Esparta Politica e Sociedade
Esparta Politica e Sociedade
Esparta Politica e Sociedade
(Organizador)
Esparta - Política e Sociedade
Luis Filipe Bantim de Assumpção (Organizador)
CDD 938(22.ed)
CDU 938
Apresentação ............................................................................7
Prefácio......................................................................................9
Clitemnestra e Helena
As espartanas, o patriarcado e o poder nas mãos da mulher.....17
Paulina Nólibos
8 Apresentação
Prefácio
Luis Filipe Bantim de Assumpção
10 Prefácio
tanas também poderia ser compreendida como um anti-mode-
lo à ordem patriarcal vigente na Hélade.
Partindo de uma esfera mítica para o Período Arcaico,
no texto “Good to slaughter the lives of young men? The role of
Tyrtaeus’ poetry in Spartan Society”,o professor Andrew Bayliss
se valeu da documentação de Tirteu para abordar a importân-
cia de suas elegias para a consolidação de uma dada “identi-
dade espartana” no decorrer da Antiguidade. Ao considerar o
contexto histórico da Segunda Guerra da Messênia, o autor de-
monstrou a relevância da poesia de Tirteu para a manutenção
da coesão dos guerreiros espartanos frente ao inimigo. Imerso
nessa ótica, Bayliss considerou que os versos de Tirteu acaba-
ram sendo empregados após o século VII como um mecanismo
identitário esparciata, em que a “boa ordem” e o treinamento,-
diferenciava-os dos demais helenos na “arte de guerrear”.
O professor Rafael Brunhara, no artigo “A stásis na
elegia grega arcaica e na poesia de Tirteu”, discorre sobre a
concepção de eunomia em Tirteu, a partir de um “poema de
stásis”. De modo bastante singular e desfrutando de uma do-
cumentação fragmentária ainda pouco trabalhada no cenário
acadêmico brasileiro, Brunhara acentuou a relevância dos poe-
mas de Tirteu para o contexto de guerra pelo qual foram desen-
volvidos. No entanto, o autor vai além e caracteriza elementos
político-sociais da pólis de Esparta que se fazem presentes na
documentação elegíaca de Tirteu. Brunhara também esclarece
que o referido poeta se insere em um grupo específico de au-
tores antigos cujas obras teriam funções semelhantes, isto é,
abordar a realidade de sedição no interior de uma sociedade,
talvez, fornecer soluções para tal eventualidade.
Já a professora María Del Mar Rodríguez Alcocer,
em“Estrategias Matrimoniales en la Esparta del Siglo VI a.C.”,
trouxe a luz uma análise sobre as estratégias matrimoniais de
Esparta no Período Arcaico. A autora se preocupou em caracte-
12 Prefácio
políticos de maior autoridade, agiam para realizarem os seus
respectivos interesses. Para tanto, o autor propôs considera-
ções atinentes a inúmeras instituições político-culturais da pólis
de Esparta, da mesma forma que o seu funcionamento prático,
a partir do caso suscitado por Esfódrias.
O professor César Fornis conclui este trabalho com o
artigo “La truncada senda para hacer de Esparta una monarquía
helenística: el reinado de Areo I”dissertando sobre o desenvol-
vimento de Esparta, no Período Helenístico, durante o reinado
do basileu Areu I. Além de corroborar uma ampla documen-
tação literária e uma densa historiografia especializada, Fornis
elucidou inúmeras características da sociedade espartana, após
o Período Clássico. A abordagem do autor ressalta a dinâmica
política das sociedades helênicas em um momento no qual a
hegemonia macedônica se fazia presente. Por fim, Fornis esta-
beleceu distinções entre a Esparta helenística daquela do Arcai-
co e Clássico, sendo um trabalho imensamente relevante para
salientar que a História das póleis da Hélade continuou se de-
senvolvendo, mesmo depois de Alexandre da Macedônia.
Em suma, é com grande júbilo que vos apresento esta
obra, cuja principal marca é o esforço coletivo em promover um
trabalho de qualidade para o nosso público leitor, a fim de lançar
a possibilidade de investigações para além de um eixo Atenas-
-Roma. Espero que todos possam se beneficiar com esta publica-
ção da mesma maneira que nos alegramos com a possibilidade
de realizá-la. Agradeço aos pesquisadores que se propuseram
a participar deste trabalho e contribuíram de bom grado com a
nossa empreitada, assim como as pessoas que nos auxiliaram a
concretizar essa meta de promover um trabalho conjunto e de
qualidade sobre Esparta. Tenham todos uma ótima leitura.
outubro de 2016.
Luis Filipe Bantim de Assumpção
16 Nota Biográfica
Clitemnestra e Helena
As espartanas, o patriarcado e o
poder nas mãos da mulher
Paulina Nólibos
18 Paulina Nólibos
Outro dado fornecido pelo LIMC é o de que Clitemnestra não é
mencionada nos tabletes micênicos.
Para que possamos perceber o sentido do seu gesto, é
importante nos reportarmos às narrativas textual e visual desta
personagem, que já estava presente em Homero, no canto I da
Ilíada, e nos cantos III e XI da Odisseia, e analisar suas descrições,
tentando compreender a psicologia da ação que fez desta perso-
nagem o que ela se tornou: assassina do marido e rei, traidora da
casa e adúltera, amante do parente inimigo do esposo, Egisto, fi-
lho de Tiestes. Este ponto inicial do conflito aconteceu em um mo-
mento anterior à guerra em Tróia, anterior inclusive ao casamento
de Helena, sua irmã, com Menelau, o irmão de Agamemnon.
Clitemnestra, princesa espartana, filha de Tíndaro e
Leda, era a jovem esposa de Tântalo II,filho de Tiestes, primo
inimigo dos Atridas. Agamemnon, desejando-a, matou Tântalo II
e o filho pequeno do casal, perseguindo a Tindárida até Esparta.
Ali Tíndaro apaziguou os envolvidos e efetuou a união entre Aga-
memnon e Clitemnestra, contra a vontade desta. Este episódio é
mencionado numa passagem de Ifigênia em Áulis, de Eurípides,
no qual Clitemnestra relembra Agamemnon de sua trajetória,
garantindo ter bebido o líquido amargo da obediência.
Depois de anos, novamente Agamemnon matou outro
de seus filhos: agora Ifigênia, a primogênita do casal, é manda-
da buscar enquanto os gregos não partem para se casar com
Aquiles. Esta história, que não aparece em Homero, é contada
por Eurípides, na tragédia supracitada.Nem o próprio Aquiles
sabia da farsa, pois a jovem estava sendo trazida para ser sa-
crificada a Ártemis, por desmedida do próprio pai, para que
os ventos voltassem a soprar e a frota pudesse partir. Segundo
Moormann e Uitterhoeve:
20 Paulina Nólibos
pes são desferidos sobre o rei, na Oresteia); não há nenhum amor
ou sentimento de pertencimento a esta casa familiar neste caso
(o que faz eco aos poetas trágicos que insistem na fuga de Ores-
tes, organizada pela irmã Electra,para não ser morto também).
4) Clitemnestra sente amor por Egisto, certamente
mais jovem do que ela, e por amor a ele, mata o esposo. Aqui o
problema não reside no passado nem num caso de reequilíbrio
no derramamento de sangue culpado, mas está no futuro: mor-
to Agamemnon, o jovem Egisto teria ao lado dela o poder de
governar a antiga casa de seus ancestrais. A morte de Agamem-
non seria um “presente” ao amante; o trono estaria vago em
Micenas esperando um rei (e aqui também se justifica a fuga de
Orestes, pois ela provavelmente, por amor a Egisto, faria substi-
tuir a linhagem anterior pela sua, dando-lhe filhos);
5) Amando-o, ela torna-se ao longo dos anos um jogue-
te nas mãos de Egisto, que a manipula e através dela se vinga
de Agamemnon pelos seus ancestrais. O canto III da Odisseia de
Homero, o texto final do Agamemnon de Ésquilo e alguns vasos
indicam Egisto como o urdidor da trama, ou mesmo o executor.
