Sports Science Unit

This study examined the effects of Sago (Sa), Soy (So), combined iso–caloric Sago+Soy (SS) supplementations during cycling on metabolic responses as compared to placebo (P) in the heat (31 ℃ , 70% relative humidity). Twelve well–trained male cyclists (Age: 19.0±5.6 yr, Height: 170.8±7.6 cm, Wight: 60.1±11.2 kg, and VO 2max : 56.5±6.5 mL.kg-1.min-1) participated in four experimental trials. The design of the trials was a randomized single–blind, placebo–controlled crossover trail comprising 90 min of steady–state cycling on an ergometer at 60% of VO 2max followed by a 20–km time trial performance (TT). The participants of the study were supplemented 5 times at 0, 20, 40, 60, and 80 minutes during the steady–state cycling. Sa, So, and SS supplements provided 7.5% Sago, 7.5% Soy, and 6.0% Sago + 1.5% Soy respectively. Plasma glucose concentrations (PG) reached a peak at 60 min after ingestion of Sa and SS as compared to baseline. At the end of the TT, PG reduced significantly to the baseline level. Plasma insulin concentrations (PI) increased in all trials, but reduced gradually to the baseline level. The concentration of plasma free fatty acids (FFA) increased gradually during the steady–state cycling and TT, and FFA was significantly higher in the P and So than the Sa and SS trials. At the end of the steady–state cycling, the plasma lactate concentration (LACT) reached its lowest concentrations and at the end of the TT was enhanced significantly in all trials. These results suggest that sago and soy supplements increase the PG and PI during endurance exercise in the heat. These data add to the growing body of knowledge concerning endurance athletes' glycemic and insulinemic responses to carbohydrate consumptions during exercise in the heat.

Background: Trace elements are mineral nutrients involved in a lot of physiological processes during exercise.
Some of the trace elements, such as iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) play a major function in maintaining and regulating
many of these processes. The variations in plasma Fe and Zn concentrations are dependent which follow intensity
as well as the duration of the activity. Endurance exercise until exhaustion causes various changes in the body.
Deficiencies in Fe and Zn can harmfully influence endurance performance.
Objective: The purpose of the current study was to determine the effects of an incremental exercise until
exhaustion on the plasma levels of Fe and Zn in athletes and nonathletes.
Methods: Ten elite basketball players (Age: 19.1±0.8 years old, Height: 185.0±6.3 cm, Weight: 71.0±9.8 kg,
VO2max: 59.5±7.3 mL.kg-1.min-1) and ten college students (Age: 22.5±3.8 years old, Height: 176.1±7.6 cm,
Weight: 67.8±11.4 kg, VO2max: 33.1±8.4 mL.kg-1.min-1) participated as athletes’ group and control group
respectively. All trials were conducted at the beginning of a competing season in one week for each group in the
Ahvaz city, Khouzestan State, Islamic Republic of Iran. All participants completed 3 separate trials which
consisted of maximal oxygen uptake test, a familiarization trial, and an actual trial. They pedaled an incremental
exercise to exhaustion in the familiarization (without blood sampling) and actual trials. After a warm–up, the
pedaling began on the ergometer at 100 watts and at 60 rpm. Then, the workload was increased gradually to 50
watts every two minutes until exhaustion. The blood samples were drawn three times after the actual trials.
Statistical analyses were performed using the IBM SPSS v.25 for Windows.
Results: The results of the current study showed a significant decrease in Fe and Zn immediately and 24 hours
after incremental exercise to exhaustion (p<0.05) in both groups. However, there were no significant differences
between the two groups of athletes and nonathletes (p>0.05).
Conclusion: The current study concluded that exhaustive exercise was able to decrease the Fe and Zn status after
exercise which may reflect the potential consequences for the dietary requirement of trace elements for physically
active inhabitants.

