim to strike a balance between modernization and preserving the cultural and spiritual significance of these ancient places of worship. It's important to note that temple renovations are often undertaken with the intention of preserving and promoting cultural heritage, improving facilities for devotees, and enhancing tourism. The specific details and scope of each renovation project can vary, and it is advisable to refer to updated and official sources for the most accurate and comprehensive information about specific temple renovations. Old Small Temples May 6, 2002: Visiting Lakhamandal, Yamunotri, Uttarkashi We went to Rishikesh and rented a Taxi for a few days to take us to Gangotri and back from there. Our first stop was Lakhamandal. Swami Ji in Delhi had told us that there are 100,000 Shiva lings found in the ground here. He also told us to visit a special Shiva linga. Normally a Shiva Linga is black and it absorbs light and does not reflect it. This particular one showed ones image. Lakhanadal with Shiva Linga 2001/ Shiva linga at Lakhamandal We saw the Siva Linga and an ancient Shiva temple that showed Shiva sits with Parvati with no clothes, just as the Indus Valley seal depicts the ascetic Shiva in the nude. Yogi Seal Harappa Mohan Jodaro -Indus Valley/Shiva_Pashupati Indius Valley seal/Shiva Parvati At Lakhamandal Temple You live in your house and God lives in his. In Hinduism the idol is the manifestation of Lord and is the Lord. The idol is treated as a person and the temple is his residence. Idols can be represented by lawyers acting on his behalf in court. The idol is then treated as a minor, due to this understanding, ands that's what happened at the Ayodhya janmbhumi.Ancient temples differs from modern in following ways :  Use of materials: In the older times, stone were the only material used. On the other hand, the modern temples have a plethora of options like marble, bricks to choose depending on the various criteria that determine as to which material to use. Why are temples different from homes? Temples are places where people with any mindset try to channelize it into one single focus. With various other tools like the temple structure, gopuram, yanthras and chakraa helps the people visiting temple to get more positive energy. If there are people who go to pray for self benefits there are also folks who go there for just praying for the global benefits . This helps to create a more positive vibration around the temple. Like minded thoughts always helps to spread more positive energy. These effects to get from home are tougher as we have to do all the above positive spreads single handedly. Hindu temples and regular houses serve distinct purposes and have different architectural and functional characteristics: Hindu Temple: Religious Significance: Hindu temples are places of worship dedicated to specific deities or gods. They are constructed with the primary purpose of facilitating rituals, prayers, and offerings to the deities. Architectural Design: Temples often feature intricate and ornate architecture, reflecting the artistic and cultural heritage of the region. They may have elaborately carved pillars, domes,spires (shikharas), and symbolic sculptures. Sacred Space: Temples are considered sacred spaces where devotees come to connect with the divine. There are designated areas for prayer, meditation, and darshan (sacred viewing) of the deity. Rituals and Ceremonies: Temples are venues for various religious rituals, ceremonies, and festivals. Priests perform these rituals according to established traditions and practices. Community Gathering: Temples often serve as community centers where devotees come together for religious and cultural events. They provide a sense of community and social interaction. Idol or Deity: Temples house idols or images of deities, and these idols are worshipped as manifestations of the divine. Regular House: Residential Purpose: Regular houses are primarily constructed for human habitation. They provide shelter, living space, and privacy for families and individuals. Functional Design: Houses are designed to accommodate the needs of daily life, with areas for sleeping, cooking, dining, and living. The architectural style varies based on cultural and regional preferences. Private Space: Houses offer private spaces for families to live, relax, and engage in everyday activities. They are not intended for public worship or rituals. Lifestyle and Comfort: Houses are designed to promote comfort, convenience, and functionality for the occupants. Interior design and furnishings cater to personal preferences and comfort. Secular Nature: Houses are secular spaces where people engage in their daily routines, work, and family life. While religious practices may be carried out within homes, houses are not designated places of worship for the broader community. In summary, the main difference lies in their purpose and function. Hindu temples are sacred places of worship and ritual, while regular houses are residential spaces for everyday living. What is the difference between a temple and a matha in Hinduism? In Hinduism, a temple is intended primarily for the worship of Murtis (holy icons) of deities. A matha is a monastery. Its primary purpose is to be a residence for sanyasis (Hindu monks), and to meet all of their needs. Often spiritual classes are also taught at mathas, far more often than at temples. Put simply: a temple is a Gods’ house. A matha is a monks’ house. Often they are immediately adjoining each other, like here (temple on left, matha on right): The difference between Buddist temples and Hindu temples architecture? Actually many people claim Buddhist Temples are converted into Hindu Temples. But it is Reverse! The Sangam Period of Hindu Worship is much before Alexander invasion, or even Birth of Buddha. The Cholas built Temples and later Buddhist converted those Hindu Temples, literature, even God Vishnu as Buddha! Emperor Asoka is a pioneer in calling a Part of Hinduism as Bhudhism! Even Literature like Thirukkural also got converted into Bhudhist or Jainist literature. The concepts of Budha is actually a Plagiarism of Upanishads! Buddha just pulled some few concepts here and there from Hinduism and made a new religion called Buddhism! Like Budha made a new Religion from Brahminical scriptures, Asoka converted all Chola Temples as Buddhist Temples. The Thirupathi was a Chola Temple (you can see Tamil inscriptions in the wall saying about Chola Kings) but they are not successful in converting the Thanjavur Temple into Bhudhist Temple, because it is a Shiva Temple! The Ananta Sayanam pose of Vishnu is converted as Sleeping Budha and even Angorvat Temples also Bhudhist converted into Budha shrine. The secret is nothing but Shiva lingam cannot be converted, but Vishnu can be easily converted into Bhudha. The Appearance of Indra made Kanishka confuse with Budha and the Beautiful Appearance of Vishnu made the Buddhist monks and Jainist call Vishnu as Budha or Mahavira! The Shiva appearance does not help them, but God Vishnu is completely exploited by the Bhudhist as Budha and Vishnu Temples are started becoming Budha Temples at one stage of Indian History! At one stage whole Thrirupathi, Kanchipuram was converted into Bhudist center during the end of Pallava period. The Mahabalipuram is a proof that Hinduism was there before Bhudism entered South India! The Cholas and Pandyas made Trade with Romans and nowhere in History, you can see a Budha Temple or Budha inscriptions before Asoka entered South India. The God Vishnu might have been converted as Jesus Christ, if we allow Sonia Gandhi to rule, like Asoka the Vatican will claim Vishnu as Christ! The Hindu dharma has Five stages, Grahastham, Vanaprastham, and Sanyasam. But Budha wiped Grahastham and abstained Sex and he said we can become Sanyasi. This made Hindus stop Procreating. This made Vatsyana write Kamasutra which is a Part of Hinduism to bring back Indians on Track to Hinduism, The Thiruvallur Wrote Kamathu Pal is the Proof that Thirukkural is a Hindu literature. There is no place for the Kama in Bhudhism. But HIndus got Kamakshi Amman Temple in Kanchipuram and KAmakaya Temple in Assam! At one stage Adi Sankara was forced to prove the world that Budha copied everything from Hinduism. And he successfully restored Hinduism in South India, and Temples like Thirupathi but Places like Afganistan is gone forever! He wrote Baja Govindam, and all the Temples of Tamilnadu is bought back to original Glory, which was completely changed! Kanishka made a Huge new Budha Temple (it might be a wonder of Wold) but later Muslim invaders destroyed all Buddhist Shrines. But South India regained back it’s Hinduism so people are not ready to convert. But Buddhism is a weak religion before Muslim invaders and the Kings instead of protecting the new religion called Buddhism they converted to Islam. A convert will keep on converting his religion in the period of time, but a Stauch Believer of Hinduism will not convert to any religion at any Persuasion or Situation or even at any time in History! The Psychology a person is ready to convert from Hinduism to Buddhism will be always ready to convert to some other religion one day! So later the next day he will convert from Buddhism to Islam. That is why the Kanishka Kingdom got no trace of Buddhism in Afganistan and North West India today, but Raja Raja Chola Kingdom still got Hinduism in Tamilnadu, even Today, and Tomorrow also! Buddhism finished off Hinduism in Present Afganistan and Pakistan and it is the reason for new Religion like Islam and Sikhism to Emerge in North West India! No Big attachment to God for those people in Medival times, in other religions apart from Hinduism and Hindu gods! Some people who went out of Hinduism later became Atheist and Communists in Modern times! The Islam cannot change a small inch of Hindu Temples in South India like they wiped the so Called Buddhist Temples in North Indian places like Bihar! Tamilnadu alone is the only state which cannot be converted by any External forces! But most of Brahmins of North India and Punjab left the religion and adapted new religions. Those who became Bhudhist cannot maintain it for a long time in India, because the attachment towards Religion is very weak in other religions apart from Hinduism. The Tamilnadu Temples were symbols of Hinduism and Bhudhist converted them into Viharas and Pagodas (not Pakodas) and that is why this concept or Question is asked. There is no such thing called Bhudhist Temple and only Hindu Temples were called as Buddhist Temple for a Temporary period in Indian History! Thirupathi is Restored by Tamil kings like Somnath is Restored by Patel. The same way so many Temple which was destroyed is later converted into other religions is yet to be restored. Ram Temple, Krishna Temple, and Varanasi Temples also good examples! The Temple is not a finding of Bhudist. It is a finding of Hindu Tamil Kings. The Bhudhist do not even have any holdings in South India. But like Christianity, they converted Hindu practices and places of worship. Islam will not change a Temple or Hindu Practice. It will Destroy. But Buddhism is more like Christianity. They will convert Vishnu into Budha Easily! Christianity also does the same today what Buddhism did yesterday! They will convert Krishna into Christ, and this is a bigger threat than Islam to Hinduism actually! The Angorvat in Cambodia. The first Vishnu Temple to get converted, but later Historians accepted it a Hindu Temple built by Same Cholas, for Vishnu! The Cousin brothers of Raja Raja built this Vishu Temple in parallel to the Shiva Temple built in Thanjavur, during the same period! The Changing of Vishnu into Budha in South India is the reason for asking this question. There is nothing called Buddhist Temple. All Temples anywhere in the world is a Hindu Temple only! Interesting Trivia as Usual: Indian History rewritten Nicely like Asoka as Non-Violent, Cholas as Invaders (they invaded other countries to Protect the Traders of South and South East Asia from Pirates of the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean), Tipu Sultan as Freedom fighter so on Generously, by our Liberal and left brothers! Also, the communist Historians and Missionaries painted India as a land of Buddha, not as a Land of Vishnu. And they changed all Good thing related to Hinduism as Non-Hindu. British and Communist Historians even tried to convert the Great Upanishads as Non-Hindu Secular Scriptures! But Thirukkural alone got successfully converted as a Secular book, but the root source of Thirukkural and Thirvachagam called Upanishads still remains as Hindu scriptures till now in spite of Valiant efforts of western Historians! Vishnu cannot be Removed is the lesson we learn from History! Adharma will win for some time, but Dharma will be restored once again, the Essence of Baghwad Gita! This is a Hindu God statue, which combines both Shiva and Vishnu in one! Buddha Said Sunyam, but Adi Sankara Said God is One! Aham Brahmasmi! How are Hindu temples different than both churches and mosques? Churches, Mosques and Synagogues are places for the faithful to congregate, offer communal worship and listen to sermons. They are totally dependent on their congregations. Hindu temples are residences of the gods embodied in the icons. The daily routine of services to the gods continue from the day of its consecration, morning to night without stop, as long as the temple exists. Irrespective of the attendance by devotees. Worship is individual being an “audience” with the deity. On special occasions communal chanting (bhajan) is arranged. Temple festivals are periodically celebrated and the free feeding of the attendees takes place. Necessary condition for building a Hindu temple depends on which type of temple you want to build. A Mandir is basically a prayer hall and can be built anywhere - even a previously used building like a church or hall or house can be renovated and converted into a Mandir. The conditions and regulations for building a Mandir are very flexible and there is plenty of room for innovation and modification. (The Mandir is based on Purāṇas) An Ālaya is a temple proper and is based on the Agamas. It needs to be built on virgin land - usually outside of a town or city and preferably on a hilltop or near a water source - a river or a lake. The conditions and stages of preparation of the soil and the dimensions of the building and orientation and timings of the various stages of construction and the rituals to accompany each and every stage are complex and are strictly regulated in every detail by the Agamas. The simple diagnostic metric to determine whether a Hindu temple is an Alaya or a Mandir check for the Flagstaff (Dhvaja-stambha)- if there is one it is an Alaya if none - it is a Mandir. If it has one of these then it must conduct an annual Brahmotsava or Temple Festival for 10 days every year and numerous other very costly festivals during the annual cycle. A Mandir has no such compulsions - and can celebrate whichever festivals the committee desires in whatever manner. Because of the seriousness and expense of constructing and maintain an Alaya the Agama gives us a dire warning:– hantyārtha hī nā kartāraṃ mantrahīnaṃ tu ṛtvijam | śrīyaṃ lakṣanā hīnā tu na pratiṣṭhā samo ripuḥ || Lack of opulence destroys the patrons, lack of knowledge of the proper mantras destroys the priests, lack of the proper paraphernalia destroys the prosperity of a temple, there is no enemy like an installation. (Narada Samhita 28:19) How are Hindu temples structured and what do they represent? Hindu Temple Structure & Representation How are Hindu temples structured and what do they represent? Hindu temples are sacred places of worship in the Hindu religion. They are designed and structured in a specific way, but it's important to note that there can be variations in temple architecture and practices across different regions and traditions within Hinduism. I'll provide you with a general overview. Structure: Gopuram/Raja Gopuram: Hindu temples typically have an entrance gate called the Gopuram or Raja Gopuram. It is a towering structure with intricate carvings and sculptures, often depicting deities and mythological scenes. Mandapa: After passing through the Gopuram, you usually enter a pillared hall called the Mandapa. It serves as a gathering space for devotees and may have smaller shrines dedicated to various deities. Garbhagriha/Sanctum Sanctorum: At the heart of the temple is the Garbhagriha, also known as the Sanctum Sanctorum. It houses the main deity of the temple, usually a murti (idol) of a particular Hindu deity. The Garbhagriha is considered the most sacred part of the temple. Pradakshina Path: Surrounding the Garbhagriha, there is often a circumambulation path called the Pradakshina Path. Devotees walk around this path in a clockwise direction as an act of reverence and devotion. Vimana/Shikhara: The main tower above the Garbhagriha is known as the Vimana or Shikhara. It is often intricately carved and represents the cosmic mountain or the abode of the deity. Mandapas and Auxiliary Structures: Hindu temples may have additional structures like smaller mandapas, halls for ceremonies, courtyards, and other auxiliary buildings within the temple complex. Symbolism and Representation: Cosmic Structure: Hindu temples are designed to represent the macrocosm and the microcosm. The temple structure symbolizes the universe, with the Garbhagriha representing the cosmic center and the deities residing within it. Deity Representation: The main purpose of a temple is to house and honor a specific deity. The murti of the deity is considered a physical manifestation of the divine and serves as the focal point of devotion and worship. Ritual and Devotion: Temples provide a space for religious rituals, ceremonies, and communal worship. Devotees visit temples to offer prayers, make offerings, seek blessings, and engage in spiritual activities. Sacred Energy: Temples are believed to be infused with divine energy, known as the shakti or prana of the deity. This energy is thought to purify and uplift those who visit the temple. Spiritual Journey: The temple architecture often incorporates a progression of spaces, symbolizing the journey of the devotee from the external world towards the inner sanctum. This journey represents the seeker's spiritual progression and their quest for divine realization. It's important to remember that Hindu temple architecture and symbolism can vary across different regions and sects within Hinduism. The above description provides a general understanding, but there can be significant variations in specific temple designs and practices based on local traditions and customs. How is the ISKCON temple different from other temples in India? What are its characteristics? Generally speaking the ISKCON Temples are Huge and Magnificent and are built in Large & sprawling areas with Granite stones, Marble flooring and Modern amenities. ISKCON is a Very Powerful organization and it has been around for a very long time since the Year 1966, and it has many Intelligent Students and Powerful people who command respect in the society. The ISKCON is an International Organization set up by “Srila Prabhupada” to Propagate Krishna consciousness worldwide. The Lighting effects and Acoustics are also exemplary in ISKCON temples wherever I have visited. They distribute Free Prasadam to everybody who go to visit an ISKCON temple as a devotee. There are ISKCON Book stalls available with Fat Books full of information and Colour pictures yet priced affordably which is a rarity these days. ISKCON temples also give “Akshara Dasoha” or Free Food for school children everyday and they promote Education by giving nutrition to the needy students. ISKCON Temples also conduct Chanting sessions of “Hare Rama and Hare Krishna” and also several Discourses, Bhajans and Prayers en masse on a Daily basis. ISKCON Temples are more Broad minded and they Welcome people from All Religions, Castes, from Different Nations and Ethnicities without Discrimination of any kind. ISKCON Temples have been set up across the Major Lord Krishna Pilgrimage centers in India like Mathura, Puri, Tirupati, etc and also in Cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Jaipur, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Pune, Kanpur etc. Courtesy : ISKCON Temples In India | Waytoindia.com Overall there are 550 plus ISKCON Temples worldwide. What are the similarities of a Hindu temple? Some of the structural similarities A garva griha where the idol or the essence of a diety is supposed to be A place to light diyas or candles An amrit kalas and a lotus at the top of temple architecture These three are must to signify a hindu temple. According to traditions there are many similarities Holy lamps Holy vermilion and ash Holy water Prasadam in some form The word om in most cases The face of the diety directly facing the entrance of garva griha The flowers, sandalwood, incense stick or myrrh The lotus symbol in most cases The havan platform for yagna in most cases A water body near it in case of big temples for ritualistic bath II The construction of temple is a complex and creative process with a blend of mathematics, logic, geography, geology, science, ecology, art, sculpting, music, light & sound, social sciences and astrology. One of the most important surviving records about the construction of the temple is in the palm leaf manuscript which explains the details of the building operation of 13th century Surya Temple at Konark, Orissa. This record shows the list of workmen, their salaries, and rules of conduct, and provides an account over several years of various building operations. The temple construction can be broadly divided into three phases; Logistics, Pre construction and Construction. Aspects in Temple Construction There are many aspects involved in constructing a temple. Acarya, director for the temple construction and shilpi (sculptor) play major role in the construction of a temple. The temple's acarya is expected to know silpa sastra although not in as much detail as a shilpi. Temple construction begins with search of a proper site. Soil and location are examined by acarya and shilpi. This is called Bhupariksha. This is followed by nagara/grama nirmana. Here, the layout of town, its size, breadth of different levels of streets, locations and sizes of facilities like water tanks are determined based on the size of town. There are different names for different sizes of towns, like grama, kheta, kharvata, durga, nagara. Then the location of temple (brahma sthana) in the town is decided. Temple is usually in the center of village so that every villager has access to it. The entire arrangement is called grama vinyasa. Then the size of temple is determined. For this, size of the image of main deity is to be known, since the size of a temple is always a fixed multiple of the size of image of main deity. Then wood/metal/stone is selected for the image. The icon has three parts, main icon (vigraha), pedestal (peetha) and platform (adhisthana or upa peetha). The tests to determine quality of stone are prescribed by the Agamas. There are three kinds of stone, male female and neuter. When hit with an iron rod if the stone produces good sound and spark, it is male and should be used for the main icon. If it produces sound but not spark it is female and should be used for pedestal. If it produces neither, it is neuter and should be used for platform. There are various standards for the relative proportions of image, gopura, prakara etc. and also the relative proportions of various parts of the vigraha. The units for measuring vigraha are tala, angula and yava. Tala is a multiple of angula and angula is a multiple of yava. More than the specific size of each unit, the multiplicity and relative sizes are important. The proportions of Head-Trunk-Arms-Legs of images are specified. The finer specifications like nose, nail, ears and their shapes are also mentioned. Generally the standard is to use dasatala (ten talas) for the height of image of male deity, navatala (nine talas) for His consort and astatala (eight talas) for bhakta. Duties of temple administration are also specified in the Agamas - organizing festivals, encourage art forms and conduct shows to encourage artists, create accommodation for pilgrims from other towns, run hospitals, regularly conducting religious discourses etc. Town planning, engineering, architecture, fine arts, civics, and many other subjects are dealt in the agamas, which relate to the various interests of people and involve them at different capacities and also direct their work towards a higher goal. Steps in Temple Construction The procedure for building a temple is extensively discussed, and it could be expressed in short as "Karshanadi Pratisthantam", meaning beginning with "Karshana" and ending with "Pratistha". The details of steps involved vary from one Agama to another, but broadly these are the steps in temple construction: Bhu pariksha: Examining and choosing location and soil for temple and town. The land should be fertile and soil suitable. Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image Karshana: Corn or some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. Then the location is fit for town/temple construction. Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vastu devata. Salyodhara: Undesired things like bones are dug out. Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. A pit is dug, water mixed with navaratnas, navadhanyas, navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled. Then the temple is constructed. Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara, gopura etc. This again involves creating cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. and then the pinnacles are placed. Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa sthapana) is installed at the place of main deity. Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed. Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness. Before the temple is opened for daily worship, there are some preparatory rituals to be done, like: Anujna: the priest takes permission from devotees and lord Ganesha to begin rituals Mrit samgrahana: Collecting mud Ankurarpana: Sowing seeds in pots of mud collected and waiting till they germinate Rakshabandhana: The priest binds a holy thread on his hand to take up the assignment. Punyahavacana: Purifying ritual for the place and invoking good omens Grama santi: Worship for the good of village and to remove subtle undesired elements Pravesa bali: Propitiation of various gods at different places in the temple, rakshoghna puja (to destroy asuric elements) and of specific gods like Kshetra palaka (devata ruling the town) Vastu Santi: Pacifying puja for vastu (this happens twice and this is the second time) Yagasala: Building the stage for homas, along with vedika. Kalasasthapana: Installing kalasam Samskara: Purifying the yaga sala Kalasa puja, yagarambha: Woshipping the kalasa as god and propitiating deities through fire Nayanonmeelana, Pratimadhivasa: Opening eyes of the god-image, installing it and giving it life. Then specific worship is done to deity, as prescribed. For instance in the case of Siva, this is followed by astabandhana and kumbhabhisheka. Temple Design From the proportions of the inner sanctum to the motifs carved into the pillars, the traditional temple takes its first form on the master sthapati's drawing board. The architect initially determines the fundamental unit of measurement using a formula called ayadhi. This formula, which comes from Jyotisha, or Vedic astrology, uses the nakshatra (birth star) of the founder, the nakshatra of the village in which the temple is being erected matching the first syllable of the name of the village with the seed sounds mystically associated with each nakshatra and the nakshatra of the main Deity of the temple. This measurement, called danda, is the dimension of the inside of the sanctum and the distance between the pillars. The whole space of the temple is defined in multiples and fractions of this basic unit. The Shastras are strict about the use of metals, such as iron in the temple structure because iron is mystically the crudest, most impure of metals. The presence of iron, sthapatis explain, could attract lower, impure forces. Only gold, silver, and copper are used in the structure, so that only the most sublime forces are invoked during the pujas. At especially significant stages in the temple construction (such as ground-breaking and placement of the sanctum door frame), pieces of gold, silver and copper, as well as precious gems, are ceremoniously embedded in small interstices between the stones, adding to the temple's inner-world magnetism. These elements are said to glow in the inner worlds and, like holy ash, are prominently visible to the Gods and Devas. The ground plan is described as a symbolic, miniature representation of the cosmos. It is based on a strict grid made up of squares and equilateral triangles which are imbued with deep religious significance. To the priest-architect the square was an absolute and mystical form. The grid, usually of 64 or 81 squares, is in fact a mandala, a model of the cosmos, with each square belonging to a deity. The position of the squares is in accordance with the importance attached to each of the deities, with the square in the center representing the temple deity; the outer squares cover the gods of lower rank. Agamas say that the temple architecture is similar to a man sitting - and the idol in garbagriha is exactly the heart-plexus, gopuram as the crown etc. The construction of the temple follows in three dimensional form exactly the pattern laid out by the mandala. The relationship between the underlying symbolic order and the actual physical appearance of the temple can best be understood by seeing it from above which was of course impossible for humans until quite recently. Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face the rising sun and so should have its entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary, along the east-west axis and through a series of increasingly sacred spaces is of great importance and is reflected in the architecture. A typical temple consists of the following major elements an entrance, often with a porch one or more attached or detached mandapas or halls the inner sanctum called the garbagriha, literally 'womb chamber' the tower build directly above the garbagriha. Significance of the number eight in temple design Vastu Shastra describes the inner sanctum and main tower as a human form, structurally conceived in human proportions based on the mystical number eight. According to Dr. V. Ganapati Sthapati, Senior Architect at the Vastu Government College of Architecture, the vibration of the space-consciousness, which is called time, is the creative element, since it is this vibratory force that causes the energetic space to turn into spatial forms. Therefore, time is said to be the primordial element for the creation of the entire universe and all its material forms. When these vibrations occur rhythmically, the resultant product will be an orderly spatial form. This rhythm of the time unit is traditionally called talam or layam. Since every unit of time vibration produces a corresponding unit of space measure, vastu science derives that time is equal to space. This rhythm of time and space vibrations is quantified as eight and multiples of eight, the fundamental and universal unit of measure in the vastu silpa tradition. This theory carries over to the fundamental adi talam (eight beats) of classical Indian music and dance. Applying this in the creation of a human form, it is found that a human form is also composed of rhythmic spatial units. According to the Vastu Shastras, at the subtle level the human form is a structure of eight spatial units devoid of the minor parts like the hair, neck, kneecap and feet, each of which measures one-quarter of the basic measure of the body and, when added on to the body's eight units, increases the height of the total form to nine units. Traditionally these nine units are applied in making sculptures of Gods. Since the subtle space within our body is part of universal space, it is logical to say that the talam of our inner space should be the same as that of the universe. But in reality, it is very rare to find this consonance between an individual's and the universal rhythm. When this consonance occurs, the person is in harmony with the Universal Being and enjoys spiritual strength, peace and bliss. Therefore, when designing a