Neste caso, não foram os motivos dela, mas os dele que deci-
diram a morte do rei e Clitemnestra foi cúmplice dos planos do
amante.Até a presente situação temos a premeditação; foi um
ato pensado, organizado nos seus aspectos práticos e rituais,
seja por um, pela outra, ou por ambos em concordância.
6) Este último motivo, desmembrado do conjunto dos
textos, é absolutamente conflitante aos outros: o ressentimen-
to quanto à presença ou os ciúmes da troiana Cassandra que
chega ao lado de Agamemnon, como presente do exército e no
status de concubina.
Se considerarmos que a rainha estava esperando para
matá-lo, parece inverossímil que ela tivesse qualquer sentimen-
24 Paulina Nólibos
Por isso agora também tu, com a esposa, não sejas
meigo e não lhe reveles todo o discurso que bem co-
nheces, mas diga-lhe algo, e fique o resto oculto. (...)
Minha esposa, nem que me fartasse de meu filho
com os olhos, permitiu; antes a mim mesmo matou.
Outra coisa te direi, e tu, em teu juízo, a lança: se-
creta, não abertamente, à tua cara terra pátria leva a
nau, pois nada é confiável entre as mulheres.
26 Paulina Nólibos
ludibriada pelo esposo, frente ao imenso número de homens
do exército, sozinha defendendo uma filha que, ela própria, não
tem forças para proteger, mesmo confrontando o marido e rei,
e negando-se a cumprir a sua vontade. No segundo caso, em
Ésquilo, a narrativa avança os longos anos da guerra e perce-
bemos o fechar-se do círculo aberto com a morte de Ifigênia,
com a preparação detalhadada morte de Agamemnon, através
da narração no prólogo do vigia da torre, que conta que fica ali
parado, por ordem da rainha, esperando o aviso por meio de
um verdadeiro correio de fogo, da queda de Tróia e da vitória
aqueia há mais de um ano.
Clitemnestra, “a leoa que deita com o lobo”, como é
citada em Agamemnon, trai a confiança do esposo com um jogo
extremamente ardiloso e embora Ésquilo emoldure o seu texto
com uma nítida preferência aos homens da linhagem, Agamem-
non e Orestes, nos oferece uma justificação dos motivos e ra-
zões do gesto da rainha (vv. 1373-1398) no primeiro confronto
com os cidadãos da cidade, no diálogo com o coro, culminan-
do com a admissão da inteira responsabilidade: “Este é Aga-
memnon, meu marido, agora cadáver por obra da minha mão
direita, justo artífice”(Ésquilo, Agamemnon,vv.1405-7), apenas
depois deixando nomear Egisto, nos versos seguintes, num tex-
to que mistura o elemento ritual da morte por imagens como a
do juramento, Diké, a Justiça, as figuras míticas invocadas,Ate e
Erínea, e a metáfora da ligação sexual através da expressão “o
fogo da lareira”. Falando ao coro, diz ela:
28 Paulina Nólibos
no controle do reino. E, neste ponto, outra possibilidade acerca
do mentor do crime é posta por ele, que assume inteiramente a
responsabilidade. Em meio ao seu primeiro discurso, diz:
30 Paulina Nólibos
Miniaturas de ouro de machados duplos, encontrados numa caverna em
Arkalochori, Creta central. Ca.1550 a 1450 a.C. Um deles, com escritos em
Linear A, está no Museu de Belas Artes, Boston. Os outros, no Museu Ar-
queológico de Heraklion, Creta.
32 Paulina Nólibos
hoje como datado entre 1.370 – 1.320 a.C., e foi encontrado
na escavação de 1903, num túmulo. Totalmente decorado, seus
quatro lados apresentam referências aos rituais fúnebres. No
lado B, vemos um grupo de três mulheres que carregam vasos
(segundo a descrição do catálogo do sítio, contendo o sangue
do sacrifício) e depositam o conteúdo destes num recipiente
maior, situado numa espécie de altar entre dois machados du-
plos que estão colocados em postes.
40 Paulina Nólibos
poetas de Atenas, e, ainda assim, percebemos uma significativa
polifonia em torno desta figura, eco de sua múltipla construção.
No epílogo de Orestes (vv.1625-1642), Apolo anuncia
para Orestes e todos os demais presentes na cena, que Helena,
filha de Zeus, deve viver como os imortais.
46 Paulina Nólibos
Bibliografia
1 This paper was written while I was preparing the entry for Tyrtaeus for Brill’s
New Jacoby. The conclusions reached here were much improved by the generous
feedback from staff and students at the Department of Classics at the University of
Nottingham, especially Stephen Hodkinson, Edmund Stewart and Peter Davies. Any
errors are entirely my own.
2 Nonetheless Powell (1994: 302) suggests that Plato’s claim that the Spartans were
overexposed to Tyrtaeus may be overdone.
3 For more on the Spartan “beautiful death” see Loraux (1977).
50 Andrew Bayliss
thing except impetuous courage; For no man is good in war if
he cannot endure seeing bloody slaughter, and standing hard
by reach the enemy”. There also seems to be a clear divide be-
tween specialists on Spartan history and specialists on Tyrtae-
us. Most modern commentators who focus closely on Tyrtaeus’
fragments consider Tyrtaeus’ poems as works of literature, ad-
dressing on questions of originality, style, or the content strictly
in terms of its date of production. These studies also frequently
focus on fragments such as F 10 and F 12, and often cast Tyr-
taeus as a sub-par Homer4, or focus on whether Tyrtaeus can
be used as evidence for the development of hoplite warfare at
Sparta5, or for details of the “actual” Messenian war (LURAGHI,
2003: 233-8). In general it is the experts on Classical Spartan
society, not the experts on Tyrtaeus’ own words, who ascribe a
transformative role to Tyrtaeus’ poetry in the development of
Spartan society into its familiar Classical-period form.
It is significant then that the notion that Tyrtaeus’ po-
etry can be used to show that Sparta had already adopted a
militarised way of life in the archaic period has been called into
question by one of the foremost modern experts on Spartan his-
tory – Stephen Hodkinson – aspart of his wider critique of the
modern scholarly consensus that Sparta was a military-oriented
society (HODKINSON, 2006: 115-117).Hodkinson argues that we
should concentrate on the fact that Tyrtaeus’ poetry has a spe-
cific military context, i.e. that of the Messenian War, and that:
4 For a recent discussion of the relationship between Tyrtaeus and Homer see Lulli
(2016).
5 See for example Snodgrass (1964: 181); Greenhalgh (1973: 94); Tarkow (1983: 54);
Hanson (1989: 42); van Wees (2004: 173); Rawlings (2007: 54).
6 Hodkinson (2006: 116) singles out Tyrtaeus F 12 in particular, noting that whereas
Tyrtaeus claims he does not rate athletic excellence, his stance is very much at odds
with Classical-period Spartan commemoration of athletic achievement.
52 Andrew Bayliss
them from memory in that military context. What I will be advo-
cating here is an approach that sits somewhere between these
two extremes, one which will keep Hodkinson’s warnings about
the limitations of the evidence for Tyrtaeus in mind, but at the
same time retain the sense that Spartan society could have been
perceived as “saturated” with Tyrtaeus’ poetry as Plato states.
Rather than seeing Tyrtaeus’ poetry as having had a
transformative effect on Spartan society, or needing to see them
as verses that would “instil military values throughout the en-
tirety of citizen life” as Hodkinson doubts, what this chapter con-
siders is what happens if we contemplate how the semi-regular
repetition of Tyrtaeus’ works might have impacted on Spartan
society not at the time of production but decades and indeed
centuries afterwards, echoing W.G. Forrest’s observation that
Tyrtaeus placed “emphasis on military values which became the
obsession of later Sparta” (FORREST, 1968: 72). This chapter ar-
gues that selective use of Tyrtaeus’ works provided not a cata-
lyst for social change in Sparta as has often been suggested, but
rather served as one important means of instilling and reinforc-
ing core Spartan values, perhaps even as a post eventum justi-
fication of an already-transformed and militarised Spartan way
of life. This chapter will focus not only on the primary evidence
for Tyrtaeus’ poetry and its use in Classical Spartan society, but
will also seek parallels in comparable institutions outside the
ancient world in order to consider what role Tyrtaeus’ poetry
might have played outside a purely combat context.
