Sea ice around Antarctica plays a key role in determining the properties and circulation of the u... more Sea ice around Antarctica plays a key role in determining the properties and circulation of the underlying Southern Ocean across a range of scales, whilst simultaneously numerous ocean processes impact profoundly on the temporally-evolving sea ice field. This chapter provides an overview of key aspects of this integrated system, including the nature and dynamics of the large-scale horizontal and overturning circulations of the Southern Ocean, the role of sea ice in producing various of the water masses that form here and which spread around the world, and ocean-ice interactions in the different climatic sectors of Antarctica. Improved capability for gathering ocean data are required in order to better understand the interplay of ocean and ice, and to better predict the consequences for regional and global climate; the status and future of the observing system required to achieve this are outlined.
This meeting explores the recent, rapid Arctic sea ice reduction. We will discuss the evidence fo... more This meeting explores the recent, rapid Arctic sea ice reduction. We will discuss the evidence for change, the inability of our climate models to predict these changes, the processes responsible for sea ice reduction and improved representation of these processes in climate models, and the impacts of sea ice change on local and global weather and climate.
Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 2004
During January and February 2000 four research vessels, from Russia, the UK, Japan, and the Unite... more During January and February 2000 four research vessels, from Russia, the UK, