Thesis Chapters by Simon Oleszkiewicz
This thesis is on how to elicit intelligence from human sources with the principal aim being to e... more This thesis is on how to elicit intelligence from human sources with the principal aim being to examine the efficacy of the tactics employed by the renowned WWII interrogator Hanns Scharff. A novel experimental set-up (as well as new dependent measures) was introduced to evaluate the efficacy of different human intelligence gathering techniques. Participants were given information about a planned terrorist attack, asked to take on the role of “sources”, and instructed to be semi-cooperative in a subsequent interview.
In Study I (N = 60), interviews were conducted over the phone. The Scharff technique (conceptualized to include five tactics) was compared to the direct approach (a combination of open-ended and specific questions). The Scharff technique resulted in relatively more new information and led sources to underestimate how much new information they revealed. With the Direct Approach, sources overestimated how much new information they revealed.
In Study II (N = 119), interacting parties met face-to-face and the sources were allowed to lie. Two versions of the Scharff technique were compared to the direct approach. The Scharff confirmation technique made use of claims that included the correct alternative while the Scharff disconfirmation/confirmation technique made use of a mix of correct and incorrect claims. The Scharff confirmation technique resulted in more new information than the Scharff disconfirmation/confirmation technique and the direct approach. Sources interviewed using the Scharff techniques had a more difficult time reading the interviewer’s information objectives and underestimated their contribution of new information. Sources interviewed using the direct approach overestimated how much new information they revealed.
In Study III (N = 200) the interview techniques were used with four different types of sources varying in both their levels of cooperation and capability to provide information as follows: (a) less willing/less able, (b) less willing/more able, (c) more willing, less able, and (d) more willing/more able. The Scharff technique was compared to the direct approach. Overall, the Scharff technique resulted in relatively more new information, particularly when interviewing less cooperative sources. Furthermore, sources interviewed using the Scharff technique had a more difficult time reading the interviewer’s information objectives and consistently underestimated their contribution of new information.
This thesis provides a psychological framework for and a conceptualization of the Scharff technique. Furthermore, the thesis introduces an experimental set-up mirroring a human intelligence interaction and offers a new set of dependent measures for mapping the efficacy of intelligence gathering techniques. In sum, this thesis provides support for the Scharff technique as an effective tool for eliciting information from human sources.
Papers by Simon Oleszkiewicz
International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, 2023
Drawing on the scientific literature on trust and the experiences of distinguished interviewers, ... more Drawing on the scientific literature on trust and the experiences of distinguished interviewers, two primary trust-building tactics with potential application in investigative and intelligence interviewing were identified and assessed for their efficacy in this context. Trust-building tactics that demonstrate trustworthiness and demonstrate a willingness to trust portray the interviewer as reliable and dependable (i.e., perceptions of cognitive trust) as well as convey goodwill and warmth (i.e., perceptions of affective trust) were viewed as likely to increase a source's willingness to disclose critical information. Across three experiments, both tactics were found to be influential in engaging the reciprocity principle in a manner that elicited the
International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence, 2023
In the United States, it is permissible to place an undercover police officer in the jail cell wi... more In the United States, it is permissible to place an undercover police officer in the jail cell with a suspect. This tactical move is rare and launched only for serious crimes, and it takes place before any charges have been filed. This tactic goes under the name of Perkins operations, from the case ruling that if an individual speaks freely to someone whom they believe is a fellow inmate it is allowed to take advantage of their misplaced trust (Illinois v. Perkins, 1990). In this study, we examine 22 Perkins operations, 60 hours of secretly taped interactions in the cells, and we describe and categorize the different approaches and tactics that the undercover officers used. Based on the descriptive analysis, we conceptualize two pathways to information elicitation (direct and relational) and explore the undercover officers’ use of risky interview tactics. The findings suggest that undercover officers use four broader approaches to establish relationships and gather information, and we were able to identify only a few instances of risky tactics in this sample. The relevance of the findings for human intelligence gathering and counterintelligence are discussed.
Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 2023
Studying evidence disclosure methods in laboratory-based settings provides important contribution... more Studying evidence disclosure methods in laboratory-based settings provides important contributions to evidence-based interview practices. However, methods developed through controlled testing need to be adapted to an operational context to ensure appropriate use in practice. The present project synthesized laboratory research on evidence disclosure and practical experience of homicide and robbery investigations to identify an operational purpose for disclosing evidence in investigative interviews. That purpose is to substantiate the reliability of the available evidence and thereby enhance the integrity of the investigation. To this end, we identified the concept of proximity as a strategic foundation to evidence disclosure. We developed a 2-day training program covering four modules (foundational interviewing, planning and preparation, investigative agenda, and resistance to evidence disclosure) and tested U.S. investigators’ interview performance by having them interview mock subjects before and after training. The findings show that the investigators became (a) accustomed to frame the evidence for disclosure and (b) less inclined to bluff and bait with evidence, make accusations, and ask leading questions, thereby (c) eliciting more statements that were reliably inconsistent to the available evidence while (d) reducing the contamination of admissions and statement-evidence inconsistencies. We attribute the adherence to the training to the fact that we specified an operational purpose for evidence disclosure, used proximity as a strategic concept, and integrated the disclosure strategy within the pursuit of a thorough investigation.
Objective: The purpose of this study was to test the effectiveness of a rapport-based approach to... more Objective: The purpose of this study was to test the effectiveness of a rapport-based approach to interviewing that includes productive questioning skills, conversational rapport, and relational rapport-building tactics. Hypotheses: We predicted that training police investigators in a rapport-based approach would significantly increase the use of rapport-based tactics and that such tactics would directly influence the interviewee's perceptions of rapport and indirectly lead to increased cooperation and disclosure of information. Method: We trained federal, state, and local law enforcement investigators (N = 67) in the use of evidence-based interviewing techniques. Both before and after this training, investigators interviewed semi cooperative subjects (N = 125). Interviews were coded for the use of various interview tactics, as well as subjects' disclosure. Participants also completed a questionnaire regarding their perceptions of the interviewer and their decision to cooperate with the interviewer. Results: Evaluations of the training were positive, with high ratings of learning, preparedness to use tactics, and likelihood of use following the training. In posttraining interviews, investigators significantly increased their use of evidence-based tactics, including productive questioning, conversational rapport, and relational rapport-building tactics. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that investigators' use of the evidencebased interview tactics was directly associated with increased perceptions of rapport and trust and indirectly associated with increased cooperation and information disclosure. Conclusions: We demonstrated that rapport-based interview tactics could be successfully trained and that using such tactics can facilitate perceptions of rapport and trust, reduce individuals' resistance to cooperate, and increase information yield. Public Significance Statement Practitioners often criticize a rapport-based approach for its lack of efficacy with resistant subjects. This study finds that after a 2-day training, experienced law enforcement investigators were able to employ tactics to build rapport and establish cooperation with a reluctant subject, which in turn produced more information. This adds to mounting empirical support for the use of evidence-based practices in the interview room.
Oleszkiewicz, S. (2016). Eliciting human intelligence: A conceptualization and empirical testing ... more Oleszkiewicz, S. (2016). Eliciting human intelligence: A conceptualization and empirical testing of the Scharff technique. Department of Psychology, University of Gothenburg. This thesis is on how to elicit intelligence from human sources with the principal aim being to examine the efficacy of the tactics employed by the renowned WWII interrogator Hanns Scharff. A novel experimental set-up (as well as new dependent measures) was introduced to evaluate the efficacy of different human intelligence gathering techniques. Participants were given information about a planned terrorist attack, asked to take on the role of “sources”, and instructed to be semi-cooperative in a subsequent interview. In Study I (N = 60), interviews were conducted over the phone. The Scharff technique (conceptualized to include five tactics) was compared to the direct approach (a combination of open-ended and specific questions). The Scharff technique resulted in relatively more new information and led sources t...