This study examined the effects of Sago (Sa), Soy (So), combined iso–caloric Sago+Soy (SS) supplementations during cycling on metabolic responses as compared to placebo (P) in the heat (31℃, 70% relative humidity). Twelve well–trained male cyclists (Age: 19.0±5.6 yr, Height: 170.8±7.6 cm, Wight: 60.1±11.2 kg, and VO2max: 56.5±6.5 mL.kg-1.min-1) participated in four experimental trials. The design of the trials was a randomized single–blind, placebo–controlled crossover trail comprising 90 min of steady–state cycling on an ergometer at 60% of VO2max followed by a 20–km time trial performance (TT). The participants of the study were supplemented 5 times at 0, 20, 40, 60, and 80 minutes during the steady–state cycling. Sa, So, and SS supplements provided 7.5% Sago, 7.5% Soy, and 6.0% Sago + 1.5% Soy respectively. Plasma glucose concentrations (PG) reached a peak at 60 min after ingestion of Sa and SS as compared to baseline. At the end of the TT, PG reduced significantly to the baselin...

Nowadays, sports science uses scientific methods and medical devices to assist people with any improvements in sports. Muscle adaptations have significantly benefited as a result of the use of these advanced devices. It has been shown that neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) devices effectively improve muscle function. The use of NMES devices in exercise physiology shows that neuromuscular adaptation is a current research area in both athletes and nonathletes. This narrative review aims to address neuromuscular adaptations and describe neuromuscular changes based on research using NMES. Many researchers and sports trainers will benefit from the results of this article by better understanding neuromuscular adaptations. NMES training has been shown to be an effective way to improve muscle growth, maximum voluntary strength, neuronal drive, oxidative metabolism, and antioxidant defense systems. In addition, NMES is capable of regulating the homeostasis of muscle proteins and increasing oxidative enzyme activity. In animal models, it has also been shown to increase axonal outgrowth, fiber reinnervation, and motor axon regeneration. Various NMES methods may decrease age-related muscle atrophy and functional deterioration. The use of NMES, which is one of the most successful strategies for increasing athletic performance through neuromuscular adaptations, is one of the most promising areas of research.

Previous studies have shown that nicotine can affect beta cell function and insulin secretion in cigarette smokers. The aim of present study was to evaluate the effect of 10 weeks aerobic exercise on insulin and beta cell function in smokers. In this semiexperimental study with pre and post-training design, a total of 36 adult smoker men aged 41±2.5 years were selected into either exercise (n=18) or control (n=18) groups. Exercise participants underwent a 10-weeks supervised aerobic training intervention (3 days/weeks for 45-60 min at 60-80% HR max). Pre (baseline) and post training of fasting glucose, insulin serum and beta cell function were measured of two groups. Aerobic intervention resulted in significant decrease in fasting glucose. In addition, aerobic training induced a significant increase beta cell function and serum insulin in exercise group. The control group exhibited no significant change in any variables. Long term aerobic training is associated with improvement in glycemic profile in male's smoker. The benefits effect of aerobic intervention on glucose homeostasis in cigarette smokers may be attributed to improved beta cell function.

Background and Objective: Hormone and genetic disorders are the most important causes of hyperglycemia in obese and diabetes patients. This study was done to determine the effect of the resistance training program on FOXO1 gene expression in subcutaneous adipose tissue as an effective transcription factor in insulin signaling pathways, fasting glucose and insulin resistance in type 2 diabetic rats. Methods: In this experimental study, type 2 diabetes induced by high fat diet and Streptozotocin (STZ, 30 mg/kg/bw) intraperitoneal injection in 14 male wistar rats (220±20 g) .Animals were randomly allocated into exercise (n=7) and control (n=7) groups. Exercise group were participated in resistance training program (6 weeks, 5 days/weekly). Fasting blood glucose and insulin as well FOXO1 gene expression in subcutaneous adipose tissue were measured lasted exercise session in the two geoups. Results: Resistance training significantly reduces in fasting glucose, insulin resistance and FOXO...