building according to vastu, the architect aims at creating a space that will elevate the vibration of the individual to resonate with the vibration of the built space, which in turn is in tune with universal space. Vastu architecture transmutes the individual rhythm of the indweller to the rhythm of the Universal Being. The Vastu-Purusha-Mandala The goal of a temple's design is to bring about the descent or manifestation of the unmanifest and unseen. The architect or sthapati begins by drafting a square. The square is considered to be a fundamental form. It presupposes the circle and results from it. Expanding energy shapes the circle from the center; it is established in the shape of the square. The circle and curve belong to life in its growth and movement. The square is the mark of order, the finality to the expanding life, life's form and the perfection beyond life and death. From the square all requisite forms can be derived: the triangle, hexagon, octagon, circle etc. The architect calls this square the vastu-purusha-mandala-vastu, the manifest, purusha, the Cosmic Being, and mandala. The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple building. In order to establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on a construction site, it is first drafted on planning sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site. The drawing of the mandala upon the earth at the commencement of construction is a sacred rite. The rites and execution of the vastu-purusha-mandala sustain the temple in a manner similar to how the physical foundation supports the weight of the building.Based on astrological calculations the border of the vastu-purusha-mandala is subdivided into thirty-two smaller squares called nakshatras. The number thirty-two geometrically results from a repeated division of the border of the single square. It denotes four times the eight positions in space: north, east, south, west, and their intermediate points. The closed polygon of thirty-two squares symbolizes the recurrent cycles of time as calculated by the movements of the moon. Each of the nakshatras is ruled over by a Deva, which extends its influence to the mandala. Outside the mandala lie the four directions, symbolic of the meeting of heaven and earth and also represent the ecliptic of the sun-east to west and its rotation to the northern and southern hemispheres. The center of the mandala is called the station of Brahma, the creator of the universe. Surrounding Brahma are the places of twelve other entities known as the sons of Aditi, who assist in the affairs of universal management. The remaining empty squares represent akasha or pure space. The vastu-purusha-mandala forms a diagram of astrological influences that constitute the order of the universe and the destinies of human lives. When placed on the building site, along with astrological calculations, can the auspicious time to begin temple construction be determined. The ground breaking ceremony From the diagram of the vastu-purusha-mandala the architect proceeds to develop the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the temple. The plotting graphs of the temple are divided into two main sections-the ground plan and the vertical alignment. The square, the rectangle, the octagon and the pentagon are fundamental patterns in the horizontal or ground plan. In the vertical alignment the pyramid, the circle and the curve are most prominent. The subdivisions of the ground plan include the brahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller chapels) and the mandapam (balconies, assembly halls and auditoriums). The vertical plan consists of drawings for the gopuram, entrance ways, the vimana, the structure above the main shrine, and the prakara, walls. The brahmasthana is the principal location in a temple and is where the seat of the presiding Diety will be placed. At the base of the foundation of the brahmasthana, located at the station of Brahma on the vastu-purusha-mandala, a ritual called the garbhadhana is performed called. The ritual invites the soul of the temple to enter within the buildings confines. During this ritual, a golden box is placed in the earth as part of the ground-breaking ceremony. The interior of the box is divided into smaller units exactly resembling the vastu-purusha-mandala. All the units of the gold box are first partially filled with dirt. In the thirty-two units representing the nakshatras, the units of Brahma, and the twelve sons of Aditi, the priest places an appropriate mantra in written form to invoke the presence of the corresponding Devata. The sanskrit mantras chanted by the priest are as important as the actual mandala. The mantra infuses the mandala with spiritual powers. The mantras are the subtle form of the mandala and therefore the two are inseparable. In the unit of Brahma, Ananta, a golden serpent with many raised hoods is placed. It is then surrounded with nine precious jewels or navaratna. Ananta represents the energy of God in which the universe rests in space. The nine jewels invoke the astrological influence of the nine planets and are composed of a diamond, emerald, ruby, pearl, yellow sapphire, blue sapphire, red coral, cats-eye and jade. A gold lid with the seven continents of the earth engraved on it is placed on top of the box following which the agni-hotra, or sanctification ceremony. During the agni-hotra the priest offers clarified butter, the symbol of religious principles, into the fire, which represents the mouth of the Cosmic Being. Along with the offering of clarified butter five types of grains-rice, wheat, barley, rye and dhal, are also offered with the chanting of mantras. http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Temple_Construction by samiksha — on 23/11/2018.Leave a Commenton The process of Temple Construction Below is an overview of the process. 2.1.1 Logistics Logistics mainly deals with team selection, budgeting, material sourcing and finding effective ways of transportation. 2.1.1.1 Team selection The first and foremost step of a temple construction is to select the team which comprises of people from various guilds. The Sthapati who is the chief architect was selected by Karta himself. The Sthapati should have complete knowledge of the Silpa Shastras, the traditional sciences, mathematics and Puranas, paintings, music and yoga. He should be fit to direct the construction to all the other members engaged in the construction work. As a person he should be kind, joyous, and free from hatred and jealousy, truthful, with control over the senses, focused in mind, and also free from greed, carelessness and disease. Rest of the team comprising of the stone craftsmen, black smiths and other workmen for leveling and cleaning are selected by the Sthapati. Sutragrahani, the Engineer who is usually the son or disciple of the Sthapati. His role is to perform all the work assigned by the Sthapati and also he should have knowledge of layout and proportionate measurements (vertical and horizontal) by chord and rod. There are two types of stone craftsmen who work for the temple, one who is a carver and the other is the modeler. The carvers are called Takshaka. One set of Takshaka work at a quarry site. They cut the stones and send it for carving to the other set of Takshaka. The modelers are called Bardhakin, the mason or carpenter who fits and places together what the Takshaka has carved and by adding to the finished work. Apart from stone craftsmen there are people like black smiths who does iron casting, other workmen who does leveling and cleaning of ground, erecting the scaffolding, transporting the stones, managing camp and accounts. All these members are selected by Sthapati and minister together.Fig-11 is illustrative of the phases of temple construction and the role of the craftsmen. 2.1.1.2 Budgeting The budget is estimated by the Sthapati according to the scale of the temple. Generally it is the Karta or the king who bore all the expenses to acquire religious merit. Sometimes if the construction work require huge amount of money then a message is spread everywhere for donations. Traders usually donate for such work. 2.1.1.3 Material sourcing and quarrying Material sourcing is done by Sthapati. Usually the Sthapati has knowledge about all the nearby quarries from which stones can be easily transported to the construction site. Stone was considered as the most sacred building material. As per the Shastras, the temple made in brick is hundred times more worthy than wood and the temple constructed in stone is ten thousand times more worthy than in brick. Stone selected for the construction should be of even color, hard and perfect, pleasing to touch. The quality and type of stone is very important according the place where they are applied in the construction. Hard and even stones are used for the plinth, columns, beams and slabs. Supple stones are used for the construction of sculptures, idols, carvings etc. The preferred stones for the construction were then quarried. These quarries were mostly located in the nearby areas only in some cases the specific stones were transported from far of distances. Stones were quarried using wooden wedges that are driven into the rocks and then wetted to cause expansion. This in turn causes the rocks to crack and are thus cut by subsequent application of pressure and dressed. Silpa Shastras classify stones according to six varieties. (Vastusutra Upanishad:The essence of form in sacred art, 2000) Hiranyarekhika: Stone with golden curve line. It is of bad quality not to be used for image making or temple construction. Samavarna: When the entire stone is of one colour.It is considered to be of best quality Tamra: Very hard stone of copper red color should not be considered. When the stone is not severed from the rock it can only be used on walls for carving mythological scenes but not for main sculptures Dhatuputita: When the stone has metal like sores of smoky color it is worst for image making. Vajralabadha: When between the layers of the stone soft mineral lines of yellow color shine; they are always considered to be inferior. The principal stones that have been utilized temple building in Odisha are Sandstone, Laterite, Khandolite, and Chlorite. The different technical terms, in the local tongue, of the different varieties of the above stones are given below with the names of temples where they are used. [1] Sandstone: Bagda Kanda: A coarse grained white or yellow sandstone. There are mainly two varieties available; Naraj Bagda and Mota Bagda. The former is harder and more fine grained than the later and has been used in Lingaraj, Bramheswar and Yameswar temples of Bhubaneswar. The latter has been used in the temples of Siddheswar and Nayakeswara. Raja rania Kanda: Fine grained yellowish sandstone with following sub classes. Lal Raja-rania,HaladiaRaja-rania,Dhala misa Raja-rania,Kaya Raja-rania. First two varieties have been used in the temples of Mukteswar, Gauri and Rajarani. Last two varieties being harder and strong have been used in lintels and architraves of several temples like Bramheswar, Mukteswar, and Rajarani etc. Khadia Kanda:is a white sandstone resembling chalk. This variety has been found in the temples of Ananta vasudeva,Parvati and Parsurameswar etc.It is divided into following classes; Sapha Khadia Kanda,Phul Khadia Kanda,Balia Khadia Rang Dalima: It is reddish white sandstone which is very hard for dressing. This variety is noticed at Lingaraj and Vaitala temple. It is divided into following classes;Sapha Rang Dalima,Matia Rang Dalima,Rangdalima misrita Khadia kanda Apart from Sandstone other stones that are used are Laterite or Mankada Pathara, soap stone or Khadipathara, slightly harder greenish chlorite or Kochila Pathara and harder pinkish Khandolite or Sahana Pathara or Baula Pathara and the hardest of all black granite or Muguni Pathara. While Laterite has been chiefly used for boundary walls other stones are used for image making. Khandolite is used for temple construction as well. 2.1.1.4 Transportation In the past stones were transported to the temple sites mostly by water ways. Mukhya Sthapati used to work out waterways through which stones should be transported. Boats covered with planks were used for the transport of stones on rivers and canals. See Figure-12 for the probable water ways to transport stones from various hills to the temple sites of Puri, Konark and Bhubaneswar.[2] Kalasagadi and Sangi were employed to transport heavy stones on land. Poles with hanging ropes carried on shoulders are called Sangi and thick plank on rollers drawn by the elephants is called Kalasagadi (Refer Figure-13). It is suggested by K.C.Panigrahi in his book “Archaeological remains of Bhubaneswar “that in case of temples like Lingaraj where the quarry site is very near to the temple site inclined planes were made from the quarry to drag the heavy stones. 2.1.2 Pre construction Pre construction majorly deals with site selection and orientation of the temple. The Sthapati along with the Brahman place the temple with respect to the universe of which it is a part. 2.1.2.1 Site Selection The initial step of construction of the temple is the selection of land/site. According to treaties “The Gods always play where groves, rivers, mountains and springs are near and in towns with pleasure gardens.”Thus most of the ancient surviving temples were built on the mountain peaks, lush valleys, grooves, near the water body etc where the environment was considered to be suitable for the adobe of Gods. The essential necessity is the existence of water, which can be present naturally or at least as a symbolic representation. The reason of constructing a temple near the river not only has religious significance but also has functional aspect to it. In one hand it becomes easy to transport the stones via water route and in the other hand it helps in sufficing the water requirement of the members who stay encamped in the construction site. Even after completion of the temple water bodies can be used for supplying water for daily rites of deity and to the pilgrims. While examining this principle against the nine sample temples it is found that out of the nine temples Singhanath temple is situated on an island in the river Mahanadi and Durga temple of Baideswar is situated on the banks of Mahandi.Varahi temple is situated near to the banks of Prachi river and it also has several other water bodies around it. Other six temples are situated around Bindusagar. This proves the functional understanding of the Sthapatis because of which they managed to create magnificent temples in the days when there was no advanced transportation system. (Refer Figure-14) 2.1.2.2 Soil test Shastras classify soils in four categories; Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra and this classification is based on the color, scent and taste of the soil. Brahmin soil is white in color; it smells as clarified butter and is astringent to taste. Kshatriya soil is blood red in color, smells like blood and is bitter to the taste Vaishya soil is yellow in color, smells like alkaline earth and is sour to the taste. Sudra soil is black in color, smells like faeces and has taste like wine. Brahmin and Kshatriya soils are preferred over Vaishya soil and construction on Sudra soil was prohibited. If the Sthapati could not determine the caste from color, smell or taste then a simple test used to be done. Sesame seeds should be sown on the ground; if sprouts appear after 3, 4, 5 or 6 nights then the soil is Brahmin, Kshatriya, and Vaishya & Sudra respectively. If the seeds appear after 7 nights it belongs to caste of ‘Pisachas’ and one should not build on such soil.