There were three main traditions in circulation in an-
tiquity about the recitation of Tyrtaeus’ poetry and its impact
on Spartan society:
ces in the Greek world through performance in symposia. Nagy (1990: 270) goes
so far as to suggest that the purpose of the competition described by Philochorus
is not really military despite its obvious military context. For Nagy the repetition of
Tyrtaeus poetry and its associated prize is transmitting the polis values of equitable
(re)distribution.
10 The statistics included here are based on the fragments and testimonia for Tyr-
taeus in the forthcoming entry for Tyrtaeus for Brill’s New Jacoby. The statistics for
Archilochus, Mimnermus, Simonides, Callinus and Solon are based on the fragments
and testimonia for these authors in the Loeb Classical Library editions. They are ne-
cessarily less comprehensive than those for Tyrtaeus, but serve as a respresentative
guide.
56 Andrew Bayliss
Table 1: Tyrtaeus references vs references to Archilochus et.al. by date
11 This data provides a further nail in the coffin in the out-dated argument that Ty-
rtaeus was a fourth-century BC Athenian invention, a conclusion reached by scholars
such as Eduard Schwartz and Felix Jacoby, both of whom ascribed to the so-called
“Rhianos-Hypothesis” which held that Rhianos of Bene’s lost work Messeniaka des-
cribed not the seventh-century Messenian war, but rather a Messenian rebellion in
490 BC, and that Pausanias’ account of the Messenian wars was based on a putative
Source “A” from the late Hellenistic or early Roman period who refashioned Rhia-
nos’ work to suit the war against the Messenians fought in Tyrtaeus’ day. Schwartz’s
initial hypothesis was part of wider argument that all of Tyrtaeus’ seventh-century
BC fragments were in fact Classical inventions. This has been dismissed as “source
criticism gone berserk” (HUNT, 1998: 29 n.12). The undermining of the theory was
largely down to the work of Pearson (1962) and Wade-Gery (1966), who argued that
the history of Messenia as described by Pausanias and other later writers was a type
of “creative history writing” (PEARSON, 1962: 425), which came after the liberation
58 Andrew Bayliss
marching songs (ἐμβατήρια) which are also called ἐνόπλια.
And the Lakonians themselves in wars march in time reciting
the poems of Tyrtaeus from memory”, and then goes on to cite
Philochorus’ claim that the Spartans performed Tyrtaeus’ poet-
ry when dining on campaign.
We know of Spartan marching music from other sourc-
es. According to Thucydides (V, 70) at the Battle of Mantinea in
418 BC “the Spartans came on slowly and to the music of many
flute-players in their ranks. This custom of theirs has nothing to
do with religion; it is designed to make them keep in step and
move forward steadily without breaking their ranks, as large
armies do when they are just about to join battle”14. Spartan
pipers are said to have played the so-called Kastoreion (Castor’s
Air) as they neared the point of battle (Plutarch, Lycurgus, 22;
Moralia,1146c; Schol. Pindar,Pyth., 2.127).
These marching songs written by Tyrtaeus may the
same as the “war songs” (μέλη πολεμιστήρια), which the Suda
(s.v. Τυρταῖος) states he wrote, and which are implied by Philo-
demus, who claims (On Music,17) that the Spartans “struck up
a tune whenever they were fighting”, and notes immediately af-
terwards that “they received Tyrtaeus and honoured him above
others because of his music”.
Plutarch (Lycurgus, 21) also speaks of Spartan “marching
rhythms” (τοὺς ἐμβατηρίους ῥυθμοὺς), and Valerius Maximus (II,
6.2) claims that these marching songs had an anapaestic rhythm.
14 Vegetius (3.10) describes how the Roman army also employed such marching
songs to co-ordinate their movement, claiming that “the first thing the soldiers are
taught is the military step, which can only be acquired by constant practice of march-
ing quick and together”, and argues that the Spartans learned the value of “continual
practice” before the Romans. Wheeler’s claim(1993: 160) that the pipe music was
not designed to help men keep in step not only contradicts Thucydides’ testimony, it
is also at odds with Snodgrass’ claim (1980: 106) that the piper shown in early vase
paintings was “an indispensable participant in the later Spartan phalanx where his
music kept the men in step” which he cites as evidence against the use of the piper
to keep men in step.
60 Andrew Bayliss
tery of scholarship (PONTANI, 2015: 344), notes on Dio (Ora-
tion,2.59 that “these (are) from the (works) of Tyrtaeus”. Fur-
thermore, in the twelfth century AD John Tzetzes claimed that
“Tyrtaeus the Laconian was a general and poet, who wrote lyric
airs hortatory for war, which the Laconians sang in military en-
gagements, dancing the pyrrhic dance, by the laws of Lycurgus,
as Dio Chrysostomos somewhere writes in the following words”,
and then goes on to slightly misquote Dio, although the word-
ing is very similar16,which perhaps suggests Tzetzes was quoting
from a text of Tyrtaeus rather than from Dio himself.
It is certainly not difficult to imagine the Spartans who
grace the pages of Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, or even
Aristophanes reciting “Come on! Youths of Sparta abounding in
good men, sons of citizen fathers, thrust the shield in your left
hands, brandishing your spear boldly, not sparing your lives, for
that is not the Spartan ancestral custom” as they marched on
campaign, or in the king’s tent on the eve of battle.Similarly, it
is not difficult to imagine those same Spartans reciting elegiac
verses such as “For it is a beautiful thing for a good man to die
having fallen in the front ranks fighting for his fatherland” (F
10), “let him brandish a mighty spear in his right hand, / and
shake the fearsome crest over his head; / by doing mighty let
him learn to make war” (F 11), or “For no man is good in war if
he cannot endure seeing bloody slaughter, and standing hard by
reach the enemy” (F 12). Elegiac rather than anapaestic, these
lines would be predominately inspirational rather than about
keeping Spartans in step, in the same way that the Knights Tem-
plar went into battle reciting the opening of Psalm 115: “Not
unto us O Lord, but to thy name give glory (Non nobis non nobis
16 Tzetzes’ version is as follows: “Come on! Sons of Sparta, abounding in good men,
sons of your fathers, thrust the shield in your left hands, brandishing your spear boldly
(and) do not spare your lives; for that is not the Spartan hereditary custom” (Ἄγετ’ ὦ
Σπάρτας εὐάνδρου κοῦροι πατέρων, λαιᾷ μὲν ἴτυν προβάλλεσθε, δόρυ δ’ εὐτόλμως
βάλλοντες , μὴ φείδεσθε ζωᾶς· οὐ γὰρ πάτριον τᾷ Σπάρτᾳ).
17 Talbert (1988: 99) translated these lines as “a good one for firing the spirits of
the young”; Gerber (1999: 35) opts for “a good one to incite the hearts”; Cole Babbitt
(1931: 417) suggests “a good man to sharpen the spirit of youth”; Perrin (1921: 53)
translates “a good man to inflame the souls of young men”; Cherniss and W.C. Helm-
bold (1957: 319) suggest “a good poet to whet the souls of young men”.
62 Andrew Bayliss
κακκανῆν as to “incite”, and this is perhaps reflected in Brown’s
recent claim that “according to Plutarch, Leonidas (if the text is
right) described Tyrtaeus as a good poet for whetting the spirits
of young men” (BROWN, 2016: 287). The definition of κακκανῆν
as to incite appears to be based on the first half of Plutarch’s
attempts to clarify that the saying means that the young were
“filled up with inspiration by his poems”, or that “he inspired in
the young men eagerness with spirit and zeal”. The verb καίνω
or κατακαίνω (to kill) is a much better fit than this otherwise un-
attested word. We know an aorist infinitive κᾰνεῖν (Dor. κανῆν)
from Theocritus (24.92)18, and this meaning fits with the second
element of Plutarch’s attempts to clarify the saying indicate:
“by his poems they were unsparing of themselves in battles”,
or “so that they were unsparing of themselves in their battles”
(Plut.,Moralia, 959a).