Recent evidence indicates that coaches in Iran closely monitor diet plans. It is recommended that a nutritionist maintain a long-term relationship with each athletics institute. This gap in nutrition knowledge and modifiable nutrition behaviors can be closed by establishing a nutrition teaching and evaluation tool for coaches and young athletes. An overview of soccer nutrition covers the nature of the sport, training, and how nutrition may enhance player performance and recovery. Soccer competitions require players to engage in acyclical and intermittent activity patterns spanning up to 13 kilometers. The limited muscle glycogen reserves are a crucial component of the interface between training, performance, and nutritional support. Diets rich in carbohydrates may optimize muscle glycogen, minimize net glycogen depletion, postpone tiredness onset, and improve soccer performance. However, it is more frequent for the players to take an excessive quantity of protein daily, promoting the myth that extra protein improves strength and performance. More extensive suggestions include that soccer players should take a high CHO diet consisting of nutrient-dense, complex CHO food sources. Thus, despite the precise physiological demands of soccer and the relationship between nutritional preparation and performance, soccer players' dietary habits are frequently marked by a need for more education and misguided traditions. As soccer players and coaches in Iran become more aware of the importance of sustaining optimal macronutrient nutrition, this article discusses potential barriers and various nutrition phases to consider during training, on the day of the competition, and after the competition.

This article explores the growing trend among athletes to seek out substances that can enhance their performance to achieve optimal athletic performance.The increasing concerns regarding banned supplements have led to a growing interest in exploring the effectiveness of herbal alternatives. Herbs native to Iran have gained significant attention due to the substantial body of research that supports their potential to enhance athletic performance and protect overall health.Research has demonstrated that herbs such as jujube and saffron can augment cognitive function, regulate tension, reduce the likelihood of injuries, improve sleep quality, and restore vitality and endurance. Simultaneously, Iranian sage and chamomile effectively reduce inflammation and accelerate recovery after physical activity. An additional treasure from Iran's herbal treasury, Ginkgo biloba is notable for its profound advantages on focusing and cognitive ability. The combined use of these herbs enhances athletic performance and promotes overall well-being. This presentation broadly examines Iran's medical herbs and explains how they can help athletes in many ways. These natural remedies provide a sustainable route to optimal performance, particularly during the critical pre-competition phase, by facilitating fatigue reduction and obesity management. All things considered, this highlights the revolutionary potential of Iranian herbal mixtures for molding top-notch athletic performance and fostering overall wellness. Athletes can attain peak performance levels while avoiding the drawbacks of illegal supplements when they advocate for taking these natural substances in their workouts.

Delving into the benefits of establishing a Sports and Physical Education Organization of Iran, this study highlights the enhancements in physical activity standards and career opportunities within the sports industry. Establishing a Sports and Physical Education Organization in Iran has the potential to significantly improve personal growth, community well-being, and social development through sports. Commencing with an examination of the historical context and general structure for setting up comparable regulatory entities, the article also draws upon perspectives from various professional organizations, like the Medical Council of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The study delves into the varied experiences of various countries and their creation of similar associations, focusing on analyzing the effects of these associations in the realm of sports and physical activity. International experiences have shown the substantial influence of the Sports and Physical Education Organization of Iran in enhancing professional and educational standards in the sports sector. These organizations play a crucial role in establishing professional standards and norms that enhance the integrity of physical and athletic activities. This study delves into the impact of organizations on job opportunities and entrepreneurial pursuits for scholars and graduates in the physical education and sport sciences fields. It requires creating appropriate environments to utilize their understanding and skills in different sports fields. Investigating methods to improve the quality of sports activity planning, guidance, and training within the Sports and Physical Education Organization of Iran. The article delves into a range of subjects, such as enhancing access to high-quality sports activities, implementing regular educational programs, and enhancing the expertise and skills of instructors. An in-depth evaluation is conducted to analyze the impact of the organization on public health and general well-being. The results suggest that this framework has the potential to elevate societal health standards and significantly improve the quality of life. Summarizing the study, it offers suggestions for practical steps and possible strategies to enhance and progress the activities of the Sports and Physical Education Organization of Iran. The proposed solutions offer practical strategies for effectively implementing concepts and encouraging ongoing exploration and progress in this particular area.

Background: The impact of oxidative stress (OS) on exercise performance and recovery depends on the mode, intensity, and duration of physical activity, which can lead to inflammation, fatigue, and muscle dysfunction. The effects of carbohydrate (CHO) and protein (PRO) supplementation, as well as their combination (CHO-PRO), on exercise performance remain controversial, particularly under normal and hot environmental conditions.
Objectives: The present study examined the influence of locally based isocaloric carbohydrate (CHO) and protein (PRO) supplements on muscle damage and oxidative stress (OS) biomarkers during cycling in the heat (31°C, 70% relative humidity), compared to a placebo (PL).
Methods: Sago (Sa), Soy (So), and Sago+Soy (SS) were used as the carbohydrate (CHO), protein (PRO), and CHO-PRO supplements, respectively. The Sa, So, and SS supplements contained 7.5% Sa, 7.5% So, and 6.0% Sa+1.5% So, respectively. Twelve well-trained male cyclists (age: 19.0 ± 5.6 years, height: 170.8 ± 7.6 cm, body weight: 60.1 ± 11.2 kg, and VO2max: 56.5 ± 6.5 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) participated in four experimental trials. Each trial involved 90 minutes of steady-state cycling on an ergometer at 60% VO2max, followed by a 20-km exhaustive cycling time-trial performance. During the steady-state cycling, participants received supplements five times at 0, 20, 40, 60, and 80 minutes.
Results: Plasma concentrations of creatine kinase and F2-isoprostanes, which are biomarkers of muscle damage and oxidative stress (OS), significantly decreased after the trials (P < 0.05). The reduction in these biomarkers in the placebo group indicated that Sa, So, and SS supplementation did not provide additional benefits, as the placebo exhibited similar effects.
Conclusions: In conclusion, despite the unexpected results, endurance athletes exercising in hot and humid conditions may potentially reduce symptoms of muscle damage and oxidative stress by consuming greater amounts of carbohydrate and protein supplements.

This review illustrates the impact of carbohydrate (CHO) and protein (PRO) supplementation on cycling performance. Strategic nutritional planning greatly benefits endurance athletes, particularly cyclists, as it underscores the critical role of macronutrient consumption in improving on the track/road performance and recovery. CHO is the primary energy source for prolonged cycling, as they are crucial for preserving optimal performance by preventing glycogen depletion and delaying fatigue. The efficacy of CHO is significantly influenced by their glycemic index (GI). High-GI CHO offers a rapid energy source that facilitates muscle glycogen resynthesis and sustained performance. Research suggests that high-GI CHO can increase muscle glycogen levels by up to 40% within four hours, underscoring their significance during and after pedaling. PRO, although not the primary energy source, is essential for synthesizing and repairing muscles, particularly during prolonged and intensive cycling. Incorporating essential amino acids to facilitate recovery is imperative, as they aid in muscle protein synthesis and mitigate muscle fatigue. Recent studies have demonstrated that PRO supplements, especially after pedaling, significantly enhance muscle glycogen and protein synthesis replenishment, leading to quicker recovery and improved performance during cycling sessions. The synergistic benefits of the combined supplementation of CHO and PRO are greater than those of each macronutrient alone. This combination improves endurance, delays fatigue, and ensures more efficient recovery by increasing glycogen storage, accelerating recovery, and enhancing muscle protein synthesis. The optimization of the benefits of these supplements is contingent upon the timing, dosage, and composition. Glycogen replenishment and muscle protein synthesis are optimized by consuming CHO and PRO immediately prior to and following exercise. This is particularly true for high-GI carbohydrates, such as glucose, and swiftly assimilated PRO, such as whey. In conclusion, this review provides practical recommendations for cyclists seeking to optimize their nutritional strategies by synthesizing findings from various studies. Cyclists can enhance their overall performance and achieve long-term athletic success by developing effective dietary plans that improve endurance, defer fatigue, and facilitate efficient recovery, facilitated by understanding the complex interactions between these macronutrients.