[3] It is understood from the above description that the soil assigned to Brahmins is sandy in character, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas are ferruginous and rocky where the former being more rocky are good for construction, soil assigned to the Sudra is the worst of all being black cotton soil. Soil filled with bones and ashes has been forbidden to be selected as a suitable site for a temple. The reason is soil made up of these things never attain solidity and homogeneity necessary for the base of a structure. Apart from this several other tests used to be conducted to determine whether the site is suitable for temple construction or not. All these tests were done to determine Soil bearing capacity Water retaining capacity Consolidation Oxygen content in the atmosphere and soil Indication of previous habitation 2.1.2.3 Sanku Sthapana and Naga Bandhana The process of establishing the orientation of a temple binds it to the earth, the sun and their relationship at the moment of origination. The method by which orientation was undertaken was based on the ‘Indian circle method’ and was based on the use of an instrument known as ‘Sanku yantra’ or the ‘gnomon’, which is an ancient device for determining the east-west direction as well as for knowing time (Hardy, 1995) After determining the building site, it should be cleansed and purified. For marking it out with the thread, a peg (Sanku) should be fixed in the centre of the ground. In the middle of the ground a point is hollowed out to the depth of twelve Angulas and the peg made of wood or a piece of Bamboo is put into that hole. Below are the steps followed by the Sthapatis to determine the East –West axis. Step 1: A gnomon is made by putting a specified object in the ground and by drawing a circle around it. Steps 2 and 3: The place where the shadow cuts the circle, in the morning and in the evening, is marked and a line is drawn between those two points. From these points two circles are made. Step 4: On the place where these two new circles cut each other a new line is drawn. This line represents the North – South axes. Step 5: From the places where the North – South axes cuts the first circle two new circles are drawn. Step 6: A line, connecting the cutting points of the two new circles, is drawn. This line represents the East – West axes. Because of the irregularity of the sun’s motion in the ecliptic, various rules have been laid down for the purpose of rectifying its variations. Time plays an important role here. In one explanation for instance: “The place where the shadow of the gnomon projects, on two successive days at the same hour, being marked, the difference between those two days, is taken as the variation of the shadow for sixty ghaticas or twenty-four hours. The interval between the times at which the western and eastern points were marked on the preceding day is multiplied by the difference of the shadow measured for one day, and the product being divided by sixty Ghaticas, the result will give the difference of the shadow for the given time; it will then be only necessary to remove the eastern or western point so far towards the south or north, according as the difference of the shadow on the second day may be in either of those directions, or as the sun is in the southern or northern solstice. (K.J.Oijevaar) (See Figure 15) Once the cardinal directions were established the process called Naga Bandhana started. It is an intricate and ancient method in Silpa Shastra, by which the temple’s direction and the auspicious moment for beginning the sacred construction is determined. This ancient science guides the architect to understand natural forces and build stable massive structures in Odisha. According to the Silpa Shastras, it is imagined that a great serpent (Naga) lies encircling every building site. Its body is divided into 8 equal positions. The serpent moves round and round in a clockwise direction .Its head lies at the eastern point of the compass in the middle of the month of the Ashwina. It takes a year to come round to the same point. The orientation of temple was decided according to the Naga’s position and position of doors was fixed accordingly. Door on the eastern side is generally considered as auspicious as the sun rises from the east and a door on the eastern side would help the first rays of sun to touch the feet of the deity. Vastu puja and other ceremonies should not be done in Sravana and Bhadra as these are rainy seasons. Building operation should be done in the light half of the month and especially in the months in which days are longer than nights. (See Figure 16)[4] When the orientations of the sample temples were examined it was found that Konark, Rajarani, Lingaraj and Singhanath face east ,Vaitala faces south and rest four temples face west. But surprisingly except Konark none of the other temples oriented towards true E-W axis(Refer Figure 17). And the possible reason of deviation from true cardinal directions could be the connection between the Nakshatra of the Karta and the Naga’s position on the auspicious day of construction determined the orientation of the temple to acknowledge the supremacy of the Karta. Another possible reason could be the sun azimuth. In Bhubaneswar, the sun apparent azimuth at sunrise is roughly estimated at lying between 62º (at the summer solstice) and 118º (at the winter solstice). This means that in June, the sun rises 28º north of true east, while in December, it rises 28º south of it. It is only around the equinoxes, in September and March, that the sun rises due east. This might have resulted in deviation in determining the true cardinal directions. Other reasons that came out during this examination were the location of water bodies, hills, settlement and religious affiliation could have influenced the orientation of the temples. 2.1.2.4 Scale Model Once the orientation is established a scaled model is made by the Sthapati for Karta’s approval. 2.1.2.5 Ground Layout The Silpa text describes sixteen (Shodasha) types of temple layouts:  the Square (Chaturasra); Rectangle (Ayata);Trapezium(with uneven sides – like a cart – shakata); Circle (Vritta); Elliptical (kritta vritta); triangular(Dwaja);diamond or rhombus (Vajra) ; Arrow Shara);umbrella (Chatra) ; fish (Meena);back of a tortoise(Kurma);conch(Shankha);crescent(Ardha-chandra); pot (Kumbha);sword (Khadga); and lotus (Kamala) These layouts have specific applications; and are not to be used generally. For instance: the back of a tortoise (Kurma), pot (Kumbha), conch (Shankha) and lotus (Kamala) are recommended only for Vishnu and Shiva temples. Similarly the Square (Chandura), Rectangle (Agatra), fish (Meena), diamond or rhombus (Vajra) and sword (Khadga) are recommended for Devi temples. The rest of the layouts are for other (lesser) deities. But all texts generally agree that the square or the rectangular shapes of layout are the best and most auspicious. In case the layout is rectangular, the North South dimension should be greater than East-west dimension. It is also said, it would be better if the elevation on the west or the South is slightly higher. The preliminaries for construction of a shrine include preparations of a plan, Vastu Purusha Mandala, a Yantra, with unit cells (Pada) of 64, 81 or 256 in number. As the temple is a link between the physical world of man and divine world of God, to connect them the plan of cosmos were graphically copied in the foundation of the temples called as the Vastu Purusha Mandala.The Vastu Purusha Mandala is derived from three separate words each having a specific meaning where Vastu refers to physical environment, Purusha refers to energy, power or cosmic being, and Mandala is the diagram or chart (Md Rian I, 2007). The basic form of the Vastu Purusha Mandala is the square and square is the important and ideal geometric form in Hindu philosophy, which represents the earth. All the necessary forms like the triangle, hexagon octagon and circle, etc can be derived from the square. The four sides of the square represent the four cardinal directions. The square also symbolizes the order, the completeness of endless life and the perfectness of life and death (Michell, 1988). The Mandala is actually a square subdivided into smaller squares in the form of a grid with each square unit clearly marking the areas of respective gods. The most commonly used Mandala is the square divided into 64 and 81 squares. Mostly the square of the Mandala on its outer periphery are divided into 32 smaller squares, in accordance to the astrological calculation called Nakshatra, representing the constellations or the position of planets through which moon passes in its monthly path. The closed polygon of thirty-two squares is symbolical to the recurrent cycles of time as calculated by the movements of the moon (See Figure-18) The four directions lie outside the Mandala which represents the meeting of the earth and the universe as well as the movement of the sun from east to west and its rotation to the northern and southern hemispheres. The central portion of the Mandala is the place for the Brahma, the creator, and the rest squares are the position of other Gods as per their relevance. The ground plan is symbolic and is the representation of cosmos in miniature. When placed on the building site the Vastu Purusha Mandala determines the positions and orientations of the temples and the time for commencing the construction.Figure-18 illustrates Vastupurusha Mandala in temple Parsurameswar From the diagram of the Vastu Purusha Mandala the Sthapati next proceeds to develop the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the temple. A block of stone 8 digits in length, breadth& height should be taken. A lotus should be carved on it with 8 petals. A hole should be dug at the heart or stomach of the Vastu Naga and the stone should be placed there pointing towards the 8 cardinal points of the compass. Of the projected height of the temple 1/3rd should be dug (in depth) in a slant towards the middle of the ground. Inside the excavation of the ground at the level of the plinth(Garbhapitha),the beautiful ground plan should be made.(Refer Figure-20)[5] After this stone cutting, carving, assembling starts to construct the temple as per the approved model. 2.1.3 Construction 2.1.3.1 Stone cutting and Carving Quarried stones are cut into pieces of suitable size. Figure-21 shows preferred size of stone. Sometimes carving is done after assembling the stone and sometimes it is done before hand considering the size and nature of the sculpture. The first step of carving is to determine the height of the main shrine. The primary measure for images is known as the Padimanam or erect postural measure. This measurement refers to the height of the image taken from the foot to the top of the head. It does not include the head dress, crown or pedestal. The erect postural measure has to be first determined and from this height, the seated height has to be determined. The principle measure is determined as the rhythmic related measure to any one of the following: The size of the lingam consecrated in the sanctum The inner width of the sanctum The width of the principle doorway of the sanctum The height of the pillar The height of the patron The outer length of the sanctum There are three broad classifications of images: Sculpture in the round, in bold relief and representation on a plain surface. Based on the personality of the image, it may be further classified into three types; Satvikam-calm,tranquil,ethereal,luminous, Rajasam-energetic,heroic,mobile, Tamasam-aggressive, violent and disruptive. For every sculpture there is a clear rhythmic grammar set out by the Shastras. This is the use of Talam or rhythmic proportions. It is this factor which makes it possible for the sculptor to create both minute and gigantic masterpieces with equal ease. There are 10 Talas in all. Each has several sub-divisions to accommodate the proportional hierarchy between man, woman, God, animal etc. (Refer Figure-22) There are six kinds of measurements including the main height of the image, its breadth, thickness and circumference or outer dimension. There is further the measurement of spaces in between the sections of the body, for example the spaces between two feet. All calculations are made using the plumb line. Traditionally the instrument used to draw these plumb lines is called “Pralamba-phalaka” The central plumb line is called the Bramhasutram.In relation to this, the shift of the various parts of the body are noted. To facilitate composition of an image, it is essential to have a grid of both horizontal and vertical axes. Thus apart from the central line in front, there is a central line running at the rear and the either side of the image. There is another line which passes through the centre of the body starting from the midpoint of the head. These five lines of measurement are called Panchasutram. (Refer Figure-23) Figure-24 illustrates composition diagram for some of the images. 2.1.3.2 Assembling Stones are then assembled together by intricate interlocking system. At times stones are carved and then assembled or first assembled and then carved according to the instruction of Sthapati. Assembling is done by Chara or scaffolding. Figure-25 shows different types of scaffolding used in the construction of Sun temple, Konark. (New lights on the Sun temple of Konark) 2.1.3.3 Tools and equipments The basic tools, hammer and different types of chisels are used for cutting and carving of the stones. The tools are made locally and sharpened regularly in the work yard by the blacksmiths. Many other instruments were also used for construction. [1] The names of the stone in the local tongue are taken from  REFERENCES 1. Development of Rock-cut Architecture- https://sg.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/75375/10/10_chapter%202.pdf 2. By Rock-cut temples in India – the history of the construction-Svetlana Bukreeva& Editorial staff of portal “Underground expert” https://undergroundexpert.info/en/underground-space-use/implemented-projects/india-stepwells/ Distinction between the Marble and sandstone surfaces inside the temple. BELOW also Sandstone Roof of the Ramdaspeth jain temple V Vimana Dr Uday Dokras PhD SWEDEN The temple style was in full vigour in the wake of vast religious and cultural resurgence that took place when the Sailodbhavas ruled from the middle of 6th century A.D till the first quarter of 8th century A.D .The temple building activities gained momentum under the Bhaumakaras (736- 950 A.D) and the Somavamsis (950-1112 A.D) and reached the climax during the Ganga period (1112-1435 A.D) .The activities however continued even under the Suryavamsi-Gajapatis (1435-1542 A.D) though on a very small and impoverished scale. The Vimana in the South Indian temple history had an interesting career. For instance, the most magnificent Vimana of the Raja-rajeshwara temple at Tanjavur (1009 AD) rises to an imposing height of 58 meters. Another temple of the same period at Gangaikonda-chola-puram (1025 AD) rises to a height of 48 meters. Thereafter, in the subsequent periods, the Vimanas tended to grow shorter. But the Gopuras, the towers that stand over the gate-ways (dwara-gopura) became increasingly ornate, complicated and huge. It being the most important feature of the Dravida style is that its superstructure is always in the shape of a stepped pyramid where all its tiers are strongly visible; rather each tier is decorated with a combination of Kuta, Panjara and Shala at intervals that distinguish the tiers. Unlike the Nagara tradition, the Dravida style doesn’t allow for variety in the Shikhara typologies in general. The Dravida style was codified with fixed components. Under this, we see a completely different form of temple architecture which is nothing but a combination of Alpa vimana, Kuta, Shala and Panjara (refer the figure below). The Dravida style incorporates all these elements in a temple arranging them from top to bottom on an increasing scale. The most important feature of the Dravida style is that its superstructure is always in the shape of a stepped pyramid where all its tiers are strongly visible; rather each tier is decorated with a combination of Kuta, Panjara and Shala at intervals that distinguish the tiers. The walls of the Dravida temple always have pillar-couplets at intervals. However, this rule wasn’t followed in every structure. Sometimes a niche or aedicule was carved in between those coupled pillars in order to place a sculpture within.  