Decades of behavioral science research consistently demonstrates the advantages of employing a ra... more Decades of behavioral science research consistently demonstrates the advantages of employing a rapport-based approach to investigative and intelligence interviewing. Evolving from identifying the problematic procedures of accusatorial approaches, current research has turned to a more proactive study of techniques and tactics that align with a rapport-based and information-gathering framework that is effective for eliciting comprehensive and reliable information. Despite a growing body of research supporting the use of this framework, it stands in contrast with an accusatorial approach that is common practice in North America (and other parts of the world). This chapter reviews empirically supported approaches for investigative interviewing (including aspects of effective elicitation and deception detection) and describes recent research on tactics for developing rapport and trust in interrogative context. Herein we distinguish how trust and rapport-based techniques differ from curre...
Legal and Criminological Psychology, 2022
Adaptability refers to cognitive, behavioural and emotional adjustments that assist in effectivel... more Adaptability refers to cognitive, behavioural and emotional adjustments that assist in effectively responding to novel and uncertain situations. It is acknowledged as a key attribute of the successful management of dynamic interpersonal inter- actions. Yet, adaptability remains largely unstudied in the field of psychology and law. Here, we take the first steps to fill this research gap. In Study 1, university students (n = 30) acted as ‘agents’ that had to complete three ‘undercover missions’ that required an adaptive response. Adaptability was measured through a self-report scale. In Study 2, practi- tioners (n = 22), experienced with covert policing, watched recordings of the undercover missions from Experiment 1. The practitioners rated the adaptive responses of the agents, as well as their ability to attain the mission objec- tives. The findings showed that our experimental set-up successfully elicited adaptive behaviour. Practitioners’ rat- ings of adaptability were strongly related to their ratings of trustworthiness, rapport and belief in whether the agent would accomplish their missions, but not with actual mis- sion success. The results highlight the potential importance of adaptability for law enforcement contexts.
One way to gather information from sources and informants is to kindly ask for it. A second way i... more One way to gather information from sources and informants is to kindly ask for it. A second way is to ask again using a more strict tone of voice. These ways seldom pay off. But what definitely follows is that the subject becomes aware of the interviewer’s information interests. A better way is to discreetly draw out the information, to elicit the information needed.Approaches that play on elicitation are different from explicit approaches, as they aim to unobtrusively steer the conversation toward a specific topic and then subtly collect details. In this chapter we first define elicitation and we clarify why the term is relevant.We then contrast resistance postures with counter-interview strategies in order to illustrate various moti- vations of semi-cooperative subjects. Finally, we summarize parts of the experimental work on interview techniques and tactics that aim to (i) increase the subject’s cooperation, and (ii) elicit new information.
Law and Human Behavior
Objective: The purpose of this study was to test the effectiveness of a rapport-based approach to... more Objective: The purpose of this study was to test the effectiveness of a rapport-based approach to interviewing that includes productive questioning skills, conversational rapport, and relational rapport-building tactics. Hypotheses: We predicted that training police investigators in a rapport-based approach would significantly increase the use of rapport-based tactics and that such tactics would directly influence the interviewee's perceptions of rapport and indirectly lead to increased cooperation and disclosure of information. Method: We trained federal, state, and local law enforcement investigators (N = 67) in the use of evidence-based interviewing techniques. Both before and after this training, investigators interviewed semi cooperative subjects (N = 125). Interviews were coded for the use of various interview tactics, as well as subjects' disclosure. Participants also completed a questionnaire regarding their perceptions of the interviewer and their decision to cooperate with the interviewer. Results: Evaluations of the training were positive, with high ratings of learning, preparedness to use tactics, and likelihood of use following the training. In posttraining interviews, investigators significantly increased their use of evidence-based tactics, including productive questioning, conversational rapport, and relational rapport-building tactics. Structural equation modeling demonstrated that investigators' use of the evidence-based interview tactics was directly associated with increased perceptions of rapport and trust and indirectly associated with increased cooperation and information disclosure. Conclusions: We demonstrated that rapport-based interview tactics could be successfully trained and that using such tactics can facilitate perceptions of rapport and trust, reduce individuals' resistance to cooperate, and increase information yield. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling
The Scharff technique aims to elicit information by affecting the source's perception of the ... more The Scharff technique aims to elicit information by affecting the source's perception of the interviewer's existing knowledge. Although the technique has been found to be effective for gathering new information, countermeasures to the technique have not been examined. In a 2 × 2 between-subjects experiment, we informed half of the 120 sources about the counter-interrogation strategy of carefully considering the interviewer's prior knowledge and the tactic of providing information perceived as already known to the interviewer. After this, sources were interviewed with the Scharff technique or the Direct approach, widely used in human intelligence-gathering situations and consisting of open-ended and direct questions. We found that “informed sources” did not succeed in revealing information already known to the interviewer, where informed sources and uninformed sources revealed known information to a similar degree (1.62 pieces vs. 1.65 pieces). Sources interviewed with the Direct approach (vs. Scharff technique) revealed a larger amount of information previously known to the interviewer (2.18 pieces vs. 1.08 pieces). When interviewed with the Scharff technique, sources informed about the counter-interrogation strategy attempted to adopt more counter-interrogation strategies. The present study replicates earlier research on the Scharff technique as a technique effective in affecting the source's perception of the interviewer's prior knowledge. The results of the current study indicate that both the Scharff technique and the Direct approach might be similarly robust against counter-interrogation strategies, in terms of gathering new information. Future studies should focus on implementing more comprehensive training in counter-interrogation strategies for the sources.