Clearly what the Spartan saying actually means was
that young Spartiates should learn to risk their lives, and that
Tyrtaeus encouraged them to go and get themselves killed. This
would fit especially well with the sentiments expressed in F 15:
“Come on! Youths of Sparta abounding in good men, sons of
citizen fathers, thrust the shield in your left hands, brandish-
ing your spear boldly, not sparing your lives, for that is not the
Spartan ancestral custom”, especially given Dio’s claim that the
verses are “well suited to the Lycurgan constitution and to the
customs there”. The same could be said of Tyrtaeus F 10 which
encourages a “beautiful death”, and F 12 which promises undy-
18 Plutarch’s other versions of the saying do not justify such a translation either.
Moralia (235f) reads κακάνειν which is otherwise unattested, and Moralia (959a)
reads κακύνειν which cannot be correct because it means “to corrupt”. Both readings
are uniformly emended to κακκονῆν. But not only is κακκονῆν otherwise unattested,
it comes from the extremely rare word κονέω which the LSJ defines as “to raise dust”
i.e. to hasten (cf. Hesychius, K 3502). Both could be explained away as scribal errors
for κανεῖν, with κακάνειν as an obvious example of dittography,and κακύνειν explica-
ble as a similar paleographic error.
64 Andrew Bayliss
ideal for teaching Spartan youths core Spartan values. As Ducat
argues, “one prepares as best one can, by trying to give soldiers
good physical training, and by inculcating in them the basic prin-
ciples” (DUCAT, 2006: 147).Powell argues that “song provided an
agreeable medium for the repetition of approved political slo-
gans. Requirements of metre, alliteration and assonance helped
preserve the messages from corruption” (POWELL, 1994: 303).
It would work all the better if only a relatively small number of
verses were in circulation. It would also make the type of com-
petition that Lycurgus and Philochorus describe more effective.
If a similarly small number of verses by Thaletas and Terpander
were in regular use in Classical Sparta it would likewise help ex-
plain the paucity of preserved fragments by these authors who
were said to be so important to the Spartans.
We should also consider when Spartans would have
practiced Tyrtaeus’ marching songs. The obvious time – like
modern day marching songs – is in military training. Modern
military marching cadences, known in the US Army as “Jody
Calls” (BROWN, 2001: 253), but performed by service members
across the globe on a daily basis, are an obvious comparison for
Tyrtaeus’ war poetry and war songs.Marching cadences such
as the classic Jody Call, “Ain’t no use in goin’ home, Jody’s got
your girl and gone. Ain’t no use in lookin’ back, Jody’s got your
Cadillac” (BURKE, 1989: 431),are not only designed to keep sol-
diers moving in time with a beat dictated by a caller and with
each other, but also to build morale and ensure group cohesion
(BURKE, 1989: 424). They are a vital part of the process of “or-
ganisational socialisation” which transforms civilians into sol-
diers, inculcating them with “the canons of military discipline”
(HOCKEY, 1986: 21-2.).Group actions such as drill, dance, and
combat are all part of a process known as “muscular bonding”
which helps break down boundaries and to create and sustain
group cohesion (MCNEILL, 1995: 10). Marching songs have
For who of the Greeks does not know that they took
Tyrtaeus from our city as their general, with whom
19 McNeill (1995: 2-3) speaks of “the euphoric fellow feeling that prolonged and
rhythmic muscular movement arouses among nearly all participants in such exercises”.
20 It also matches Plato’s claim in the Laws that music provided an enchantment for
those living in severe conditions (cf. POWELL, 1994: 303).
21 Marching drill and marching songs are almost ubiquitous today. But McNeill
(1995: 3) notes that modern style marching drill did not appear until it was intro-
duced by the Dutch army in the 1590s, before “it spread across Europe like wildfire
in the ensuing half century”.
66 Andrew Bayliss
they prevailed over their enemies and put in order the
supervision of the young, planning well not only for
the present danger but for all time? For he composed
and left behind elegiac poems for them, listening to
which they are trained for bravery (Lycurgus, 1.106).
22 For the tradition that Terpander resolved the Spartans’ differences see:Suda,
M 701; Aelian, VH 12.50; Plutarch, Moralia, 1146b; and for Thaletas see: Plutarch,
Moralia, 1146b; Plutarch, Lykourgos, 4. Cf. D’Alessio (2009: 155).
68 Andrew Bayliss
For it is a beautiful thing for a good man to die having
fallen in the front ranks fighting for his fatherland. To
become a beggar having abandoned his city and rich
fields is the most grievous of all, wandering with his
dear mother and aged father, little children and wed-
ded wife
25 See e.g. Hooker (1980: 130) who argues that this shows that Tyrtaeus calls him-
self Dorian.
26 D’Alessio(2009: 151-2) talks of Tyrtaeus “impersonating” the Spartan citizen with
70 Andrew Bayliss
It is also worth considering what might have happened
if a foreign audience was exposed to these lines, particularly
an army marching under the auspices of the so-called Pelopon-
nesian League. If the Spartans’ Peloponnesian allies were pres-
ent during a stirring rendition of the lines “For…Zeus himself has
given this city to the Heracleidae, with whom…we reached the
broad isle of Pelops”, it would surely have helped foster group
solidarity. Given that they were mostly Dorians, they too could
have identified with the “we” who came from windy Erineus
with the children of Heracles.
Looking at the potential impact of Tyrtaeus’ poetry
generations and even centuries after production is perhaps
most productive when we consider lines such as:
28 For merely the most recent advocates of this meaning see: Luraghi (2008: 70)
and Nafissi (2009: 121).
29 Luraghi (2008: 70, n.4) has strongly criticised van Wees for arguing (2003: 35, n.6)
that οἱμὲν (“the others”) means “some”, and that therefore only some Messenians
ran away.
30 Surely we should not expect to understand Tyrtaeus to mean that every single
Messenian left his homeland. The reality (if we have any hope of finding it) must have
72 Andrew Bayliss
thinking about the passage in a seventh century context. If re-
peated year after year in Classical Sparta – and the fact that
Pausanias who was writing in the first century AD was able cite
Tyrtaeus proves that the lines existed beyond their original con-
text – it would not matter whether the peoples who Tyrtaeus
described as “like asses worn down by great burdens” were
technically helots or not. By the time the poem was recited in
the fifth century BC they would naturally have been understood
by the Spartans to be so.
But I would argue that there is more to it than that.
Returning to Hodkinson’s warning that Tyrtaeus’ poetry was
mired in the seventh century BC Messenian wars rather than
representative of Classical-period core Spartan civic values,
I would respond that the later repetition of the poetry takes
the reciter back to that time, to a war that if we trust Aristotle
(F 538 Rose = Plut.,Lycurgus, 28.7) never really ended with the
ephors declaring war on the helots annually.By reciting these
words of Tyrtaeus the Spartans would be acting out the men-
tality of the Messenian wars. This is significant when we think
about the Spartan treatment of the helots who were beaten,
compelled to get drunk in the common messes, hunted in the
krypteia(Plut.,Lycurgus, 28), and if we trust Myron (BNJ 106 F
2), forced to wear dog-skin clothing. Surely regular recitation
of these lines of Tyrtaeus comparing the helots to beasts of
burden would have helped a process which already “dehuman-
ised”31, or even “animalised” them32.
been that some of the Messenians were killed, some fled, and some were kept as a
dependent labour force that would ultimately become the Messenian helots. That is
the view of the Suda (580 T 1a) and Aelian (VH, 6.1: “some men were left to farm the
land, some were sold into slavery, and others killed”. For more see:Bayliss, BNJ 580 F 6.
31 For the dehumanising of the helots see David (1989: 12-3), and for the helot as
“animal-prey” see Ducat (1974: 1456-9; 2006: 304-7); Chamayou (2012: 09).
32 Some modern scholars (e.g. WEST, 1974: 188) see Tyrtaeus as sympathising with
the plight of the conquered Messenians, but van Wees (2006: 129) and Rose (2012:
299) have argued that Tyrtaeus is gloating. I would argue that Tyrtaeus is positively
rejoicing in their plight.
33 van Wees (2006) argues that the Spartan citizenship oath can be reconstructed
as follows: “I will fight while I live, and will not regard being alive as more important
than being free. And I will not leave my taxiarch or my enomotarch, whether he is
alive or dead. And I will bury the dead among my fellow-fighters, and leave no one
unburied”. For a recent response see Sommerstein and Bayliss (2012: 22-9).