The term Vimana has acquired various interpretations. Sometimes the term Vimana stands for the temple. Often, Vimana means the tower shikara, raised to its final height above the sanctum . But, some say that the term Vimana should, strictly, refer to the rotund structure above the series of elevations (tala) which stand on kapota (the flat roof over the sanctum). In other words, the term vimana, it is said, should refer to the structure between the final Tala and the stupi, the end. The Vimana rests or is surrounded by the Kanta (neck). Another interpretation is that Sikhara meaning mountain peak, refers to the rising tower of a temple constructed as per the architecture of North India; and is it’s most prominent and visible feature. While the Northern texts identify the Sikhara as Prasada; the Southern texts call them Vimana. The Vimana is pyramid like; and Prasada is curvilinear in its outline. We may for the present go with the last mentioned interpretation. Among the several styles of Sikharas that obtain in temple architecture, the three most common ones are: the Dravida prevalent in south India; the Nagara   the most common style; and the third born from the synthesis of the other two called the Vesara, seen mostly in Hoysala and later Chalukya temples of Karnataka. ORNATE: The Dravida style is highly ornate; the Nagara style is simpler and consists of a curvilinear dome. In the Vesara style, the dome is highly ornate and emerges from the Sukanasi or from the richly carved outer walls of the temple. In every style of Sikhara/Vimanam, the structure culminates with a Kalashaat its peak. EARLY VIMANAS: The early vimanas, in south, were circular until they ended in a point of the finial (stupi); like  the vimanam of Kadambar koil. In some cases , the flat-roof (kapota) of the sanctum on which the tower rest and rises is overlaid by a single square stone slab known in the text as “the stone denoting the upper passage of life” (brahma-ranhra-sila). In certain structures, slab after slab is placed in a diminishing order with the final slab crowned by a perforated stone ring (amalaka) giving the structure a pyramid shape. During the later times, the body of the Vimana tended to be more complex and multi layered rising up in several stages (tala). Each stage of the sikhara contained within itself several layers of mouldings depicting traditional motifs. The layers in a Tala are called Varga; and the sadvarga (six modules) is regarded the classic version. The southern texts describe the temples as sadvarga Devalaya. The sadvargas of a Vimana are Adistana, Pada, Prastara, Kanta, Sikhara and stupi. The vertical expansion of the sadvarga developed into Vimanas of Dvitala (in two stages) and tritala (in three stages) structures. The sanctity of Vimanas was not in any manner affected by its diminished size. While the sculptures on the outer Gopuras could house secular and even erotic themes, the Vimana had to be austere and carry only the prescribed divinities associated with the mula-bhera in the sanctum. The Vimana is verily the representation or the outer visible form of the murthi that resides within it; and is revered as such. It represents the glory (vaibhava) of the deity the antaryamin who resides within it. The Gopura on the other hand does not usually command an equal status. The ‘Barrel-vault’ also known as a tunnel vault or a wagon vault is an architectural design looking like an oblong wagon-top or a vault or resembling a boat placed up-side down, is rather an old feature of the Indian temple architecture. Its curvy shape lends the structure a semi-cylindrical appearance. The term Valabhi could relate to the name of an ancient city located in the Saurashtra region of Western India. It was the seat of the Maitraka dynasty who ruled the peninsula and parts of southern Rajasthan (from fifth to the eighth century). The City of Valabhi was also a celebrated centre of learning, with numerous Buddhist monasteries. It might be that such architectural type was the main characteristic of the Valabhi region, where there were numbers of Buddhist Chityas. In the earlier periods, the temples and Stupas, which were successors to the huts, were constructed out of brick and timber. These were generally either elliptical (Kuta) or rectangular huts with gable roofs (Sala) made of bamboos. In South, the centre of the sanctum, from where the divine grace flows into the Man. His effort is the ascent towards. There, the earlier temples had taller Vimanas (say, as in Brihadisvara of Tanjore-58 meters; Gangaikonda-chola-puram – 48 meters). But the in the temples of later centuries, the Vimana tended to grow comparatively shorter. Over a period, the Vimanas assumed pyramidal or curvilinear form that we are familiar with. But the Gopura at the entrance (dvara) grew increasingly ornate, complicated, huge and monumental in size. Thus, the Vimanas over the sanctum grew shorter or modest; and , in the process , lost their wide vaulted- roof- the Valabhi. In contrast to that, by about the twelfth century, the Gopura (gate-house) at the entrance grew amazingly massive, towering in pyramidal structures, as tall as up to sixteen stories, elaborately adorned and covered with brightly coloured plethora of sculpture of and guardian deities; and, capped at the top by an apsidal, eight-sided, or oblong, barrel vault shaped Sala (roof) pinnacle by a series of Stupi, the temple Kalashas. Thus, the ‘Barrel-vault’, the Valabhi, did not entirely disappear. It transformed, moved up and sat on the top of a magnificent Gopura. While the temple complex is designed as a Mandala with the sanctum at its heart (Brahma –sthana); the sanctum along with the Vimana atop is itself regarded a Mandala. The image is located in the mid-point of the sanctum which is designed as a square; that is, where its diagonals intersect each other. This point is elevated, in a three dimensional projection, and rendered as the sthupi or the central point of the Vimana. The Kalasha is installed at this point. In order to appreciate the Mandala configuration of the Vimana, one could take its top-elevation; that is, take an aerial view from directly above the Vimana. The entire structure of the Vimana resting on a square base, projecting into the air in successive diminishing tiers and concluding into a needle (bindu) is a Mandala resembling the Chakra. The sanctum with its Vimana, thus, represents the worshipful (archa) form of the divinity. The different deities associated with the mula-bhera are aligned along the four sides of the Vimana (Mandala), according to their importance, starting with the grosser ones on the outer periphery of the Vimana (outermost layer of the Mandala).The sthupi , the central point , the needle of the Vimana being  the  bindu of its Mandala configuration. The crowning glory of the Brihadeeswara temple is the staggering cupola of the Vimana comprising two huge, sculpted, granite blocks weighing 40 tonnes each. The engineering skills and the expertise that made the mounting of these huge stones atop a structure that is nearly 200 feet high must have been way ahead of their times. Legend says that the stone was brought from Sarapallam (scaffold-hollow), four miles north-east of the city, using a specially designed ramp. Vertically the vimana is organized by pilasters that break up the facade of the base, creating spaces for niches and windows in between.  However, the temple departs from southern Indian convention in one significant way: the vimana is taller than the gopura (gateways) of the temple’s walls.  Normally the gopuras are taller than the vimana. The Vimana rises to a height of abut 216 feet, a tower of fourteen storeys. The basement of the structure which supports the tower is 96 feet square. The gilded Kalasa over it is 12.5 feet high. It is believed the sikhara and the stupi does not throw on the ground. The dome rests on a single block of granite, 25.5 feet square. The architects and engineers attribute the stability of the massive temple to its pyramidal structure. They say it is more robust than its counterparts from north India with their complex curvilinear profiles. Another fine example of the Chola temple architecture is the temple in Gangaikondacholapuram, which succeeded Tanjore as the capital of the Chola Empire. The Vimanam of this temple, in contrast to the rigid pyramidal structure of the Brihadeeswara temple, rises up in a concave manner with fluid lines. The tallest Sikhara of a Hindu temple, it is said, is under construction at Mayapur in west Bengal. The temple when completed (say by 2014) will be 35 stories tall and almost as high as the great pyramid in Giza. Kalasha The crowning glory of the Vimana is its Kalasha, the vase. Some say it is reminiscent of the life giving Amrita-kalasha that emerged out of the milky ocean when it was churned. Kalash symbolizes blessings and well-being. In the development of the Indian temple this feature appears to have arrived rather late.  The early kalashas were perhaps made of stone blocks, round or ribbed. They might have been in the nature of cap-stones that structurally held   the tall and tapering vimana,    as in the North Indian temples. The copper and brass vases seem to have been the later innovations; and the agama books favor use of copper vases. Kalasha  has several members, such as “the foot-hold” (padagrahi) which is its foothold, the egg (anda) or the belly, the neck (griva), the lotus-band (padma-pashika), the rim (karnika) and the bud  (bija-pura). The shape of this unit could resemble the bell, the flower bud, the lump, coconut, alter or pot. all these shapes symbolize the potential and the possibilities  of life. Interestingly, the Kalasa placed on top of the Vimana, it is said, is not imbedded into the structure by packing it with mortar or cement. It is, in fact, placed in position by a hollow rod that juts out of the centre of the tower and runs through the vase, the Kalasha. It is through this tube that the   lanchana‘tokens’ (cereals and precious stones) are introduced. One of the explanations is the hallow tube represents the central channel of energy the Shushumna that connects to the Sahasra, the seat of consciousness, through the Brahma randra. This is completes the analogy of the temple to the purusha ot to the human form. Kalasha, the pot, on top of the Vimana has an important hidden component, the golden person (suvarna purusha) who is regarded the personification of the temple-spirit. The belly of the Kalasha contains a tiny cot made of silver, copper or sandal; over which is laid a soft feather mattress. A tiny golden icon holding a lotus flower and a triple flag rests on that cot. Four tiny pots made of gold, silver or copper containing consecrated water are placed on the four sides of the cot. There is also a tiny pot of ghee near the cot. This entire procedure of introducing the “golden-person “into the Kalasha is known as hrudaya-varnaka-vidhi. Another kalasha is deposited under the sanctum. And, like the one on top of the Vimana, this Kalasha also contain tokens of growth and prosperity, viz., cereals with subtle seeds (such as millet) and nine types of precious stones. The womb, the icon and the sthupi the finial run along the same axis. There are a few other symbolisms associated with the Kalasha. The structure of the Kalasha resembles an inverted tree; and is almost a replica of the “womb” buried under the sanctum. Both are described as roots. The one at the bottom urges upward growth; while the one atop is the root of the inverted tree. The earliest specimens of Dravida tradition are present in the form of brick shrines in Ter, Maharashtra and Chezarla, Andhra Pradesh. Under the constant cultural influx from north India, the south Indian temple architecture evolved out of the pre-existing secular architecture prevalent in the region. The earliest specimens of Dravidatradition are present in the form of brick shrines in Ter, Maharashtra and Chezarla, Andhra Pradesh.Both were Buddhist sites, most probably Chaitya halls later converted into Hindu shrines. These shrines feature apsidal types of Alpa-vimana crowned by a barrel roof Shala covering and they are dated around the 3rd to 4th century CE.  Ter Temple, Maharashtra Components of Dravida Shikhara or Vimana (Source: Author) We see variations in the heights and details of the fixed superstructural elements. However, we do see some different types of roof forms in the famous rock-cut Pancharathas at Mahabalipuram carved out under the Pallava dynasty most probably in mid-7th CE or earlier. These types of roof forms can be basically assigned to the early form of Dravida temple architecture. Texts like Mansara, Mayamatam and Kashyapa Shilpa talk about the Dravida style in greater detail.  ukhamandapa attached to it. The roof form is complex as compared to Draupadi Ratha. It is aDvitala or two-tiered Shikhara adorned with a Vimanam and elements like Kuta, Shala and Panjara.  Draupadi and Arjuna Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Source: Wikipedia) The Bhima Ratha is a long rectangular shrine with an Ektala barrelled roof or Shala Shikhara. The presence of ornate columns on all sides gives a sense of circumambulation path within of Sandharaplan. The Nakula-Sahadev Ratha is a different type of monolithic shrine with a Gajaprishtha roof; shaped like an elephant back adorned with two ornate columns.  Bhima Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Source: Wikipedia) \ Parts of a Dravidian Temple Vimana: 1)Sopana Marga: The staircase to enter the Garbha Griha. South Indian Temple Stair cases are flanked on both sides with Yali (Vyala) Figures 2)Upa Pitha: Sub Base of the Garbha Griha 3)Adhishthana: Base to support the wall of Garbha Griha 4)Simhaavari: Band of Lions 5)Paada: Wall of Garbha Griha 6)Koshtha: Miniature Temples on external wall of Garbha Griha with Avataras of Main deity 7)Prastara: Area between pillars & Roof – Entablature 8)Vyaalaavari: Band of Vyaali figures 9)Haara: Parapet looking like the Necklace 10)Koota: Square Miniature shrine on Haara region 11)Shaala: Rectangular Miniature Shrine on Haara Region 12)Tala: Storeys. Eka Tala (1 Storey), Dwitala (2 Storey), Tritala (3 Storey) 13)Tala Vahana: Vahana of Main deity on the Top Storey 14)Griva: Neck of the Vimana 15)Kudu: A motif that appears like Gavaksha (also called Naasi) – An horse shoe shaped Arch 16)Shikhara: The main tower of the Vimana 17)Stupi: The Finial (Final) of the Vimana - Kalasa Evolution of Hindu Temples Architecture in Orissa   Etymologically the term temple is derived from the Latin word ‘Tempulum’ which in its original sense means a square or a rectangular place marked out by the augur for the purpose of worship. In its primitive sense this word corresponds to a place marked off as sacred to a God, in which the house of God may be erected. The shrine or the abode of the God has different nomenclatures. In ancient Sastras or literature the temple is referred as Devagriha, Devalay, Devakula, etc. In the Vastusastra the North Indian temples are known as Prasada while as the Southern Indian temples are known as Vimana, Harmya and occasionally as Prasada. The term ‘mandira’ for the first time occurs in Banabhatta’s Kadambari, a text of 7th century AD. The temple architecture in India had its humble beginning right from the Mauryan period, i.e. 3rd century BC, as evident from the archaeological excavation at Sanchi (Madhy Pradesh, temple no. 40 and 18) and Bairat (Rajasthan). However, it gained momentum in the Gupta period. The temple no.17 at Sanchi and temple no.1 at Udayagiri near Vidisa were the earliest examples of temple architecture, which blossomed during the Gupta period. The Indian Silpasastras recognize three main types of temples known as the Nagara, Dravida and Vesara. Nagara temple belongs to the country from the Himalay to the Vindhy, Vesara from the Vindhy to the Krishna, and the Dravida from the Krishna to the Cape Camorin. However, an inscription of 1235 AD in the mukhamandapa of the Amritesvara temple at Holal in Bellary distrct of Karnatak speaks of a fourth style, i.e. Kalinga, in addition to the above three. Pratistha Lakhsyanasara Samuchaya by Vaivochana, a Silpa text of 11th-12th century AD, mentions Kalinga temples as of rekha order. Indigenous texts like Bhubana Pradip, Silpa Prakasa, Silpa Ratnakosha, etc. deals exclusively with the Kalingan style of architecture. These silpa text of Orissa mentions three types of temples, rekhadeul, pidhadeul and khakaradeul. The rekha and pidha form two component parts of one architectural scheme, the former is represented by a sanctum with its curvilinear spire and the latter by the frontal porch having pyramidal roof of receding tires known as pidhas. In the earlier phase, there was no pidha deul and the Jagamohan or the