The present study was undertaken to develop and validate a questionnaire measuring teaching processes related to physical education (PE) enjoyment. Scanlan and Lewthwaite's (1986) youth sport enjoyment model provided the theoretical foundation for this work. Content validity and item readability of the instrument were established by obtaining feedback from eight experts in psychology and four highly experienced secondary school teachers. Construct validity was then established by conducting exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses on data from 304 secondary school students (grades 8, 9, and 10). As a result of these analyses, six teaching processes related to PE enjoyment were identified: self-referent competency (four items), other-referent competency (four items), teacher-generated excitement (three items), activity-generated excitement (five items), peer interaction (two items), and parental ncouragement (two items). Correlation analyses revealed that all of these processes were positively correlated with PE enjoyment. The weakest correlation was between peer interaction and enjoyment (r = .31, p < .05), and the strongest was between activity-generated excitement and enjoyment (r = .83, p < .05). We believe that the instrument is appropriate for studying affective outcomes within physical educational settings among students in grades 8, 9, and 10.

The importance of physical education (PE) enjoyment in promoting adolescent participation in physical activity (PA) is generally recognized. However, research findings indicate a consistent decline in enjoyment of PE among students, especially high school students. This decline has been partly attributed to a lack of understanding of the processes that underlie enjoyment of PE. Utilizing a framework of sport enjoyment proposed by Scanlan and Lewthwaite (1986), the present study examined a model of PE enjoyment processes and PA involvement among adolescents aged 11 to 16 years. The sample consisted of 203 Western Australian adolescents (Mean age = 13.5, SD = 0.98). Participants completed self-report measures of PE teaching processes and PA involvement. The model was analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling. The results revealed an acceptable measurement fit of the model (χ2 = 46.21, df = 19, p <.001; RMR = .03; CFI = .97; RMSEA = .08). Furthermore, significant unstandardized regression weights were also obtained for all of the paths loadings indicating a good structural fit. The model was also tested for group invariance. The results revealed a nonsignificant model invariance between male and female samples (χ2 = 5.3, p = .51). The findings support the notion that PE enjoyment is important in promoting adolescent PA. To promote PE enjoyment, we believe that certain number of processes, particularly activity-related excitement, should be considered when structuring the PE program.

Purpose: The present study investigated the psychometric properties of a Malaysian adapted Brunel Mood Scale.
Methods: The questionnaire was administered to 355 young sport athletes with a mean age of 14.69 + 1.70 years. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and Cronbach’s alpha were used to determine the factorial validity and the internal consistency of the questionnaire respectively.
Results: CFA results revealed adequate model fit, best represented by a 6-factor model with one of the items removed (item 24). Internal consistency of the questionnaire was marginally supported through alpha reliability method. Alpha coefficients of 0.72, 0.64, 0.73, 0.69, 0.65, and 0.58 were obtained for tension, depression, anger, vigour, fatigue and confusion subscales respectively. Closer inspection of items for confusion revealed a ‘problematic’ item (item 24/uncertain). Removing this item increased the alpha coefficient to 0.67 for this subscale.
Conclusion: It was concluded that this questionnaire may be used to measure differentiated negative and positive mood states among Malaysian adolescent athletes. However, further analyses involving independent samples are needed to confirm the present findings.