Psychology, Crime & Law
Studies have demonstrated the efficacy of the Scharff technique for gathering human intelligence,... more Studies have demonstrated the efficacy of the Scharff technique for gathering human intelligence, but little is known about how this efficacy might vary among different samples of practitioners. In this training study we examined a sample of military officers (n = 37). Half was trained in the Scharff technique and compared against officers receiving no Scharff training. All officers received the same case file describing two sources holding information about a terrorist attack. University students (n = 74) took the role of the semi-cooperative sources. Scharff-trained officers adhered to the training as they (1) aimed to establish the 'knowing-it-all' illusion, (2) posed claims as a means of eliciting information, and (3) asked fewer explicit questions. The 'untrained' officers asked many explicit questions, questioned the reliability of the provided information, pressured the source, and displayed disappointment with the source's contribution. Scharff-trained officers were perceived as less eager to gather information and left their sources with the impression of having provided comparatively less new information, but collected a similar amount of new information as their untrained colleagues. The present paper both replicates and advances previous work in the field, and marks the Scharff technique as a promising technique for gathering human intelligence.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, 2020
This meta-analytic review examines the most fundamental question for disclosing evidence during s... more This meta-analytic review examines the most fundamental question for disclosing evidence during suspect interviews: What are the effective options for when to disclose the available evidence? We provide an update to Hartwig and colleagues (2014) meta-analysis of the efficacy of the late and early disclosure methods on eliciting statement-evidence inconsistencies from guilty and innocent suspects. We also extend these analyses to include studies comparing gradual disclosure to early and late disclosure when interviewing guilty suspects. Finally, we test whether a gradual disclosure leads to greater provision of novel investigative information when interviewing guilty suspects. Overall, we find that guilty suspects provide more statement-evidence inconsistencies than innocent suspects, and that both a late and gradual disclosure result in more statement-evidence inconsistencies than the early disclosure when interviewing guilty suspects. However, there are indications of small study effects that warrant considerable caution when interpreting the size of some of the identified effects.
Interrogation practices in the United States have been roundly criticized both for their accusato... more Interrogation practices in the United States have been roundly criticized both for their accusatorial ethos, at times leading to false confessions by the innocent, and for a history of applying physical and psychological coercion in law enforcement, military, and intelligence contexts. Despite decades of psychological research demonstrating the failures of such approaches and despite recent positive advances in countries such as the United Kingdom moving to an information-gathering framework, little change has occurred in the training or practice of U.S. interrogation professionals over the past 50 years. This article describes recent historical events that have led to the development of the first unclassified, government-funded research program on the science of interviewing and interrogation. Since 2010, the High-Value Detainee Interrogation Group (HIG) research program has identified effective approaches for developing cooperation and rapport, eliciting information, challenging inconsistencies by presenting evidence or information strategically, and assessing credibility using cognitive cues and strategic questioning tactics. The program has also examined the influence of culture and language, and has facilitated the translation of research from the laboratory to the field. In this context, we review the significant contributions of psychologists to understanding and developing ethical, legal, and effective interrogation practices, and we describe important future directions for research on investigative interviewing and interrogation.
