ELEMENTS OF INDIAN TEMPLES Part 7

ELEMENTS OF INDIAN TEMPLES Part 7 of the Hindu Temple Architecture series Dr Uday Dokras • • • • • • • • • • • Garbhagriha: Covered in 2 papers paper 3and 4 Mandapa Covered in Paper No.4 Gopuram Part 2 Gopuram as Cosmos part 5 God or man made these magnificent temples No 6 Shikhara or Vimana: Covered in Paper 1 Amalaka } Paper 7 Kalasha } Paper 7 Antarala } Paper 7 Vahana } Paper 7 Jagati: Covered in Paper 7 and also the Jain temple jagati in separate paper For entire details see my 400 page book on HINDU TEMPLE PANORAMA also on this and the other sites. Journal of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective Plan: The earliest architecture in India is that of cottage type. It is a circular, bottle or dome shaped. Mud and Bamboo sticks were used for construction. In the course of evolution number of plans were incorporated in the temple architecture, such as circular plan, square, rectangular, elliptical, upsidal, stellar, etc. A text like Manasara mentions 32 types of square plans 1 . Plan is essential for any structural temple. Plans of the temples depend upon the number of components that existed within the temple. The simplest plan of the temple consists of a garbhagriha and sabhamandapa or porch. This simple plan does not imply that the structure belonged to the earliest period. The temples constructed in the later period also have simple plans. Construction of a temple depends upon the financial position of the builder. When an antarala is added in-between garbhagriha and mandapa, then the plan of the temple hecomes little larger. When a pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path) is added to garbhagriha and antarala, the plan of the temple becomes wider. Then it is called as Sandhara' temple. In the course of time, number of components of the, temple increased like mandapas, shrines for subsidiary deities; priikaras, etc, and the plan of the temple became large and wider. Mandala: With the arrival of Agamas in Hindu religion, the details of architecture became more sophisticated in the temple and reflected the fundamental symbolism of Mandalas. The Yoga Tattva Upanishad speaks about the symbolism in terms of the five fundamental elements that constitute the material basis of the entire cosmos. Earth elements are represented by' a 'Square', Water with a 'semicircle', fire by a 'Triangle', air by a 'six- angled figure' and ether (sky) by a circle. The point without dimension dot (bindu) is the focus of all energy . The icon in the sanctum occupies the central position and the temple represents the other necessary forms. The architectural details of a sophisticated temple reflect this fundamental symbolism. The above five forms are represented in a Mandala known as VishvaKarma Mandala,' which is regarded as fundamental to all temple architecture 3 . The four sides of the Mandala symbolize the four main directions and the corners of the square represents four mid-directions and each of the eight quarters is presided over by a deity. The inner circle symbolizes the 'Creator' (Brahma), which is symbolic of activity, guarded by the eight directions. The Mandala is symbolic of the entire universe. The 'allmaker' (Creator) is also the progenitor. The whole mass of scripture, consisting of manuals of architecture, sculpture and painting collectively are known as Agama. Early temples were reputed to be built by this All-maker . In early days, this vertical emphasis was laid on only one tier (prathama tala). Later, number of tiers (talas) were added to this superstructure. It was believed that the entire area, which the vimana or sikhara overlooked was rendered holy and the area covered by this sikhara, would be prosperous. Superstructures of temples of Kalinga type are simple Journal of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective with series of receding courses forming stepped pyramids. Another type of superstructure that is of storyed type contains several talas (storeys).) Texts like Vishnu Tilaka, Manasara, Mukutaganta, Silparatna, layamata and Isana Shivaguru Paddhati and Bhave Prakasana give broad account of sikhara features such as Nagara, Dravida and Vesara. In addition to these Nagara, Dravida and Vesara type sikharas, Vishnu Mn Ira and Markhandcya Samhita grouped the temples into nine and added six more types such as Sarvadesika, Kalinga, Varata, Mandira, Bhavana and .yoga. But Silvaprasna and liana Shivaguru Paddhati referred only three classifications, Nagar. Dravida and Vesara Nagara: Actually means squarish, cruciform in plan and its sikhara has a vertical emphasis. Vesara: Circularly emphasized horizontal aspect shape, like domical or octagonal or in the shape of vaulted roof. Another feature is storeyed towers and tall gopuras. It is a combination of Dravida and Nagara style of Sikhara features. Dravida- Polygonal or octagnal (six or eight sided): It is circular in plan or apsidal. General conception is that Nagara type of temples prevails in the land between the Himalayas and Vindhya ranges. Vesara type of temples exists inbetween Vindhya ranges and Krishna river and Dravida type of temples prevails inbetween River Krishna and Kanyakumari'7. The term sikhara meaning 'Mountain peak' may indicate that it signified 'Meru' meaning mountain or