74 Andrew Bayliss
ical device” (FINLAN, 2006: 31). The Soldier’s Creed has been ar-
gued to show that “the ethos of the American warrior is defined
as total commitment to achieving victory through implementing
the values of loyalty, sense of duty, honor, respect, integrity, and
courage” (BOUZID et.al., 2015: 202-3). These are values which
Tyrtaeus and generations of Spartans would have understood.
But the analogy does not end there. The Soldier’s
Creed was based partly on the older and more famous USMC’s
famous “Rifleman’s Creed”, which was also penned in a time of
crisis – immediately after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor
on December 7, 1941:
This is my rifle. There are many like it, but this one
is mine.My rifle is my best friend. It is my life. I must
master it as I must master my life.Without me, my
rifle is useless. Without my rifle, I am useless. I must
fire my rifle true. I must shoot straighter than my en-
emy who is trying to kill me. I must shoot him before
he shoots me. I will. My rifle and I know that what
counts in war is not the rounds we fire, the noise of
our burst, nor the smoke we make. We know that it is
the hits that count. We will hit […]
34 See: http://www.usmcpress.com/heritage/marine_corps_rifleman’s_creed.htm.
Similarly, Wildsmith (2012: 136) warns prospective recruits that “you will learn the
76 Andrew Bayliss
427), and the same could be said of repeated use of Tyrtaeus’
Messenian war period poetry in the centuries that followed.
But like Tyrtaeus’ poetry, these creeds and marching
cadences can reinforce negative as well as positive values. Thus
in the US Army before the policy of “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” was
adopted in 1993, cadences such as “Who’s that man in the pink
beret / I don’t know but I think he’s gay / Oh that’s not the life
for me / homosexuality”, or “Faggot, faggot, down the street.
/ Shoot him, shoot him, till he retreats” were commonplace
(BELKIN; LATEMAN, 2003: 01), and made it clear what “core
values” really were. Marching cadences such as “See the family
by the stream; watch the parents run and scream. Viet Cong
will never learn; push a button and watch ’em burn” (BURKE,
1989: 425),can also reinforce negative attitudes about the en-
emy. This is worth bearing in mind when we try to interpret
Tyrtaeus’ description of the helots as “like assess worn down by
great burdens”. If we take the analogy of the modern marching
cadence to its logical conclusion, there is no need to see these
lines as being any more sympathetic than the Vietnam war era
cadence, “see the kiddies in the street, Cryin’ and lookin’ for
som’in to eat. Drop trick toys that look real neat. Blow up in
their face and make ’em all neat”36.
But while some of Tyrtaeus’ poetry would have had a
relevance long after the seventh century, much of his poetry
would probably have been less helpful in later times and per-
haps quietly forgotten by a society that favoured only functional
literacy37, which would help explain why so little of Tyrtaeus’ po-
etry, especially his Eunomia has survived the cloak of “post-aus-
terity” Sparta. The fact that Tyrtaeus seems not to have known
Lycurgus the mythical lawgiver would have become increasingly
awkward as the Spartans re-remembered their past in such a
78 Andrew Bayliss
or the Thebans at Coronea in 394 BC the context need not have
been kept in mind. But when fighting against rebellious Messe-
nian helots the Spartans reciting the lines would be taken back
to time of their father’s fathers.But they did not need to recite
all of Tyrtaeus’ Messenian war poetry to be transported to that
time. All they needed to remember was a handful of snippets
about the length of the Messenian war, the hard-won battles,
and the punishment for the defeated helots. If the Spartans
were selective in their choice of fragments it would help explain
why the surviving texts at least have a flavour of hoplite warfare
about them, despite the fact that Tyrtaeus was writing before
the Spartans had fully adopted hoplite tactics.Certainly anything
that was not in keeping with hoplite warfare could have been
quietly dropped. But anything that did not match core Spartan
values would also have been equally easy to dismiss.
4. Conclusions
40 Fessler and Holbrook (2014) were participants in the study marched 244m along
a path either in sync with another person or at a natural pace. After doing so they
were shown a cropped “mugshot” of an angry male face and asked to estimate his
height, size, and muscularity. Those participants who marched in sync estimated
their “‘opponent” to be less physically threatening than those who had not.
41 See: http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/in-sync-and-in-control. According to
Fessler and Holbrook (2014: 01), this phenomenon is observed in other species as
well – chimpanzees and dolphins, for example. Chimpanzees who hoot in group cho-
ruses dominate their rivals, and dolphins that swim in tight packs are more likely to
win fights with other dolphins.
80 Andrew Bayliss
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82 Andrew Bayliss
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86 Andrew Bayliss
A stásis na elegia grega arcaica e na
poesia de Tirteu
Rafael Brunhara
1 O período que compreende o séc. VIII a.C. até a década 490-480 a.C.
2 Um fragmento de Eurípides (fr. 1083 Nauck) celebra a fertilidade da terra messê-
nia. Ver tradução do fragmento em Brunhara (2014: 256).
88 Rafael Brunhara
Silânio e Atena Silânia, as tribos distribuir, as obes
organizar e instalar um conselho de trinta anciãos
com os seus príncipes, realizar a apela de tempos em
tempos entre Bábica e Cinácion. Dessarte, propõe e
depõe, mas o poder e a responsabilidade serão do
povo. (Plutarco, Licurgo, 6.1-3).
5 Ver os testemunhos arrolados por Gostoli (1990): 12, 14 a-c, 15, 19, 20, 21, 60f, 60i.
6 Pausânias, Descrição da Grécia,I, 1.4
7 Uma exceção, bem notada por D’Alessio, seria Sólon, que agia como um mediador
(Ver fr. 5 West).
90 Rafael Brunhara
fragmentos que nos restaram desse poema e do tratamento da
στάσις em Tirteu, é importante considerarmos de que maneira
os dados biográficos podem ou não incidir na apreciação destes
versos, uma vez que parece um paradoxo um poema que fale
tanto de Esparta – aludindo à sua história e às suas leis – pudes-
se ser composto por um poeta imigrante. Qual seria o lugar de
Tirteu? Os antigos já notavam o paradoxo, e tentavam resolvê-
-lo recorrendo aos próprios versos tirtaicos. O geógrafo Estra-
bão, citando um excerto da Eunomia, observa o uso da primeira
pessoa do plural como um meio de comprovar a nacionalidade
espartana de Tirteu:
8 Uso aqui o termo “poesia lírica grega” em sua acepção mais ampla, que congrega
três gêneros poéticos antigos distintos e bem delimitados – elegia, jambo, mélica –
gêneros sem qualquer vínculo a não ser o emprego frequente da primeira pessoa e
sua relativa brevidade.
92 Rafael Brunhara
signava toda uma seção de sua poesia como στασιωτικά(“poe-
mas de stásis”). De tal maneira esses poemas eram substanciais
na obra de Alceu que Pardini (1991: 269-270) defende que eles
integravam uma seção distinta de outros poemas políticos mais
amplos, como por exemplo o fragmento 350, que narra a vitória
do irmão de Alceu, Antimênidas, como aliado dos Babilônios
em uma batalha. O termo, contudo, apenas receberá uma con-
ceituação mais técnica no tempo de Platão11, no período clás-
sico, onde aí passa a ter claramente o sentido de “guerra civil”
ou “revolução política”, em detrimento de seu uso corriqueiro,
a indicar simplesmente “situação” ou “posição”12. Mas deve-
-se notar que esta acepção, em uso na época clássica, já estava
latente ou poderia ter se originado a partir de um sentido em
voga também no período arcaico, o de “facção política”, “sedi-
ção” ou “discórdia”. No fr. 208 V13, argumenta Gripp (2015: 49),
Alceu pode ter explorado a polissemia da palavra, num poema
onde compara a instabilidade política aos ventos adversos asso-
lando um navio (ἀσυνέτημμι τὼν ἀνέμων στὰσιν, “não compre-
endo a sedição dos ventos”).