Purpose. In previous laboratory-based work, the Scharff technique has proved successful for gathe... more Purpose. In previous laboratory-based work, the Scharff technique has proved successful for gathering intelligence from human sources. However, little is known about whether the technique can be taught to practitioners, and whether Scharff-trained practitioners will interview more effectively than colleagues using their conventional approaches and tactics. Method. We examined professional handlers from the Norwegian Police (n = 64), all experienced in interacting with informants. Half received training in the Scharff technique, and their performance was compared against handlers receiving no Scharff training and free to use the approaches they saw fit. All handlers received the same case file describing a source holding information about a future terrorist attack and were given the same interview objectives. Police trainees (n = 64) took on the role of semicooperative sources and were given incomplete information about the attack. Results. The trained handlers adhered to the Scharff training as they (1) aimed to establish the illusion of 'knowing-it-all', (2) posed claims to collect information, and (3) asked few (if any) explicit questions. In contrast, the untrained handlers tried to evoke the sources' motivation to reveal information and asked a high number of explicit questions. Scharff-trained handlers were perceived as less eager to gather information, but collected comparatively more new information. Conclusions. The Scharff-trained interviewers utilized more specific elicitation tactics (e.g., posing claims) and fewer general interview strategies (e.g., evoking motivation), and they collected comparatively more new information. This captures the essence of the Scharff technique: It is subtle, yet effective.
In past research, the Scharff technique has consistently
outperformed different comparison techni... more In past research, the Scharff technique has consistently
outperformed different comparison techniques with respect to the
elicitation of human intelligence. This study extends previous
work by examining the efficacy of the Scharff technique applied
to small cells of sources. The sources worked in triads (N = 180),
and were given information about a planned terrorist attack. They
were then interviewed individually with either the Scharff
technique (conceptualised as five tactics) or the Direct Approach
(open and direct questions). The two techniques resulted in an
equal amount of new information. As predicted, the sources in
the Scharff condition underestimated, whereas the sources in the
Direct Approach condition overestimated, their own contribution
of new information. Furthermore, the Scharff tactics resulted in
the sources overestimating the amount of information revealed
by their fellow group members, whereas this was not the case in
the Direct Approach. The paper advances the knowledge on
elicitation techniques on several accounts: with respect to the
context (focusing on small cells of sources), measures of efficacy
(introducing a new dependent measure) and tactics (introducing
novel context-dependent tactics). The outcome of the study
marks the Scharff technique as a promising technique for eliciting
information in intelligence settings.
Research on investigative interviewing has only recently started to
compare the efficacy of diffe... more Research on investigative interviewing has only recently started to
compare the efficacy of different techniques for gathering
intelligence from human sources. So far the research has focused
exclusively on sources interviewed once, thus overlooking that
most sources are interviewed multiple times. The present study
attempts to remedy this gap in the literature. Students (N = 66)
took on the role of semi-cooperative sources, holding incomplete
information about an upcoming terrorist attack. The sources were
informed that they would be interviewed at least once, and that
additional interviews might follow. Half of the sources were
interviewed on three occasions with the Scharff technique
(consisting of five tactics), and the other half was interviewed on
three occasions using the so-called direct approach (i.e. openended
and specific questions). Collapsing the outcome over the
three interviews, the Scharff technique resulted in significantly
more new information compared to the direct approach.
Furthermore, sources interviewed by the direct approach
overestimated how much new information they had revealed,
whereas the sources interviewed by the Scharff technique
underestimated their contribution (although not significantly so).
The current study advances previous research by further
contextualizing the tests of the efficacy of human intelligence
gathering techniques.
Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 2014
The current study examined interview techniques aimed at eliciting intelligence from human source... more The current study examined interview techniques aimed at eliciting intelligence from human sources. We compared two versions of the Scharff-technique to the Direct Approach (a combination of open and direct questions). The Scharff conditions, conceptualised into four tactics, differed only with respect to the 'confirmation/disconfirmation-tactic'. The participants (N = 90) received background information and took the role as a source in a phone interview. They were instructed to strike a balance between not revealing too little and too much information. As predicted, the Scharff-technique resulted in more new information than the Direct Approach. Importantly, the sources interviewed by the Scharff-technique perceived that they had revealed less new information than they objectively did, whereas the sources interviewed by the Direct Approach perceived that they had revealed more new information than they objectively did. Furthermore, the interviewer's information objectives were better masked with the confirmation-tactic than with the disconfirmation-tactic. The results highlight the Scharff-technique as a promising human intelligence gathering technique.
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Thesis Chapters by Simon Oleszkiewicz
In Study I (N = 60), interviews were conducted over the phone. The Scharff technique (conceptualized to include five tactics) was compared to the direct approach (a combination of open-ended and specific questions). The Scharff technique resulted in relatively more new information and led sources to underestimate how much new information they revealed. With the Direct Approach, sources overestimated how much new information they revealed.
In Study II (N = 119), interacting parties met face-to-face and the sources were allowed to lie. Two versions of the Scharff technique were compared to the direct approach. The Scharff confirmation technique made use of claims that included the correct alternative while the Scharff disconfirmation/confirmation technique made use of a mix of correct and incorrect claims. The Scharff confirmation technique resulted in more new information than the Scharff disconfirmation/confirmation technique and the direct approach. Sources interviewed using the Scharff techniques had a more difficult time reading the interviewer’s information objectives and underestimated their contribution of new information. Sources interviewed using the direct approach overestimated how much new information they revealed.
In Study III (N = 200) the interview techniques were used with four different types of sources varying in both their levels of cooperation and capability to provide information as follows: (a) less willing/less able, (b) less willing/more able, (c) more willing, less able, and (d) more willing/more able. The Scharff technique was compared to the direct approach. Overall, the Scharff technique resulted in relatively more new information, particularly when interviewing less cooperative sources. Furthermore, sources interviewed using the Scharff technique had a more difficult time reading the interviewer’s information objectives and consistently underestimated their contribution of new information.
This thesis provides a psychological framework for and a conceptualization of the Scharff technique. Furthermore, the thesis introduces an experimental set-up mirroring a human intelligence interaction and offers a new set of dependent measures for mapping the efficacy of intelligence gathering techniques. In sum, this thesis provides support for the Scharff technique as an effective tool for eliciting information from human sources.
Papers by Simon Oleszkiewicz
outperformed different comparison techniques with respect to the
elicitation of human intelligence. This study extends previous
work by examining the efficacy of the Scharff technique applied
to small cells of sources. The sources worked in triads (N = 180),
and were given information about a planned terrorist attack. They
were then interviewed individually with either the Scharff
technique (conceptualised as five tactics) or the Direct Approach
(open and direct questions). The two techniques resulted in an
equal amount of new information. As predicted, the sources in
the Scharff condition underestimated, whereas the sources in the
Direct Approach condition overestimated, their own contribution
of new information. Furthermore, the Scharff tactics resulted in
the sources overestimating the amount of information revealed
by their fellow group members, whereas this was not the case in
the Direct Approach. The paper advances the knowledge on
elicitation techniques on several accounts: with respect to the
context (focusing on small cells of sources), measures of efficacy
(introducing a new dependent measure) and tactics (introducing
novel context-dependent tactics). The outcome of the study
marks the Scharff technique as a promising technique for eliciting
information in intelligence settings.
compare the efficacy of different techniques for gathering
intelligence from human sources. So far the research has focused
exclusively on sources interviewed once, thus overlooking that
most sources are interviewed multiple times. The present study
attempts to remedy this gap in the literature. Students (N = 66)
took on the role of semi-cooperative sources, holding incomplete
information about an upcoming terrorist attack. The sources were
informed that they would be interviewed at least once, and that
additional interviews might follow. Half of the sources were
interviewed on three occasions with the Scharff technique
(consisting of five tactics), and the other half was interviewed on
three occasions using the so-called direct approach (i.e. openended
and specific questions). Collapsing the outcome over the
three interviews, the Scharff technique resulted in significantly
more new information compared to the direct approach.