Kai lasa , , so tall and sacred place of Shiva. The North Indian vimana or Sikhara is crowned by a large circular (Wheel shaped) capstone block known as 'amalaka' (ribbed disc resembling an amalaka fruit, Emblic Myrobalan), while its South Indian counterpart ends in a cupola (Srnga) or Wagon roof (khakra). The South Indian vimana is broader and shorter than the North Indian vimana. The North Indian temples rise from a pedestal (Pitha or Jagati), though the wall (tiara) and main body (gandi) to the head (mastaka), which consists of a rib, is surmounted by a 'skull' (khapuri) on which is installed the Kalasa (finial). And Journal of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective on top of finial will be seen the weapon (ayudha) of the deity, a trident or a discus flag e.g. Jagati( See my paper on Jain temple Jagati elsewhere on academia.edu and researchgate.net) Temples in Orissa and Khajuraho The The Jaina temple at Cudne, Goa stands on Pitha (Jagati) like North Indian temple. Compared to the North Indian Temple Sikharas, in the Dravidian vimana, the height is less emphasized. The plan of the Virnana could be round or square. It could also be six- sided or eight- sided. It could retain one form uniformly from the base to the top or combine two or more plans at different storeys, sometimes as many as sixteen, but the prevailing style is devoid of such differentiation into storeys. It rises above the sanctum with flat roof of the sanctum (Bhumika or Kapotha) as its base (adhisthana). Kalasa It was an old custom to install a crowing member in the form of a sacrificial 'Vase (Kalasa)' made of metal. kalasa denotes a mark of exaltation . It occupies the topmost part of the temple below the Ayuda. (Pineal). Porch The rectangular porch in front of the Sanctum sanctorium (Mukhamandapa or Mukha —sala) is a pillared hall, allowing the devotees to stand and watch the worship rituals as they are conducted inside the sanctum. When the temple became popular and devotees increased, the sanctum needed additional hall and this porch became merely a vestibule (antarala) 21 . Its main function is to accommodate more devotees of the temple. The porch (vestibule) is structurally connecting the sanctum with the additional hall (assembly hall). Like the antarala in front of the sanctum, a low raised structure called `Sukhanasi' crowned antarala. It is erected in front of the Sikhara, which stands on sanctum proper. Unlike the sanctum covered by flat roof stone slabs, antarala is also filled in the similar manner, which serves as the base (adhisthana) for the super structure. Journal of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective The doors of the temple must always be two panelled and the two are described as mother and daughter ' Brihat-Samahita prescribes that the door must be located in the middle of the front wall and that it must be in the same direction as the idol. According to Agnipurana, the door must always be placed in one of the four directions and never in the corners. Suprabhediigama recommends gateways in all the four directions on the outer wall. Texts mentioned that Devadar wood is best for temple doors. . Texts prescribe the rules about the several aspects of door like jamb, lintel (dwara-sakha), door panels (kabata), door joints (dwara sandhi), door planks (phalaka), bolt (kila-bhajana), tower over the door way (dwara gopura) and the chamber associated with the door way (dwara-koshtha). Dwiira-Sakha (door jamb) is single panelled in early temples without much ornamentation. Ornamentation developed in the later period in the door panels, and it became familiar as Sakhas in temple architecture such as Lata Sakha, Patra Sakha, Pushpa Sakha, etc. The popular simple form of doorconsists of only three sakhas in it. Sometimes the images of Gajalakshmi or Ganesh at the centre of lintel occasionally with Purnakumbhas on either side, Dweirapalas or Ganga, Yamuna or Purnakumbhas at the base also can be seen in the Dwara Sakhas in the medieval period. Mahadeva temple at Curdi is the best example for tri-sakha dw&a. Tri-sakha dwara also can be seen at Saptakoteswar temple at Opa. Pranala or water chute takes out ablution water from garbhagriha. It passes through garbhagriha wall (generally towards north) and extends to a considerable length away from wall (e.g Pranalas of Mahadev temple, Curdi and Tambdi Surla were extended up to the adhisthana mouldings of the temple). Majority of the pranalas are in simple long block with a channel cut into it. Some pranalas are highly decorated and the mouths of the Icirtimukhas are crocodile or ox or makara or lion or creeper scroll etc., emerge as Journal of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective channel. Generally main deity used to be placed over the pranala in al- most all the temples in Goa. Some prdruilas have beautiful mouldings like as in the Adhisthana of the temple, e.g., Brahma temple in Sattari Taluka. A Chandrasilis (Moon-Stones) Chandrasila— or Moonstones were in the form of semicircular slabs on floor in front of doors forming a step in the beginning or in the main entrance (e.g, in front of the rock cut cave temples at Haravalem). The terminology itself suggests their shape i.e., semi circular 26. Their outline was carved on the floor slabs later (mainly in front of the garbhagriha door e.g. Curdi, Tambdi Surla and Opa temples. Subsequently, the semi-circle took leaf shape with a point at the centre and two scrolls on the sides. The Chandrsirds in the Mahadev temple at Curdi, Tambdi Surla and Saptakoteshwar temple at Opa with a pointed tip are shown in relief on the floor slab in front of the garbhagriha doors. Journal of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective Kopeshwar temple. Highly ornamented chandrashila at entrance Air and light entrances: chandrasiliis(Windows) or Jalavatayanas meant for allowing light and air into temples have provided artists with a space for exhibiting their skill by carving creepers, flowers, figures and several perforations. Some Jalavatayanas are decorated with creepers containing circular perforations Torana is another interesting feature involved in stylized temples. Temples like Mahalasa, Manguesh, Naguesh, etc, have chitra toranas in the drooped wall of their Mandapa ceilings. Besides Chitra torana, the texts mention two other types of torana 1) Patra torana (fashioned like the lotus leaves) and 2) Makara torana (arch with makara). The Makara torana enshrined in the temple was suitable for the residence of Brahmins and Kshatriyas while Chitratoranas was suitable for Vaisyas and Patratorana was useful for Sudras. Sabhainandapa or Navaranga or MaCamandapa When the temple became very popular and the participants increased in number there was a need for an additional hall of larger dimension to sanctum and antarala to accommodate large assemblies. (e .g. Navaranga). This sabhamandapa used to be pillared hall with or without kakshasana. These type of larger halls were found more in some places according to the requirements of the temple such as Natya mandapa, Bhoga mandapa, Kalyana mandapa etc., and they can be seen mainly in Orissan temple architecture. Mahadeva temple at Tambdi Surla is the best example for its sabhamandapa with kakshasana. Modem temples like Malialsa, Ramn-ath etc., have kakshasanas within the large 96 97 halls (Mandapas) but those are not aesthetic enough like that of Tambdi Surla temple. The area of the temple comprising of the sanctum and the halls as well as the tanks and gardens came to be enclosed by a wall (prakara). But this was a later innovation and can be seen in many of the South Indian temples. Walls The treatment of walls also depicts a wide range from simple plain to decorated with pilasters, turrets and figures. Some of the mukhamandapas and Sabhamandapas are open and some are covered with jalavatayanas (perforated door Journal of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective screens) niches and figures. Mahadev Temple at Tambdi Surla and temple fragments of Saptakoteshwar temple near St Cajetan Church, Old Goa are the best examples. Chajjas: A projected horizontal band called bandana runs in the middle of the wall of sanctum and antarala of Tambdi Surla temple with Kudya stambhas with regular intervals resembling the features of later Chalukyan period. Eaves The main function of eave or chajja is to protect wall from rainwater. It projects forward from the ceiling level, so that water is thrown away from wall surface. The slightly projecting eaves with curved upper surface to facilitate the flow of water are found in several temples. Especially in Goa, the rainfall is more and it continues for a long period. Hence almost all the structures in Goa require slanty roofs and eaves for easy disposal of rainwater. Ceilings Ceilings are different types. 1) Domical ceiling 2) Flat ceiling 3) Rectangular ceiling 4) Square ceiling 5) Circular ceiling 6) Rotated squares ceiling 7) Octagonal ceiling, etc., Placing smaller triangular slabs over the corners of the lower square forms the upper square. A flat slab is placed at the top for covering the central gap. The space of the ceiling is reduced at the top by creating these squares. The lower square is exactly half of the ankara and the upper square is half of that of the lower. A flat slab one-fourth of the size of the ankara is used at the top. The squares not only reduce the areas but also break the monotony of the comparatively plain interior 29. This type of ceiling 98 99 appeared in the rock cut cave at Khandepar for the first time in Goa where the ceilings of the monolithic rock are cut in the shape of trabeat (lantina type). This system became more sophisticated in the structural temples such as Mahadev temple at Curdi and Tambdi Surla in the later period. The central bays in the Nandimandapa ceiling is decorated with a variety of circular inverted lotus in the same temple. Here lotus petals were more projected and a lotus bud was shown very prominently in the Journal of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective centre and the star shaped central lotus is encircled with similar type of lotuses. The ceiling slabs of eastern side bay of mandapa are also adorned with the star shaped circular lotuses in it. Similarly, in the later temples like Mahalasa, Manguesh, Nciguesh, Shantadurga, have lotus decoration in ,mkjnbvcyghthe wooden ceilings in the mandapas. These temples generally have domical shape ceilings on the octagonal base for sanctum. The domical ceilings are almost plain and no decorations are found in them. 100 