Quase todos os poetas elegíacos do período arcaico,
gênero em que Tirteu compôs a maior parte de seus poemas,
mencionam a στάσις: o fato não é surpreendente, uma vez que
a elegia era então um gênero cursivo, praticado tanto por poetas
profissionais e não-profissionais, que se abria à representação
de elementos da vida cotidiana e política. A στάσις é um desses
elementos políticos, a tal ponto de Xenófanes (séc. VI a.C.) pres-
crever que esta seja abolida de um bom simpósio, indicando,
em certa medida, que a discórdia entre facções políticas rivais
era um tema ao qual os poetas elegíacos costumavam discorrer:
94 Rafael Brunhara
estabelecimento dos primeiros grandes tiranos no mundo gre-
go. Esta poesia põe como causa do surgimento da tirania, entre
outras coisas, a στάσις – discordância entre os cidadãos. Ainda
nas elegias da Teognideia, o poeta menciona a crise política em
Megara, desta vez, parecendo aludir a um momento específico
da história da cidade, em que o tirano Teágenes ascendera ao
poder. No entanto ele o faz em termos gerais (Nagy, 1985:36):
14 Sabe-se hoje que a elegia grega arcaica tinha majoritariamente como cenário
para a sua performance o simpósio, um espaço propício não só ao consumo do vi-
nho, à música e à performance, mas também à discussão de opiniões políticas. Ver
Fabbro (1995: VII).
96 Rafael Brunhara
Μοῦσαι Πιερίηθεν ἀοιδῇσι κλείουσαι,
δεῦτε Δί’ ἐννέπετε, σφέτερον πατέρ’ ὑμνείουσαι.
ὅν τε διὰ βροτοὶ ἄνδρες ὁμῶς ἄφατοί τε φατοί τε,
ῥητοί τ’ ἄρρητοί τε Διὸς μεγάλοιο ἕκητι.
ῥέα μὲν γὰρ βριάει, ῥέα δὲ βριάοντα χαλέπτει, (5)
ῥεῖα δ’ ἀρίζηλον μινύθει καὶ ἄδηλον ἀέξει,
ῥεῖα δέ τ’ ἰθύνει σκολιὸν καὶ ἀγήνορα κάρφει
Ζεὺς ὑψιβρεμέτης, ὃς ὑπέρτατα δώματα ναίει.
κλῦθι ἰδὼν ἀίων τε, δίκῃ δ’ ἴθυνε θέμιστας
τύνη· ἐγὼ δέ κε Πέρσῃ ἐτήτυμα μυθησαίμην. (10
98 Rafael Brunhara
2. A Eunomia de Tirteu como um poema de
Stásis
3 La primera cita de una obra se citará la primera vez en español y después de ello,
siguiendo las normas del Oxford Classical Dictionary por lo que insistimos en que el
lector sea cuidadoso en la lectura porque a veces no se corresponden el inicio de
nombres en inglés con su traducción al español, como ocurre en el caso de Jenofonte
que en inglés es Xenophon.
7 En relación con las mujeres: REDFIELD, 1977/8: 158; HODKINSON, 2001: 94-95,
102-106.
8 Los casos más famosos son: Gorgo, sobrina de su esposo Leónidas (Hdt., V, 205.1);
Pércalo, hija de Quilón (nieto del famoso éforo) y casada con Leotíquidas (Hdt.VI,
65.2); y también Arquidamo V casado con la hija de su primo Hipomedón (Políbio,
Historias,IV, 35.13).
9 Quizás el caso más notorio es el enfrentamiento entre Pausanias y sus partidarios
y Agesilao y Lisandro (Jenofonte, Helénicas, 25,1; Plutarco, Lisandro, 30, 4).
10 Trad. Carlos Schrader.
11 Trad. J. Bergua Cavero y S. Bueno Morillo.
12 Nos referimos a un mínimo para llegar a participar de las syssitia o incluso los
que habían llegado a perder la ciudadanía.
13 Por ejemplo, Evagoras, el único hombre, junto con Cimón, en vencer la carreras
de carros de cuatro caballos tres veces (Hdt., VI, 103.4). Para otras referencias: STE
CROIX, 1972: 137.
14 Entre mediados (PRONTERA, 1980: 230; FAUSTOFERRI, 1996: 292) y finales del
siglo VI a.C. (CALLIGAS, 1992: 47). Coincide aproximadamente con la monumentaliza-
ción del santuario de Atenea Calcieco (FORTUNELLI, 1999: 389) y las dudas de fechas
son las mismas: entre mediados y finales.
27 En el siglo V a.C. los objetos votivos siguen mostrando apertura al exterior (HO-
DKINSON, 1997: 95).
28 Presente también en Píndaro al referirse a la presencia de Egeidas en Tera y en
relación con la fundación de Cirene (Pind., Pít. 5, 72-76).
29 Vid. supra.
30 Dice Dickins(1912: 26) que la política de Cleómenes buscaba quitarle el poder
al eforado y extender el poder real. Parece muy acertada esta postura aunque hay
que puntualizar que Cleómenes usó a los éforos primeramente por su propio interés
y después intentó quitarles poder, como evidencia Diodoro sobre las tensiones entre
los reyes y los éforos en 473 a.C. (Diodoro de Sicilia, Biblioteca Histórica, XI, 50). A
pesar de las intenciones de Cleómenes, el eforado sale reforzado del reinado de este
rey, como observó Dickins (1912: 34).
31 Hay un tratado entre Tegea y Esparta en torno al 550 a.C., momento en el que los
tegeos se comprometen a no permitir el refugio de los mesenios huidos en su territo-
rio. Supone el inicio de la liga del Peloponeso (NIELSEN, 2002: 188, CARDETE, 2004: 63).
32 Dice Holladay que precisamente la dificultad para tomar Tegea es lo que provoca
el endurecimiento de la agoge por la necesidad de que el pequeño número de ciu-
dadanos espartanos fuera capaz de conquistar y controlar un territorio tan grande
(HOLLADAY, 1977: 126). El enfrentamiento con Tegea no llegará nunca a buen puerto.
Esparta sólo conseguirá apropiarse de la frontera situada en la localidad de Carias,
según Nielsen en este siglo VI a.C. (NIELSEN, 1999: 49), aunque la propiedad esparta-
na del santuario de Ártemis Cariatis parece indicar que fue una zona espartana desde
que Esparta conquista Laconia (Paus. IV, 16.9-10). La tradición tegea, sin embargo, se
apropia de la localidad desde su sinecismo (PRETZLER, 1999: 95). Sería posible inclu-
so que la frontera no se estabilizara hasta principios del siglo V a.C., como plantea
Daverio Rocchi (1988: 196).
33 Para estos enfrentamientos: KELLY, 1970: 971-1003; TOMLINSON, 1972: 76-100;
39 Aparte del caso de Lisandro, Heródoto cita los relativos a la familia real, vistos
más arriba. También hay otros: vid. infra.
40 Cartledge ha interpretado los caballitos de bronce como intercambios entre
54 Aunque el concepto de προίχ no aparece hasta el siglo V a.C. (MOSSÉ, 1985: 190).
55 Normativa legal sobre la epikleros en Atenas datada en la época de Solón (fr. 51-
53). Sobre el matrimonio ateniense: PATTERSON, 1991: 48-72. Sobre el matrimonio
desde época homérica, en general: LEDUC, 1992: 235-294; VERNANT, 2003.
56 Eur., Andr. 147-53, 940; Plut., Ages. 4,1; Arist., Pol. 2,1270a15; Paus., III,8,1; VI,1,6.
57 Aunque seguramente los efectos de esta disposición del dinero no fueran tan
59 Aunque Ehrenberg (1968: 40ss) y Toynbee (1969: 222ss) consideran que hay
una redistribución en esta época. Para el problema de las tierras: HODKINSON, 1986:
378-406.
63 El éforo Lisandro usó una antigua ley, que ya estaba en desuso en época de
Agis IV, para iniciar un proceso contra Leónidas. La ley no permitía que un Heraclida
tuviera hijos de una mujer extranjera y decretaba la muerte para el que se fuera de
Esparta a establecerse en otro lugar (Plut., Agis. 11,3). Trad. C. Alcalde Martín y M.
González González.
64 Si bien, el ejercicio femenino ya existía antes en Esparta, como reflejan los parte-
nios de Alcmán, las fuentes del siglo V a.C. y posteriores lo enfatizan mucho: Aristof.