frontal hall had a by a flat roof. In course of time to meet the growing need of the rituals two more structures were added namely natamandapa (dancing hall) and bhogamandapa (offering hall) during the Ganga period (12th century). All the four components are arranged in one axial alignment and often the temple complex is enclosed by a prakara (boundary) wall. The khakara order is noted by a semi-cylindrical vaulted that looks like a inverted boat (boita) or a pumpkin gourd roof. The temples of this order are usually meant for Sakti worship. Orissan temples constituted a sub-style of the Nagara style of North Indian temples. The building activity of this sub-regional style continued for nearly one thousand years from the 6th-7th century to the 15th-16th century AD in unbroken continuity. Bhubaneswar, the ancient Ekamra Kshetra served as the experimental ground of these temple building activities without being distracted by the change of ruling dynasties or their cult affiliation. As a result, the temples are identified with the land Kalinga rather than the royal families such as Pallava art, Rastrakuta art, Chandella art, Chalukyan art, etc. It is worthwhile to mention here that temple building activities of another tradition were prevalent in ancient Orissa, as attested by epigraphic evidences. Hathigumpha inscription (line-17) of the 1st century BC described Kharavela as the “repairer of all shrines of Gods” (sava-devayatana- sankara-karako). From the village of Asanpat in Keonjhar district, a stone inscription records the construction of a temple by Maharaja Satrubhanja, who is ascribed to 3rd-4th century AD. The Orissan temple is remarkable for its plan and elevation. The interior ground plan of the temple is square as a rule. Rarely, however the temple has a star-shaped layout (as noticed at Boudh) or circular plan (Ranipur-Jharial & Hirapur) to conform to the nature of rituals. Generally speaking, the Orissan temples are distinguished by vertical offset projections called rathas (on plan) or pagas (on elevation). Depending on the number pagas, the temples are classified into triratha, pancharatha, saptaratha and navaratha. The earlier temples are characterized by a triratha plan. On elevation, the temples show interesting features. Both sanctum and the porch can be divided into three parts along the vertical plane viz. bada, gandi and mastaka. From bottom to top or final, each part of the temple has a special name corresponding to that of limbs of the human body standing on a pista or the platform on which the temple stands (which is not a compulsory element in early temples and is generally found in later temples). The bada or the vertical wall portion of the temple is divisible into pabhaga, jangha and baranda. This type of three-fold division of Triangabada is found in early temples and in later temples. Bada has five elements namely pabhaga (or the foot portion is composed of five mouldings called khura, kumbha, patta, kani and basanta), tala jangha (lower thigh), bandhana (mouldings joining the two thigh), upara jangha (upper thigh) and baranda (the waist portion). The baranda, forming the top most part of the bada has a set of mouldings, starting with one moulding in the early phase progressing into seven and ten mouldings in the later and last phases of the classical tradition. The gandi (or the torso) of deul has a curvilinear super structure; in the temples of early phase gandi is devoid of any sculptural embellishment. Fully developed temples have ornamental bhumis, chaity motifs and angasikharas (miniature shrines). The gandi of jagamohana is of pyramidal shape (designed with receding tiers in a sequence so as to reduce the top most tier to the half of the lower tier). The mastaka (the head) consisted of the beki (neck) or recessed cylindrical portion above gandi, amalaka (ribbed circular stone, resembling the amla fruit), khapuri (skull), kalasa ( auspicious pot) and the ayudha (weapon of the enshrined deity) in succession. The mastaka of the pidha deul has the same features except for the addition of ghanta (bell). The horizontal cross- section of the bada and gandi in both the rekha and the pidha deul are square, while the mastaka is circular. The ground plan of khakhara deul is oblong. The temples are remarkable for abundance of sculptures. Stella Kramarisch has aptly remarked, “Architecture in Orissa is but sculpture on a gigantic scale”. The sculptural repertory consists of human figures, kanyas, erotic motifs, cult icons, animal figures including mythical and composite figures, decorative designs like variety of scrolls and architectural motifs like pidha mundi, khakhara mundi, vajra mundi, etc. The temple style was in full vigour in the wake of vast religious and cultural resurgence that took place when the Sailodbhavas ruled from the middle of 6th century A.D till the first quarter of 8th century A.D .The temple building activities gained momentum under the Bhaumakaras (736- 950 A.D) and the Somavamsis (950-1112 A.D) and reached the climax during the Ganga period (1112-1435 A.D) .The activities however continued even under the Suryavamsi-Gajapatis (1435-1542 A.D) though on a very small and impoverished scale. To a keen observer, the temples of Orissa portray a picture of organic evolution from Parasuramesvara to Lingaraja through Muktesvara and Vaital, which ultimately culminated in Puri and the gigantic Konark. The evolution can be seen through four distinctive phases of temple building; viz. i) Formative phase, ii) Transitional phase, iii) Mature phase, iv) Phase of decadence. Formative Phase: The period in between the 6th century AD to the first half of the 9th century AD is considered as the formative phase that synchronized with the rule of the Sailodbhavas and early phase of Bhauma-karas. The representative temples are Lakshamaneswar, Bharateswar, Satrughaneswar, Swarnajaleswar, Parsurameswar, Mohini and Kapalini. Of these, Parsurameswar assigned to the 7th century is the best preserved specimen of the early phase. Its triratha vimana has a rekha sikhara. The jagamohana is a rectangular pillared hall with a terraced roof sloping in two tiers. The graha architrave has eight grahas with the absence of Ketu. Temples of this period are triratha on plan with a central graha offset and two corner projections. On elevation Bada is triangle, with three divisions, i.e. pabhaga, jangha, and baranda. Pabhaga or the foot portion consists of three mouldings of khura, kumbha and pata. Gandi became a gradual curveture and started from of the sikhara unburdened by any angasikhara. The temples are of small and moderate height. Baranda is terminating in a recessed kanthi. Absence of dopicha simha in the beki, below the amlaka, absence of Dikpalas, absence of baby on the lap of Matrikas. The sculptures are in low relief, flattish and entrusted on the surface of the stone, beginning with disproportioned and rigid limbs assumed flexibility and proportion during the Bhauma-kara period. Transitional Phase: The temple activities entered into a transitional period in the second half of the 9th century that continued up to the first quarter of the 11th century under the rule of the later Bhauma-karas and the first half of the rule of the Somavamsis (Kesharis). The temples of this period are Vaital (khakhra deula), Sisireswar, and Markandeswar in Bhubaneswar and Bringesvara at Bajarkot (District Angul), Swapaneswar at Kualo (District Dhenkanal), Siva temple at Badgaon, Simhanatha temple in an island of Mahanadi river at Gopinathpur (District Cuttack), twin Hari-Hara temple at Gandharadi District Baud, Varahi temple (khakhara deul) at Churasi (District Cuttack). The notable feature of the period was the introduction of rampant erotic sculptures due to the influence of Vajrayana philosophy. Mukteswar at Bhubaneswar, which is considered as the gem of Orissan architecture, was the last monument of the period. Mukhasala or the jagamohana became an inseparable element with a perfect and natural joining of the vimana with jagamohana without the crude overlapping of the sanctum decoration as seen in the formative phase. Both the structures were conceived as a uniform complex in the original plan. Towards the end, the plan and elevation of the mukhasala transformed from a rectangular flat roof to a square hall with a pyramidal superstructure. Pabhaga had four mouldings. Introduction of naga-nagi pilasters and chaitya medallions as decorative motifs, introduction of the vyala and jagrata motifs in the jangha portion, baranda recess is carved with base-reliefs, kanika is divided into fife horizontal bhumis (storey) by bhumiamlas. Parsvadevata images are carved of separate single stone unlike the earlier tradition of blocks of stones that constitute a part of the temple wall. Sculptural treatment of the interior part (particularly the ceiling) which is a characteristic feature of the Somavamsis period and not noticed in the earlier or the later temples, Matrikas carry babies on their lap. Finally Ketu was added to the list of planets, which became a permanent feature of the graha panel in the temples of the subsequent period. Mature Phase: The building activity attended its maturity towards the middle of the 11th century (Somavamsis) that continued till the 13th century (Gangas). The temple architecture developed further under the Somavamsis, which can be traced through a series of temples like Rajarani, Brahmeswar, and finally the Lingaraj that presents the Orissan temple style at its best. The building tradition was continued by the Gangas who are credited with the construction of the great Jagannath temple at Puri, Chateswar temple at Kakudia (District Cuttack), Sobhaneswar temple at Niali District, Cuttack, Drakshaprajapati at Banapur, a few shrines at Bhubaneswar, the magnificent Konark temple (District Puri), marks the grand climax of the Orissan style. The features are quite discernible as given in the discussion. Bada is devided into five segments, i.e. pabhaga, talajangha, bandana, upara jangha and baranda. Pabhaga has five mouldings (khura, kumbha, pata, kani and basanta). Gandi is embellished with angasikharas (miniature temples) of diminishing size as they rise upwards.  The pagas projections are fully developed and prominently articulated. Amlaka sila is supported by deulacharinis or seated divinities and dopicha simhas being set in the beki. Introduction of structural motifs like pidhamundi, khakharamundi and vajramundi are in the jangha portion. The sculptures of this period are excellent in their plasticity and modeling includes non-iconic female figures. These are more proportionate, elongated and in alto-relievo. In the iconography of the cult deities new elements were introduced with profusion of female figures, Ketu in a serpant body and Hanuman head in latter phase, projected lion (udyota simha) on the Rahapaga. Pista and platform became a regular feature. Natamandap and Bhogamandap were added to the Jagamohan. Introduction of subsidiary shrines in front of the parsvadevata niche. Introduced of vahanastambha in front of the temple. Appearance of the female counter parts of the dikpalas on the uparjangha. Phase of decadence: After the Gangas during the 14th to 16th century AD under the Suryavamsi-Gajapatis, the temple building activities entered into a phase of decadence. The great period of Orissan temple architecture came to halt with the crowning achievement at Konark. The Suryavamsis, who succeded the Gangas remained preoccupied with political problems and could not give much time for temple building. Of the few temples, the temples at Kapilesvara at Bhubaneswar belonged to this period. Towards the later part of the 15th century AD impoverishment was noticed. Pidha deul became the choice for both vimana and the jagamohana. The building materials are mostly laterite. The walls of the temple are devoid of sculptural embellishment and decoration. Such insolvency was also noticed in the decoration of doorjambs, which also largely remained plain. Thus the temple building activities that started during the 6th century AD reached its climax during the Ganga Period started declining during the Gajapati. The most important factors for the declines of temple building activities are a lack of royal patronage and decline of Hindu power. Whatever it may be, till recently Orissa has possessed a rich temple heritage which is the imprints of our ancestor, still existing with the ravage of time. These are the pride of Orissan people in particular and that of India in general. These are the most compact and homogenous architectural group in India. From the scholarly article of By: D.B. Garnayak Vimana Temples – Architectural Marvel Of South India Dr Uday Dokras Phd STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN Introduction: In South Indian Temples, the equivalent term of Shikhara is vimana; unlike the shikhara, this refers to the whole building, including the sanctum beneath. In the south, shikhara is a term for the top stage of the vimana only, which is usually a dome capped with a finial. The southern vimana is not to be confused with the elaborate gateway-towers of south Indian temples, called gopuram, which are often taller and more prominent features in large temples. . Shikhara can be classified into three main forms: Latina. The shikhara has four faces, which may include projections or ratha within each face. All the elements run smoothly up the face in a curve. The most common. They are also sometimes called "homogeneous" shikhara, as opposed to the next two types, which may be called "heterogeneous". Sekhari. The latina shape has added engaged (attached) sub-spires or spirelets called urushringa echoing the main shape. These may run up most of the face. There may be more than one size of these, sometimes called secondary and tertiary. Tertiary spirelets are typically near the ends of the face or on the corners. Bhumija. The tower has miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows, all the way to the top, creating a grid-like effect on each face. The tower is generally less strongly vertical in overall shape, often approaching a pyramidal shape. Mainly found in the northern Deccan and West India Evidence of engineering marvel of Indian architecture can be clearly seen in the country's temples. In Christianity the Height of the church was their way of showing the power of the church in the community during the middle ages. The Gothic cathedral had to tower above every other building to symbolize this majesty and authority of the church. Cathedrals were very important because they were buildings made for Christians to praise and worship God. Cathedrals were very tall, large buildings, so you could easily find one. Over time, cathedrals were eventually built to have pointed arches. The builders did this because it made cathedrals appear taller. why are cathedrals gothic? Gothic architecture, on the other hand, focused on height and light—despite being constructed from heavy stone, Gothic cathedrals seem to defy the laws of gravity. Common traits include pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses, all of which enabled the structures to be built taller and stronger. One of the fundamental characteristics of gothic architecture was its height. New building techniques (such as the flying buttress, detailed below) enabled architects to spread the weight of taller walls and loftier towers. This all meant that gothic buildings could, quite literally, scale new heights. However,in the case of the architecture of the Hindu tyemples, it is not only about the work of ancient engineers of India; it is important to say that Hindu cosmology shapes the temples’ form because 'it recreates the universe and every person’s struggle, occurring over multiple lifetimes, to cast aside illusion in order to realize divine truth and oneness with an infinite god.' (India Revealed: Hindu Temples of South India). The Vimana towers symbolize power and connection between the human world on earth and the abode of gods and goddesses in high heavens.This structure is the mountain residence of the gods because according to  Hindu cosmology, the gods have always been associated with mountains. The temple’s overall form, dominated by its large central tower (vimana), reconstructs the appearance of god’s mountaintop dwelling. All of these temples have