Pillars Pillars supporting the corners of garbhagriha and antarala are known as canton pillars. The canton pillars are prominently shown in the rock-cut cave architecture. Rock cut caves at Khandepar is the best example for this feature. Here the canton pillars are chiselled in the monolithic rock in the corners of garbhagriha and antarala, canton pillars can be made out of basalt (volcanic rock). Pillars supporting various mandapas of temples are found in various shapes, such as square pillars, round pillars, projected square pillars, octagonal pillars, sixteen sided pillars, star shaped pillars etc. These pillars consist of a pedestal, shaft, capital, abacus and corbels. Square Pillars: Square pillars first appeared in the rock cut cave temples. These pillars are simple massive and plain, and can be seen in the rock cut cave temples at Harvalem, Limgaon, Veliguem Surla, Narve, Kusyacherann in Goa. 101 Round Pillars: Simple round pillars consist of a lower square block and the remaining circular portion with pot at the top. This type of pillars can be seen in the Nandimandapa of Mahadev temple at Curdi. These pillars have a square base, a rectangular malasthana, an octagonal and a circular shaft with a top pot and a square capital with pothikas on its top. Accessory structures Very few temples contain accessory structures like Nandi shrine or Nandi mandapa separately in front of the temple or otherwise these are attached to the main temple. Some temples have separate shrines for subsidiary deities, (Parivara- devta or Gramdevta) on either side of the main temple or backside or in the front of the main temple. Maximum number of accessory structures in Goa belongs to Ravalnath, Sateri, Ganesh and Durga. Journal of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective Tulasi Tulasi is the most important plant for Hindus. because Lakshmi's presence is recognized in the Tulasi plant. Every year on the twelfth day of the bright half of Kartik, Tulasi Vivah (marriage) is celebrated. Tulasi or holy basil is worishpped with profound respect everywhere. People keep a Tulasi plant in front of their house on a specially made stand called Tulasi Vrindavan and worship with great veneration to keep the environment free from bactereous and unwanted prying eyes (burl nazar) into their houses. Dhvaja-Stambha (FLAG-STAFF): Hayasirsha — samhita, a Pancharatra text reveals that a building (prasada) without a flag would be in vain. 'Shiva-sarvasva' describes the purpose of the flag as indication of the insignia of the deity or of the characteristic vehicle of the icon that is within the sanctum. Ancient texts mentioned that where the flag was hoisted in front of the temple; Gods as well as manes used to be delighted. The text also assigns Vishnu (protector) to the top, Brahma (creator) to the middle and Shiva (destroyer) to the bottom of the 107 flag-staff. 36 . Hosting the flag suggests setting out to conquer. The devotee coming into the temple would have firm resolve to conquer his own baser nature. To look at the flag would be a reminder for him in this regard. The Sanskrit word for the flag or banner dhvaja strictly means whatever that is raised. Whatever raises man to a higher level of understanding and activities is a dhvaja. It is a call that God is high and above. The characteristic animal and the insignia of the icon on the banner gives a direction to the devotee's desire and will. When the devotee sees the banner and bows before it, he resolves to rise higher. The benefit of the flag-mast is here said to be "obtainment of all that is desired". The canonical texts favour wooden or bamboo poles. In course of time, the wooden pole was covered with copper, brass or even with silver. Bali-Pitha (The Dispensing Seat): The sanctum, adytum garbhagriha, which is the most important structural detail, is closely associated with the Bali-Pitha that is installed in front of the sanctum directly Journal of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective facing the icon. Actually there will be several 'seats' of this nature, installed in various ritualistically determined positions inside the enclosure and outside the sanctum. However, the one in front of the sanctum is the 'Chief seat'. (Pradhana-pitha). It is a low stone altar, frequently planned in the form of a flat, relatively elaborate form with a base, cornices, wall surface and the top lotus. The canons specify that the real temple should comprise of the sanctum, the tower on top of it, the icon inside it and the dispensing seat in front of it 3:9. 110 Water Tank: Water tank or snanaghat is essential for Hindu temple. Before entering into the temple, the devotee must purify (parishuddh) with taking bath or clean and wash hands and legs and head. Water tank is also necessary for daily requirement of water for deities and cleaning of temple. Providing Snanaghat (bathing ghat or pushkar) on the banks of major rivers near the temple is ancient practice jri India. All the 12 major rivers in India have bathing ghats to celebrate `Pushkar'. The Pushkar celebrations come once in twelve years after rotation at all the major rivers from North to South (e.g., Ganga nadi pushkar. Yamuna nadi pushkar, Godavari nadi pushkar and Krishna nadi Pushkar. Journal of the Indo Nordic Author’s Collective