Lis. 77-80, 1308-1317; Jen., Cons. Lac. I, 3-4; Crit. Fr. 32 D.K. Es uno de los pocos ele-
mentos en los que prácticamente hay consenso respecto de las espartanas: NEILS,
2012: 157-158; KUNSTLER, 1983: 437; CHRISTIEN, 1985: 154; NAPOLITANO, 1985: 19-
50; LORAUX, 1991: 5; MILLENDER, 1999: 367-368; DUCAT, 1999: 167-168, entre otros.
65 Lane Fox (1985: 222)dice que en realidad no fue tan catastrófico. Cartledge
(2002: 186)opina que sí fue una situación crítica en lo referente a los hilotas aunque
en lo demográfico, el momento más difícil fue la batalla de Esfacteria (CARTLEDGE,
66 French considera que murieron más mujeres y niños por estar dentro de las
casas y que tuvo más efectos en la seguridad interior. Muestra una situación demo-
gráfica desesperada (FRENCH, 1955: 113).
67 Marasco (1980: 144) lo sitúa en el momento de la Retra de Epitadeo.
5. Conclusiones
2 Carl von Clausewitz foi um oficial do exército da Prússia, tendo vivenciado a rea-
lidade das Guerras Napoleônicas (1803-1815). Devido as suas experiências militares
pessoais escreveu uma obra denominada “Da Guerra”, a qual foi considerada como
um manual acerca da arte de combater (KEEGAN, 2006: 18-30).
3 Segundo Eni Orlandi o discurso pode ser definido como um processo social dota-
do de uma materialidade linguística, sendo esta a sua especificidade, a qual demons-
tra que a sua construção ocorre de maneira conjunta entre o social e o linguístico
(ORLANDI, 1994: 56).
4 Como nos esclareceu Philip Smith, as Zonas de Exclusão seriam espaços limítrofes
destinados à realização da guerra, demonstrando que a mesma se realizava entre
guerreiros e não contra civis. Tal fator pode ser identificado como um elemento cul-
tural identitário entre grupos rivais, mas que partilham da mesma linguagem cultural
(SMITH, 1991: 120). Ao convergirmos com outros estudos, Lawrence Tritle denomi-
nou, de maneira análoga, esta região onde o combate acontecia como Zona de Ma-
tança, haja vista que, somente neste espaço onde o conflito ocorria, as atrocidades
mútuas eram permitidas (TRITLE, 2013).
5 O conceito de pólis (πόλις) pode ser concebido através da relação entre o espaço
físico, que envolve a área urbana (asty - ἃστυ) e a rural (khora – χώρα) ocupada por
uma sociedade, e da interação de caráter cultural, político, econômico, religioso e
militar que esses indivíduos desempenhavam em seu meio social. O termo póleis
(πόλεις) corresponderia ao plural de pólis (ASSUMPÇÃO, 2012: 167).
10 William Kendrick Pritchett nos advertiu que cabia ao basileu lacedemônio or-
denar a execução do sacrifício, porém, ele era auxiliado por um mantis (adivinho)
(PRITCHETT, 1979: 67-68). Concordamos com Pritchett, afinal, como destacou Xe-
nofonte (Cons. Lac., 13.7) os basileus lacedemônios em períodos de guerra eram
acompanhados por alguns dos seus companheiros de mesa (membros do syssition/
pheidition onde os basileus deveriam fazer as suas refeições diariamente), adivinhos,
médicos, tocadores de aulós, comandantes do exército e voluntários. Portanto, em-
bora os basileus fossem a autoridade militar suprema entre os lacedemônios, cabia
a uma pessoa especializada na adivinhação realizar os sacrifícios prescritos por lei.
11 Este conceito será definido ao longo deste trabalho.
12 Os dióscuros seriam os filhos gerados por Leda, através de sua relação com Zeus
e com Tíndaro. Nas palavras de Grimal, Castor era mortal e Polideuces imortal, sendo
cultuados pelo seu caráter guerreiro. Após diversos embates, Castor teria morrido e
Polideuces pediu a Zeus que ambos não fossem separados, fazendo com que o “rei
dos deuses” os transformasse em uma constelação (Gêmeos). Os dióscuros poderiam
representar a juventude e o processo pelo qual os jovens deveriam passar até culmi-
narem na vida adulta (HOWATSON, 2013: 209-210).
13 Tal como explicitamos na nota 10, caberia ao mantis (adivinho) efetuar os sacri-
fícios junto ao basileu de Esparta, no entanto, como nos chamou a atenção Robert
Parker, a influência de um adivinho em tempos de guerra era demasiadamente am-
pla ao ponto de podermos afirmar que seria melhor ter um bom mantis ao seu lado
no exército do que um bom general (PARKER, 2016: 128).
14 O “condutor da chama” (pyrphoros) era o sacerdote responsável por conduzir o
“fogo sagrado” utilizado nos sacrifícios espartanos até a fronteira do território lace-
demônio. Ao se realizar a diabatéria cabia a esse magistrado oferecer as carnes da
vítima sacrifical ao “fogo sagrado”.
15 A palavra pátria está intimamente vinculada ao termo patrís (πατρίς), cujo sig-
nificado designa “aquilo que provém dos ancestrais” ou “terra dos ancestrais” (MA-
LHADAS et. al., 2009: 45).
17 Foi uma das dinastias heráclidas de Esparta, cuja denominação provinha do mítico
basileu Euripon, que ao diminuir parte do poder político desta magistratura adquiriu
apoio político do demos (povo; população) da Lacedemônia (ASSUMPÇÃO, 2014: 236).
18 Como nos demonstrou Cindy Clendenon, o rio Erasino, cujo fluxo emerge na
Arcádia – próximo ao lago Estínfalo –, passa pela região da Argólida fazendo fronteira
23 Segundo Nicolas Richer, a hieroscopia consistia na leitura das entranhas dos ani-
mais sacrificados, no intuito de se obter presságios divinos. A leitura era feita por um
mantis, cuja ênfase recaia nos aspectos do fígado das vítimas (RICHER, 2012: 210).
24 Vide: Sánchez (1986) e Campos (2014).
27 Seria equivocado pontuarmos que esse tipo de ritual fosse efetuado unicamente
durante a guerra, porém, o nosso enfoque nesse artigo reside no contexto de enfren-
tamento bélico.
[28] καὶ τότε μὲν δὴ ἐκ τοῦ φιλιτίου εἰς τὸν οἶκον ἐλ-
θὼν ἀνεπαύετο: τοῦ δ’ ὄρθρου ἀναστὰς ἐφύλαττε μὴ
λάθοι αὐτὸν ὁ πατὴρ ἐξελθών. Ἐπεὶ δὲ εἶδεν αὐτὸν
ἐξιόντα, πρῶτον μέν, εἴ τις τῶν πολιτῶν παρῆν, παρί-
ει τούτους διαλέγεσθαι αὐτῷ, ἔπειτα δ’, εἴ τις ξένος,
ἔπειτα δὲ καὶ τῶν θεραπόντων τῷ δεομένῳ παρεχώ-
ρει. Τέλος δ’, ἐπεὶ ἀπὸ τοῦ Εὐρώτα ἀπιὼν ὁ Ἀγησίλα-
ος εἰσῆλθεν οἴκαδε, ἀπιὼν ᾤχετο οὐδὲ προσελθών.
Καὶ τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ δὲ ταὐτὰ ταῦτα ἐποίησεν.
5 Cf. McDonald (1972); Cawkwell (1973); Rice (1975); Kallet-Marx (1985); Cartledge
(1987: 136-8; 299-301); Hamilton (1991: 167-74); Parker (2007); Buckler and Beck
(2008: 79-84).
6 See especially the trenchant critique of Shipley (1997: 296-9).
7 This is assumed by Shipley (1997, 296); but, if so, it is hard to see how he could
have spoken to his son, since it seems unlikely (as we shall see below) that Kleony-
mos’ strictly-controlled way of life as a paidiskos would have permitted travel abroad.
8 Is it possible that Xenophon has elided two stages in the formal process: an initial
court hearing at which Sphodrias did not appear, followed by an adjournment to a
final hearing at which his punishment was to be decided; and that the protracted
informal events narrated by Xenophon stretched over a long period from before the
initial hearing into the period before the final one?