Introduction: This study examined a cognitive model of depression among undergraduate students of medical and allied health sciences. Methods: Participants (N = 279) completed a series of questionnaires related to depression (Beck Depression Inventory-Malay), negative cognitions (Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire-Malay), dysfunctional attitude (Dysfunctional Attitude Scale-Malay), stressful life events (Life Events Survey), self-efficacy (General Self-Efficacy) and quality of life (WHO Quality of Life- BREF). Results: Results of descriptive analysis revealed a higher percentage of severe depression among males when compared to female students. Results of structural equation modeling indicated an adequate fit of the model (2= 21.29, df = 15, p > .13; GFI = 0.97; CFI = 0.97; RMSEA = .04). Conclusion: The findings also indicated the potential roles of self-efficacy in mediating depression. The results are discussed in terms of self-regulating strategies of managing depression and the roles that university authorities may play in helping students to regulate depression.

The present study was undertaken to examine a model of physical education (PE) enjoyment, physical activity (PA),and exercise habit strength among adolescents aged 11 to 16 years in Western Australia. The sample consisted of 481 secondary school students (Mean age = 13.7, SD = 0.9). Participants completed self-report measures of PE enjoyment processes, PA frequency, duration and intensity, and exercise habit strength. Exercise habit strength was conceptualized as the urge to exercise following physical activity cues, minimal conscious effort for initiation and execution of exercise behaviours, guilty feeling when exercise is not performed, and planned and routinized exercise involvement. Evidence of factorial validity and internal consistency was obtained for the enjoyment processes measure and the exercise habit measure. The results of structural equation modeling revealed an acceptable goodness of fit for the data. Analysis of model invariance revealed a nonsignificant difference between male and female samples. Findings support the notion that PE enjoyment is important in promoting adolescent PA. To ensure that PE is enjoyable for students, we suggest that certain enjoyment processes, particularly activity-related excitement, should be considered when structuring the PE program. Enjoyable PE experiences will, in turn, increase the probability of a physically active lifestyle and have a positive impact on adolescent health.

"Background: Psychometrically sound measurement instrument is a fundamental requirement across broad range of research areas. In negative affect research, Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS) has been identified as a psychometrically sound instrument to measure depression, anxiety and stress, especially the 21-item version. However, its psychometric properties in adolescents have been less consistent.

Objectives: Thus, the present study sought to examine the factorial validity and internal consistency of the adapted 21-item version of DASS in Malaysian adolescents.

Method: Using cross-sectional study design, DASS-21 was administered to 750 Malaysian adolescents (Mean age = 13.40 ± 0.49). The data were then analyzed using Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), in which the original DASS-21 factor structure (depression-stress-anxiety) was compared to 8 other alternative models.

Results: CFA results revealed a weak support for DASS-21 as a differentiated measure of depression, anxiety and stress in Malaysian adolescents. Extremely high latent factors intercorrelations were observed in the model reflecting original DASS factor structure. On the other hand, despite the best overall fit of a 4-factor model consisting of depression, anxiety, and stress, as well as a general negative affect factor, individual factor loadings for the specific factors were uninterpretable. Although model fit of 1-factor model was inferior when compared the other competing models, this model (1-factor) exhibit reasonable model fit.

Conclusion: We concluded that the use of Malaysian adapted DASS-21 as a differentiated measure stress, anxiety, and depression in Malaysian adolescent should proceed with caution and further refinement of the scale is necessary before a concrete conclusion can be made"

Purpose: This study was designed to compare the effects of two different relaxation techniques, namely progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) and autogenic relaxation (AGR) on moods of young soccer players.

Methods: Sixteen adolescent athletes (mean age: 14.1 ± 1.3) received either PMR or AGR training. Using Profile of Mood States-Adolescents, their mood states were measured one week before relaxation training, before the first relaxation session, and after the twelfth relaxation session.

Results: Mixed ANOVA revealed no significant interaction effects and no significant main effects in any of the subscales. However, significant main effects for testing sessions were found for confusion, depression, fatigue, and tension subscales. Post hoc tests revealed post-intervention reductions in the confusion, depression, fatigue, and tension subscale scores.

Conclusions: These two relaxation techniques induce equivalent mood responses and may be used to regulate young soccer players’ mood states.