Furthermore, sources interviewed by the direct approach
overestimated how much new information they had revealed,
whereas the sources interviewed by the Scharff technique
underestimated their contribution (although not significantly so).
The current study advances previous research by further
contextualizing the tests of the efficacy of human intelligence
gathering techniques.
In Study I (N = 60), interviews were conducted over the phone. The Scharff technique (conceptualized to include five tactics) was compared to the direct approach (a combination of open-ended and specific questions). The Scharff technique resulted in relatively more new information and led sources to underestimate how much new information they revealed. With the Direct Approach, sources overestimated how much new information they revealed.
In Study II (N = 119), interacting parties met face-to-face and the sources were allowed to lie. Two versions of the Scharff technique were compared to the direct approach. The Scharff confirmation technique made use of claims that included the correct alternative while the Scharff disconfirmation/confirmation technique made use of a mix of correct and incorrect claims. The Scharff confirmation technique resulted in more new information than the Scharff disconfirmation/confirmation technique and the direct approach. Sources interviewed using the Scharff techniques had a more difficult time reading the interviewer’s information objectives and underestimated their contribution of new information. Sources interviewed using the direct approach overestimated how much new information they revealed.
In Study III (N = 200) the interview techniques were used with four different types of sources varying in both their levels of cooperation and capability to provide information as follows: (a) less willing/less able, (b) less willing/more able, (c) more willing, less able, and (d) more willing/more able. The Scharff technique was compared to the direct approach. Overall, the Scharff technique resulted in relatively more new information, particularly when interviewing less cooperative sources. Furthermore, sources interviewed using the Scharff technique had a more difficult time reading the interviewer’s information objectives and consistently underestimated their contribution of new information.
This thesis provides a psychological framework for and a conceptualization of the Scharff technique. Furthermore, the thesis introduces an experimental set-up mirroring a human intelligence interaction and offers a new set of dependent measures for mapping the efficacy of intelligence gathering techniques. In sum, this thesis provides support for the Scharff technique as an effective tool for eliciting information from human sources.
outperformed different comparison techniques with respect to the
elicitation of human intelligence. This study extends previous
work by examining the efficacy of the Scharff technique applied
to small cells of sources. The sources worked in triads (N = 180),
and were given information about a planned terrorist attack. They
were then interviewed individually with either the Scharff
technique (conceptualised as five tactics) or the Direct Approach
(open and direct questions). The two techniques resulted in an
equal amount of new information. As predicted, the sources in
the Scharff condition underestimated, whereas the sources in the
Direct Approach condition overestimated, their own contribution
of new information. Furthermore, the Scharff tactics resulted in
the sources overestimating the amount of information revealed
by their fellow group members, whereas this was not the case in
the Direct Approach. The paper advances the knowledge on
elicitation techniques on several accounts: with respect to the
context (focusing on small cells of sources), measures of efficacy
(introducing a new dependent measure) and tactics (introducing
novel context-dependent tactics). The outcome of the study
marks the Scharff technique as a promising technique for eliciting
information in intelligence settings.
compare the efficacy of different techniques for gathering
intelligence from human sources. So far the research has focused
exclusively on sources interviewed once, thus overlooking that
most sources are interviewed multiple times. The present study
attempts to remedy this gap in the literature. Students (N = 66)
took on the role of semi-cooperative sources, holding incomplete
information about an upcoming terrorist attack. The sources were
informed that they would be interviewed at least once, and that
additional interviews might follow. Half of the sources were
interviewed on three occasions with the Scharff technique
(consisting of five tactics), and the other half was interviewed on
three occasions using the so-called direct approach (i.e. openended
and specific questions). Collapsing the outcome over the
three interviews, the Scharff technique resulted in significantly
more new information compared to the direct approach.
Furthermore, sources interviewed by the direct approach
overestimated how much new information they had revealed,
whereas the sources interviewed by the Scharff technique
underestimated their contribution (although not significantly so).
The current study advances previous research by further
contextualizing the tests of the efficacy of human intelligence
gathering techniques.