2.1. Bribery
15 Herman (1987: 138-42); Mitchell (1997: 33-5). On proxenia, see also in general
Marek (1984) and, most recently, Mack (2015).
16 Herman (1987: 58-61, 73-115); Mitchell (1997: 18-21); Hodkinson (2000: 341-3).
21 Note that Xenophon here applies to all requests the same verb used of the serv-
ants’ requests in the Hellenika.
22 My argument stands whether or not one accepts the argument of Gray (1981:
327-8) that Xenophon intimates through his dialogue that Agesilaos intended to in-
fluence his friends to vote to acquit Sphodrias by leading them to a mistaken infer-
ence about how he himself would vote.
25 Appointment of Peisandros (Xen., Hell., III, 4.29). List of the commands of Teleu-
tias in Poralla (1985: nº 689). Donation to his mother’s kin (Xen., Ages., 4.5; cf. Plut.,
Ages., 4.1).
30 Herodotus, VII, 229; Thucydides, IV, 8, 16; Kritias, 88B37 (Diels-Kranz); Xen., Hell.,
IV, 5.14; 8.39.
31 Hdt., VI, 61; Plut., Lykurgus, 16.2-3; Alkibiades, 1.2; Ages., 3.1.
32 Cf. Xen., Hell., V, 4.32: see below. Cf. also Xen., Lak. Pol., 3.3.
38 Cf. esp. Xen., Lak. Pol., 2.14; 3.1; 3.5; 4.1. In the Lak. Pol., however, the name of
the second grade is slightly obscured by the fact that Xenophon reserves reference
to the name until the end of the relevant chapter.
39 The sources are cited by MacDowell (1986: 159-61).
40 See the table in Kennell (1995: 39). It is unclear whether or not within the broad
age grades the classical upbringing also had specific year-groups akin to those of the
post-classical upbringing.
41 Cf.Kennell (1995: 117-18); Ducat (2006: 85-6, 101-2).
42 Hippokrates, De Hebdomadibus 5 (éd. Littré, VIII, p.636); cf. Kennell 32 & 179
n.13 ; Ducat (2006 : 89-90).
43 Their pederastic relationship is attested by Plut., Ages., 2.1; Lys., 22.3. On the
succession dispute, the primary source is Xen., Hell., III, 3.1-4.
44 Cf. Buffière (1980) especially p.605-17.
45 Although Archidamos, as heir to the Eurypontid throne, was not a normal youth,
there is no reason to think that the age when he joined a mess will have differed from
that of other youths.
46 The other known specific relationship, that between Lysander and Agesilaos, is
specifically recorded as a pederastic relationship only by Plutarch. Although Xeno-
phon devotes considerable attention to the relationship between the two men, he
never designates it as pederastic.
48 The verb kêdomai can refer to the affection of a lover, as in Plato, Symposion,
210c (MACDOWELL, 1986: 64).
49 The argument for “institutionalisation” was put by Cartledge (1981: 22), but has
been challenged by MacDowell (1986: 64) and Link (2009: 96-103); cf. also Fisher
(1989: 46 n.37).
51 Given the prior stress upon Archidamos’ desire to see his beloved, the reader is
surely being led to expect that Archidamos would have gone to Kleonymos with the
news, had he already known.
52 Plutarch (Ages., 25.5), claims that Agesilaos was very fond of his children and
narrates an episode in which he was espied by a friend playing horse with children.
This, however, was when his children were very young, and it speaks volumes for the
formality expected of a king that Agesilaos felt it necessary to ask his friend not to tell
anyone before he himself became a father.
53 Here we should give full value to the word πρὸ: Kleonymos was fighting, not
just “for” or “in defence of” his king, as in the Penguin Classics or Loeb translations,
but physically in front of King Kleombrotos. In his subsequent account of the battle
(Xen., Hell., VI, 4.13-14), Xenophon is at pains to point out that, when Kleombrotos
was struck down, his men were able to carry him out of the battle whilst still alive
because those fighting πρὸ αὐτοῦ held the advantage at the time. Here πρὸ clearly
means “in front of” and the soldiers in question must include Kleonymos, who is
mentioned in person in the next sentence alongside Deinon the polemarch, as in our
episode. We should therefore give πρὸ the same sense in our passage.
54 The selection process is described in Xen., Lak. Pol., 4.3. See, generally, Figueira
(2006).
55 Cf. Anderson (1970: 247); Lazenby (1985: 10-11); Figueira (2006). The passage in
question is at Xen., Hell., VI, 4.14; the rout of the cavalry is described earlier at Xen.,
Hell., VI, 3.13.
56 For the numbers of Spartiates at the battle, Xen., Hell., VI, 4.15.
57 I leave aside the debate as to whether the hippeis constituted the agêma of the
first mora mentioned by Xenophon as being led by the king (Lak. Pol., 13.6; cf. 11.9).
58 Compare Tyrtaios fr.11.11-13 (Gerber): “Those who dare to stand fast at one
another’s side and to advance towards the front ranks in hand-to-hand conflict, they
die in fewer numbers ...” with Xen., Lak. Pol., 9.1-2: “... they actually lose a smaller
proportion of their men than those who prefer to retire from the danger zone ... es-
cape from premature death more generally goes with valour than with cowardice”.
Conclusion
59 Ages. 30.2-4. They were acquitted by Agesilaos, who had been appointed as
lawgiver and announced that the laws should sleep for a day.
60 The insistence that he was fighting in the midst of the enemy’s ranks would also
provide an excuse for any wounds in the back which might otherwise be taken as a
sign of flight.
2 Meloni (1950: 114) y Urso (1998: 91) sospechan que incluso pudo abandonar la
liga italiota.
3 En cambio Urso (1998: 92) admite la noticia del Sículo, pero en otro contexto cro-
nológico, entre 306 y 304, antes de la paz entre Agatocles y Dinócrates.
5 Esta invasión de Demetrio y la que poco después llevaría a cabo Pirro obligaron
a los lacedemonios a iniciar la construcción de una muralla, si bien es cierto que de
una manera precaria e improvisada, pues el circuito defensivo no fue ampliado y com-
pletado hasta finales de siglo, bajo el reinado de Nabis (Paus., VII, 8.5; Liv., XXXIV, .27.3
y 38.2; Justino,XIV, 5.6 remonta el origen de las murallas al año 317, ante la amenaza
de Casandro).
10 Para Cloché (1945: 233) y David (1981: 126) o bien los espartanos hicieron algo que
los aliados interpretaron como una amenaza para su independencia o bien la derrota
sufrida les indujo a apartarse de Esparta. Marasco (1980: 73) añade una tercera hipóte-
sis: que los aliados creyesen inútil los sacrificios que comportaba una guerra contra los
etolios una vez Antígono había emprendido una campaña en Asia contra Antíoco I que
había aflojado el dominio macedonio sobre Grecia.
11 Cf. también Christien y Ruzé (2007: 339-340).
12 En este sentido se han expresado De Sanctis (1912); Cloché (1946: 46); Marasco
(1980: 97); Cartledge y Spawforth (1989: 36). Otros historiadores, como David (1981:
133-134), Oliva (1983: 209) y Piper (1986: 22), sostienen que el epígrafe no se refiere a
Areo II, sino a su abuelo Areo I, argumentando que el primero no pudo ser honrado por
el santuario panhelénico si murió a la temprana edad de ocho años.
13 En cambio David (1981: 128 con n. 77) concede gran importancia a los celos como
motor de las acciones de Cleónimo.
14 Y no entre la oligarquía in toto, partidaria de Areo, y el conjunto del dâmos, subver-
tido por Cleónimo, como sostiene Piper (1986: 17).
15 David (1981: 129-130) no da credibilidad aquí a Plutarco (pero sí en otro pasajes igual-
mente derivados de Filarco) y piensa que no había fisuras en el cuerpo cívico espartiata.
16 Según Napolitano (1987), esta metamorfosis es obra sobre todo de los poetas latinos.
20 Cristien y Ruzé (2007: 347) lo dan por seguro y además añaden la isla de Citera;
más dudas tiene Marasco (1980: 20 n. 10, 156).