beautiful, precise, and harmonious geometry and many of them are richly decorated with sculptures of gods, animals, flowers, erotic scenes, geometric patterns, and other figures bringing the memory of mythological episodes. Temples were built to house a sacred symbol of a particular god. Vimana is the structure over the garbhagriha or inner sanctum in the Hindu temples of South India and Odisha in East India. In typical temples of Odisha using the Kalinga style of architecture, the vimana is the tallest structure of the temple, as it is in the shikhara towers of temples in West and North India. By contrast, in large South Indian temples, it is typically smaller than the great gatehouses or gopuram, which are the most immediately striking architectural elements in a temple complex. A vimana is usually shaped as a pyramid, consisting of several stories or tala. Vimana are divided in two groups: jati vimanas that have up to four tala and mukhya vimana that have five tala and more. In North Indian temple architecture texts, the superstructure over the garbhagriha is called a shikhara. However, in South Indian Hindu architecture texts, the term shikhara means a dome-shaped crowning cap above the vimana. A typical Hindu temple in Dravidian style have gopuram in the four directions i.e. East - main entrance, North and south - side entrances, West - only opened on auspicious day where it is believed we will go directly to Heaven.The temple's walls are typically square with the outer most wall having four gopura, one each on every side, situated exactly in the center of each wall. This will continue to next tier depending upon the size of the temple. The sanctum sanctorum and its towering roof (the central deity's shrine) are also called the vimana. Generally, these do not assume as much significance as the outer gopuram, with the exception of a few temples where the sanctum sanctorum's roofs are as famous as the temple complex itself. Golden shrine of Tirumala Venkateswara Temple The kanaka-sabai (Golden Stage) at Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram, is another example. This shrine is entirely covered with golden plates, but is different in its structure and massive in size when compared to most other vimanas. Historical evidence states that during the ninth century, Parantaka I funded to cover this vimana with ornamental gold and it retains its glory even today. The Ananda Nilayam vimana of the Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala, is a famous example where the gopuram of the main shrine occupies a very special place in the temple's history and identity. Meenakshi Temple has two golden vimana, the huge one for Shiva and the second one for his consort, Meenakshi. The vimana of the Big Temple, Thanjavur, is another example, with a very exaggerated height. This form is not very common. The Jagannath Temple, Puri, has the Neelachakra on the sikhara, i.e., the top of the vimana. It is a representation of Vishnu's most powerful weapon, the sudarshana chakra. The vimana of the Konark Sun Temple was the tallest of all vimana before it fell. Several temples of India have impressive, soaring towers ‘Gopuram' (or ‘Gopura’), usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple, especially in Southern India. Gopurams are the dominant architectural feature of a temple's outer appearance, sometimes soaring as high as 170 feet and completely overshadowing the main shrine and other structures of the temple, due to their colossal size. The Early Cholas always built the vimana (tower) of the core temple sanctuary as the highest structure in the temple complex. Later, the Medieval Cholas began to build the gopurams even taller than the central sanctuary’s vimana towers. This building style was continued and widely used by later Hindu dynasties. In the Dravidian (or South Indian style), “the sanctuary and the superstructure together are called the vimana. In architecture texts regarding this style, the vimana is described as a mountain-like spire of a free-standing temple. “The most distinctive feature of the Dravidian style is the articulation of the vimana, a composite of the garbha griha and superstructure or spire (shikhara) which is a trapezoidal structure, starting on a square base, and soaring up in a series of well-articulated stories called tala…” (‘Shikhara’ means a dome-shaped crowning cap is located above the Vimana, while a Vimana resembles a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically. Vimana Temples – Architectural Marvel Of India, A. Sutherland - AncientPages.com  December 31, 2018 |  Parts of a Dravidian Temple Vimana 1)Sopana Marga: The staircase to enter the Garbha Griha. South Indian Temple Stair cases are flanked on both sides with Yali (Vyala) Figures. sōpānamārga (सोपानमार्ग).—m (S Ladder-road.) A method, course, or way very practicable or easy. Used also literally--Way by a staircase or a flight of steps or a ladder, a stairway. The Yali (IAST: Yāḻi) is a ancient creature seen in many South Indian temples, often sculpted onto the pillars. It is portrayed as part lion, part elephant and part horse, and in similar shapes. It is also part of Chola army troops. with some bird-like features. Descriptions of and references to yalis are very old, but they became prominent in south Indian sculpture in the 16th century. Yalis were believed to be more powerful than the lion, the tiger or the elephant. In its iconography and image the yali has a catlike graceful body, but the head of a lion with tusks of an elephant (gaja) and tail of a serpent. Sometimes they have been shown standing on the back of a makara, another mythical creature and considered to be the Vahan of Budha (Mercury). Some images look like three-dimensional representation of yalis. Images or icons have been found on the entrance walls of the temples, and the graceful mythical lion is believed to protect and guard the temples and ways leading to the temple. They usually have the stylized body of a lion and the head of some other beast, most often an elephant (gaja-vyala). Other common examples are: the lion-headed (simha-vyala), horse- (ashva-vyala), human- (nir-vyala) and the dog-headed (shvana-vyala) ones. Vyala, is also called sardula, popular motif in Indian art, consisting of a composite leonine creature with the head of a tiger, elephant, bird, or other animal, frequently shown in combat with humans or pouncing upon an elephant. It is a solar symbol, it represents—like the eagle seizing the serpent—the triumph of the spirit over matter.Occurring in a relatively naturalistic form in the earliest monuments, notably the great stupa at Sanchi (c. 50 BC) Vyala pouncing on an elephant, khondalite, mid-13th century; on the Surya Deula (Sun Temple), at Konarak, Orissa, India. BELOW LEFT and in the Kushan sculpture of Mathura (1st–3rd century AD), the vyala assumed a definite stylized form about the 5th century. From the 8th century onward, it was constantly employed in architectural decoration, being repeated, for example, on the walls of temples. Meenakshi Amman temple Madurai showing the 1,000 pillars with Vyalas carved on each. 2)Upa Pitha: Sub Base of the Garbha Griha Upapīṭha (उपपीठ) is a sub structure or member constructed beneath the adhiṣṭhāna. The term is formed by combining two Sanskrit words namely upa and pīṭha. Upapīṭha serves three important functions. They are, Upapīṭha contributes to the stability (rakṣārtha), Upapīṭha increases the height of the building (unnatārtha), Upapīṭha enhaces the beauty (śobhārha). Upapīṭha also symbolically conveys the form of  trivarga structure.It is above the plinth called the Adhiṣṭhāna (अधिष्ठान) or “pedestal” or “molded base”. Adhiṣṭhāna can also refer to an “object on which something stands”. According to the Mayamata, an adhiṣṭhāna may be optionally provided with an upapīṭha (sub-structure), but according to the Pādmasaṃhitā this is mandatory. According to the Mayamata, Adhiṣṭhāna has the following synonyms: Masūraka, Vāstvādhāra, Kuttima, Tala; while the Kāmikāgama extends this lists with: Dharātala, Ādhāra, Dharaṇi, Bhuvana, Pṛthvī, Bhūmi and Ādyaṅga. 3) Adhiṣṭhāna (‘plinth’) represents a part of the trivarga structure, where it is also known as upāna. Adhiṣṭhāna, bhitti and prastara forms the trivarga of this structure. In the Upapīṭha, the lowest moulding, i.e., upāna, represents the plinth. The gala represents the wall and the kapota or paṭṭikā represents the prastara. The presence of these three parts in the Upapīṭha makes it look like a miniature structure or shrine. Mayamata mentions three types of Upapīṭhas. They are: vedibhadra, pratibhadra, subhadra. Mānasāra also mentions three types of Upapīṭhas. They are: vedibhadra, pratibhadra, mañcabhadra. sketch of Upapithas, pedestals in Hindu temple architecture, Vedibandha Pratibhanda Manchabandha BELOW 3)Adhishthana: Base to support the wall of Garbha Griha. As mentioned above is the base of the structure causing support tonthe walls. In Buddhism, 'Adhishthana' means power of the Buddha. The Lankavatara sutra describes it thus: "...sustained in two ways by the power (adhishthana) of the Buddhas. So the plinth has to have the power to support the structure To RIGHT- Open Nandi mandapa and the entrance to the Mallikarjuna Temple, Pattadakal temple complex, Pattadakal, Karnataka, India. The elephants in the adhishthana in different postures. 4)Simhaavari: Band of Lions Hindu temple architecture employed post and lintels, or corbelling in order to span openings. The post and lintel method is a 'trabeated' system of spanning an opening, whereby a horizontal 'lintel' beam rests upon two vertical 'posts', thereby supporting the load above.Hindu temple architecture employed post and lintels, or corbelling in order to span openings. The post and lintel method is a 'trabeated' system of spanning an opening, whereby a horizontal 'lintel' beam rests upon two vertical 'posts', thereby supporting the load above .Tensile stresses once again come into play in the lower portions of the horizontal lintel, and thus limit the maximum span of the system. Corbelling involved successive overhanging courses of masonry rising up to cover the entire span This method was not effective in spanning large openings either. Even the largest, and most mature  Hindu temples in the nation boasts of innumerable corbelled openings, including corbelled cross vaults, but not arches5. Interior spaces of such temples were thus usually of a very human scale, as opposed to the monumental interior spaces that were to be found in contemporary churches and mosques in other parts of the world.        Post and Lintel system The carving of the lion symbol represents the Narasimha ("man-lion"), also spelt Narasingh, Narasinga, is described as an incarnation (Avatara) of Vishnu in the Puranic texts of Hinduism. It is worshiped as "Lion God" and considered sacred by all Hindus in India.  TO RIGHT- 64 grid Manduka design Hindu Temple Floor Plan Vastu Purusa Mandala Ancient Architecture. 5)Paada: Wall of Garbha Griha+ LEFT PICTURE- Colorful carved walls of the temple in Tamil Nadu state, South India. — Photo by ElizavetaLarionova A garbhagriha or sannidhanam is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost sanctuary of a Hindu and Jain temples where resides the murti (idol or icon) of the primary deity of the temple. In Jainism, the main deity is known as the Mulnayaka. Literally the word means "womb chamber", from the Sanskrit words garbha for womb and griha for house. Generally in Hinduism only 'priests' (pujari) are allowed to enter this chamber. Although the term is often associated with Hindu temples, it is also found in Jain temples. The room has a single entrance, normally facing east to be accessed by the rising sun, and no windows. It is normally square, and at least approximately a cube, with the representation of the temple's deity placed in the centre, so that it can be seen by worshippers outside. Relative to the size of the temple, and especially the large tower arising over it, it is a rather small room, and there is no view from below up into the shikhara or tower, which is treated as completely solid, although in fact for structural reasons it very often includes a hollow space. In the great majority of temples with a tower superstructure, a shikhara (in the north) or vimana (in the south), this chamber is placed directly underneath it, and the two of them form the main vertical axis of the temple.[3] These together may be understood to represent the axis of the world through Mount Meru. The garbhagriha is usually also on the main horizontal axis of the temple which generally is an east–west axis. In those temples where there is also a cross-axis, the garbhagṛiha is generally at their intersection. Generally the garbhagriha is a windowless and sparsely lit chamber, intentionally created thus to focus the devotee's mind on the tangible form of the divine within it. Entrance to the Hindu garbhagriha is very often restricted to priests who perform the services there, and in temples in active worship The Vastu Purusha Mandala is the base of the temple. We have touched upon the base elements above from 1 to 4 . Above the vastu-purusha-mandala lies the walls of the high superstructure called the shikhara in north India, and vimana in south India, that stretches towards the sky. Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the superstructure may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain-like shape, once again using principle of concentric circles and squares (see below). Scholars such as Lewandowski state that this shape is inspired by cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of gods according to its ancient mythology. The design, especially the floor plan, of the part of a Hindu temple around the sanctum or shrine follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantra. The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles. The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other.] The square is divided into perfect square grids. In large temples, this is often a 8x8 or 64 grid structure. In ceremonial temple superstructures, this is an 81 sub-square grid. The squares are called ‘‘padas’’. The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins from fire altar, Agni. The alignment along cardinal direction, similarly is an extension of Vedic rituals of three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the gnomon. In Hindu temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make offerings with Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative layout. The 9 pada design has a sacred surrounded centre, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira in various ancient Sanskrit texts. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity or to a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of the 64 is dedicated to the Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas. In a Hindu temple's structure of symmetry and concentric squares, each concentric layer has significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil; the next inner concentric layer is Manusha padas signifying human life; while Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and good. The Manusha padas typically houses the ambulatory. The devotees, as they walk around in clockwise fashion through this ambulatory to complete Parikrama (or Pradakshina), walk between good on inner side and evil on the outer side. In smaller temples, the Paisachika pada is not part of the temple superstructure, but may be on the boundary of the temple or just symbolically represented. The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround Brahma padas, which signifies creative energy and serves as the location for temple's primary idol for darsana. Finally at the very centre of Brahma padas is Garbhagruha(Garbha- Centre, gruha- house; literally the centre of the house) (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in everything and everyone. The spire of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in north India and Vimana in south India, is perfectly aligned above the Brahma pada(s). A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical precision and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky. Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is sometimes referred to as garbha-griya (literally womb house) - a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti. This is the main deity image, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a local name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others. It is this garbha-griya which devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ (literally, a sight of knowledge, or vision. Mandapa of a temple in South India. Much temple sculpture was originally painted. In larger temples, the outer three padas are visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these images or wall reliefs may be stories from Hindu Epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice, in some they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life—kama, artha, dharma, and 6) Koshtha: Miniature Temples on external wall of Garbha Griha with Avataras of Main deity. The term Koshta has two meanings. Anatomical meaning – large space which gives accommodation to visceral organs of body. Physiological meaning – bowel movement and gut behavior Read – Koshta – Large Anatomical Body Cavities. Doshas control gut behavior and bowel movement in physical body. IN CASE OF THE TEMPLES HOWEVER THE COURTYARD OR INNER SPACE WHEREIN LIE THE TEMPLES TO SMALLER DIETIES.These could be in the GMandapa also but never in the Garbagriha or inner sanctum. LEFT_ 12th century Chennakeshava temple, built by the ruling Hoysala dynasty.Kanchipuram Temple showing smaller temples or shrines encompassed in the walls. AT RIGHT. 7)Prastara: Area between pillars & Roof – Entablature Vastushastra (architecture) 1) Prastara (प्रस्तर) refers to the “entablature” of a temple (prāsāda or vimāna). It is considered the third part in the ṣaḍvarga structure. 2) Prastara (प्रस्तर):—One of the eight types of villages, according to Chapter 9 of the Mānasāra (called the grāmalakṣaṇam). The Mānasāra is one of the traditional authorative Hindu treatises on Vāstuśāstra. The form of this village is said to be tattadrūpeṇa, which means it represents the form of the meaning of its Sanskrit name.Prastara (प्रस्तर) means entablature. It is found above the architrave of the temple, inside or outside. Prastara is one of the six important architectural parts of the body of the temple. It is the third member of the temple building from the bottom. Prastara is considered very important in the architectural composition of the temple. Prastara, in dravidian context, means a meeting place. This is the meeting place of the two divisions of the temple namely the prāsāda-varga and the pāda-varga. Pāda-varga represents the earth and prāsāda-varga represents the Heaven. In the entablature both pāda-varga and prāsāda-varga unite. Therefore this part is given the name prastara. According to Hindu metaphysics the mother Earth (bhūmi-tattva) is feminine (prakṛti) in character. It is embraced by ākāśa-tatva, which is masculine (puruṣa). The prastara represents the union of these two concepts. Prastara, according to Mayamata, should be decorated with sculptures of yakṣas, vidyādharas, bhūtamāla, gaṇas, haṃsas, floral decorations, etc. According to Mānasāra the semi divine and demi-devine and other celestial beings are to be carved in śayana (lying) or āsīna (seated) postures. Prastara ( or extension, flat top) is a sort of entablature in the Hindu temple architecture.It is a horizontal superstructure of bands and moldings above column capitals, sometimes functions as a parapet of a story. Prastara is both functional and decorative element located above the architrave of the temple. Being the third part of the building counting from the bottom, prastara is a very important element of the overall architectural composition of the temple. In the Dravidian context, prastara signifies a meeting place, where the two divisions of the temple, prasada varga (the Earth) and the pada varga (the Heaven), meet each other. Prastara consists of several parts from bottom to top: uttara, valabhi (stringcourse above uttara), and kapota (dripstone). Kapota is usually shaped as a pigeon's head. The Papanath temple Karnataka showing the entabuleres 8) Vyaalaavari: Band of Vyaali figures See 1. Above 9)Haara: Parapet looking like the Necklace Haara is a decorative element and refers to name of necklace. It circumambulates the temple just as a necklace does to the neck and is added to improve the ambiance. A parapet wall is a low or dwarf wall built along the edge of the roof, terrace, walkway, balcony etc. Parapet walls can be constructed using different materials. Types of Parapet Walls Classification Based on Appearance Parapet walls are classified into following types based on appearance : Plain Parapet Walls Perforated Parapet Walls Embattled Parapet Walls Paneled Parapet Walls 1. Plain Parapet Walls The plain parapet wall is nothing but a vertical extension of the wall at the edge of the roof. It is a general type of parapet which is specially provided for safety concern. Concrete coping is provided at top and corbel below it. Plain parapets are easy to construct and requires low maintenance. Plain parapet generally looks dull in appearance. Fig 1: House with Plain Parapet Wall/ Fig 2: Perforated Parapet Wall/ Paneled Parapet Wall 2. Perforated Parapet Walls The perforated parapet wall is also an extension of the wall like plain parapet but in this case, the extended wall portion is perforated with different sized openings considering the aesthetic appearance of the structure. Differently designed perforations such as circles, trefoils, flower shapes etc. are used. 3. Paneled Parapet Walls The Paneled parapet walls are similar to plain parapets but the difference is paneled parapets are ornamented with series of panel designs on the outside of parapet wall. The panels may be oblong or square but no perforations are provided in this case. This type of parapets is more prevalent since it provides a beautiful appearance to the structure and at the same time doesn’t cost much and provides ease in construction. 4.Embattled Parapet Walls The Embattled parapets were widely used in olden days especially for castles, forts etc. Alternative low and high portions and perforations are provided in the parapet. In ancient periods, these perforations were generally used by arrow shooters to shoot arrows through it while defending the castle. Because of their beautiful appearance and uniqueness, embattled parapets are being constructed nowadays to enhance the aesthetic aspects of the structures. Embattled Parapet Wall ( Great Wall of China) //Sloped Parapet Wall/: Flat Parapet Wall Classification Based on Shape and Configuration Parapet walls are also classified based on the shape and configuration as follows: Sloped Parapet Wall Stepped Parapet Wall Flat Parapet Wall Curved Parapet Wall 1. Sloped Parapet Wall Sloped parapet walls are provided for sloped roof structures such as industrial structures, trussed structures etc. 2. Flat Parapet Wall 3. Stepped Parapet Wall Stepped parapet walls are also used for inclined roof structures. In this case, the wall is constructed in staircase-type design as shown in the figure below. 4. Curved Parapet Wall Curved parapet walls also called as arched parapet walls are recommended for both flat and inclined rooftops. Miscellaneous Parapet types Several modern types of parapet walls are replacing the above-mentioned types because of their dominance in all categories such as safety, appearance, economy etc. Some of the modern type parapets are fiber-glass parapets, parapet with steel railings, etc. Glass or steel railings can also be provided in the pierced portions of perforated parapet walls for better appearance. Such types of parapets are called composite parapet walls. Uses of Parapet Walls Parapet walls constructed have various uses. Some of them are : To provide an aesthetic look to the structure. To provide safety for humans when they are on the rooftop and in case of bridges to prevent vehicles from falling off bridge. To hide and prevent the equipment and machinery on the rooftop. To prevent the entrance of dust through the air on the rooftop. To prevent the falling of debris gathered on the rooftop. To prevent high wind loads coming on to the rooftop. Perforated parapets can be useful for defence measures in military areas. 10)Koota: Square Miniature shrine on Haara region+ 10 Tala temple on RIGHT 11)Shaala: Rectangular Miniature Shrine on Haara Region Also ABOVE PIC 12)Tala: Storeys. Eka Tala (1 Storey), Dwitala (2 Storey), Tritala (3 Storey) See above right pic 13)Tala Vahana: Vahana of Main deity on the Top Storey+ 14)Griva: Neck of the Vimana 15)Kudu: A motif that appears like Gavaksha (also called Naasi) – An horse shoe shaped Arch.In Indian architecture, gavaksha or chandrashala (kudu in Tamil, also nāsī) are the terms most often used to describe the motif centred on an ogee, circular or horseshoe arch that decorates many examples of Indian rock-cut architecture and later Indian structural temples and other buildings. In its original form, the arch is shaped like the cross-section of a barrel vault. It is called a chaitya arch when used on the facade of a chaitya hall, around the single large window. In later forms it develops well beyond this type, and becomes a very flexible unit, "the most common motif of Hindu temple architecture". Gavākṣha (or gavaksa) is a Sanskrit word which means "bull's or cow's eye". In Hindu temples, their role is envisioned as symbolically radiating the light and splendour of the central icon in its sanctum. Alternatively, they are described as providing a window for the deity to gaze out into the world 16)Shikhara: The main tower of the Vimana Shikhara, a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak", refers to the rising tower in the Hindu temple architecture of North India, and also often used in Jain temples. A shikhara over the garbhagriha chamber where the presiding deity is enshrined is the most prominent and visible part of a Hindu temple of North India but in South Indian Temples, the superstructure above the sanctum is typically more like a four-sided pyramid in overall shape, consisting of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions (talas), with a profile that is normally straight rather than curved. The Dravidian superstructure is generally highly ornate. In every style of shikhara/vimana, the structure culminates with a "kalasha", or urn for offerings, or water-pot, at its peak In South India, the equivalent term is vimana; unlike the shikhara, this refers to the whole building, including the sanctum beneath. In the south, shikhara is a term for the top stage of the vimana only, which is usually a dome capped with a finial. The southern vimana is not to be confused with the elaborate gateway-towers of south Indian temples, called gopuram, which are often taller and more prominent features in large temples. . Shikhara can be classified into three main forms: Latina. The shikhara has four faces, which may include projections or ratha within each face. All the elements run smoothly up the face in a curve. The most common. They are also sometimes called "homogeneous" shikhara, as opposed to the next two types, which may be called "heterogeneous". Sekhari. The latina shape has added engaged (attached) sub-spires or spirelets called urushringa echoing the main shape. These may run up most of the face. There may be more than one size of these, sometimes called secondary and tertiary. Tertiary spirelets are typically near the ends of the face or on the corners. Bhumija. The tower has miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows, all the way to the top, creating a grid-like effect on each face. The tower is generally less strongly vertical in overall shape, often approaching a pyramidal shape. Mainly found in the northern Deccan and West India 17)Stupi or Kalasha : The Finial (Final) of the Vimana A kalasha, also spelled kalash or kalasa also called ghat or ghot (Sanskrit: कलश kalaśa; literally "pitcher, pot"), is a metal (brass, copper, silver or gold) pot with a large base and small mouth, large enough to hold a coconut. Sometimes "kalasha" also refers to such a pot filled with water and topped with a coronet of mango leaves and a coconut. This combination is often used in Hindu rites and depicted in Hindu iconography. The entire arrangement is called Purna-Kalasha (पूर्णकलश), Purna-Kumbha (पूर्णकुम्भ), or Purna-ghata (पूर्णघट). Each of these names literally means "full or complete vessel" when the pot is referred to as the Kalasha (to avoid confusion, this article will refer to the pot as Kalasha and the entire arrangement as Purna-Kalasha). Sometimes the Kalasha is filled with coins, grain, gems, gold, or a combination of these items instead of water. The coronet of 5, 7, or 11 mango leaves is placed such that the tips of the leaves touch water in the Kalasha. The coconut is sometimes wrapped with a red cloth and red thread; the top of the coconut (called Shira – literally "head") is kept uncovered. A sacred thread is tied around the metal pot. The Shira is kept facing the sky. The Kalasha is viewed as an auspicious object in Jainism. The Kalasha is used as a ceremonial object as well as a decorative motif in Indian art and architecture. The Kalasha motif was used in decorating bases and capitals of pillars from the 5th century. The Purna-Kalasha is considered a symbol of abundance and "source of life" in the Vedas. Purna-Kumbha is preeminently a Vedic motif, known from the time of Rigveda. It is also called Soma-Kalasha, Chandra-Kalasha, Indra-Kumbha, Purnaghata, Purna-Virakamsya, Bhadra ghata, or Mangala ghata. It is referred to as "overflowing full vase" (purno-asya Kalasha) in the Vedas.[2] The Kalasha is believed to contain amrita, the elixir of life, and thus is viewed as a symbol of abundance, wisdom, and immortality. The Kalasha is often seen in Hindu iconography as an attribute, in the hands of Hindu deities like the creator god Brahma, the destroyer god Shiva as a teacher, and the goddess of prosperity Lakshmi. The Purna-Kalasha is believed to be a symbol of auspiciousness embodying either Ganesha, remover of obstacles, or his mother Gauri, the goddess of household bounty or Lakshmi. The Purna-Kalasha is worshipped in all Hindu festivities related to marriage and childbirth, as a mother goddess or Devi. In this context, the metal pot or Kalasha represents material things: a container of fertility - the earth and the womb, which nurtures and nourishes life. The mango leaves associated with Kama, the god of love, symbolize the pleasure aspect of fertility. The coconut, a cash crop, represents prosperity and power. The water in the pot represents the life-giving ability of Nature. Sometimes, a silver or brass face of the Goddess is attached over the coconut of the Purna-Kalasha. In this form, the Purna-Kalasha symbolizes the Goddess as the manifestation of mother earth with her water, minerals, and vegetation. This method of Kalash pooja (worship) has come in for Vishnu in household functions too. The Purna-Kalasha is also worshipped at Hindu ceremonies like Griha Pravesha (house warming), child naming, havan (fire-sacrifice), Vaastu dosha rectification, and daily worship. Other interpretations of the Purna-Kalasha associate with the five elements or the chakras. The wide base of metal pot represents the element Prithvi (Earth), the expanded centre - Ap (water), neck of pot - Agni (fire), the opening of the mouth - Vayu (air), and the coconut and mango leaves - Akasha (aether). In contexts of chakras, the Shira (literally "head") - top of the coconut symbolizes Sahasrara chakra and the Moola (literally "base") - base of Kalasha - the Muladhara chakra. A kalash is placed with due rituals on all important occasions. It is placed near the entrance as a sign of welcome. In Jain temples; The Kalasha is included in the Ashtamangala lists of both the Svetambara and Digambara sects of Jainism. Two eyes are depicted around the Kalasha, symbolising right faith and right knowledge. It is used for religious and social ceremonies. It is used in temples when certain images are being worshipped. When one enters a new home it is customary to carry the kalasha on the head reciting mantras. This ceremony is performed to welcome grace and happiness into the new home. They first appear in stone in the Kushan Empire period (65-224 AD). It is a symbol of auspiciousness. 71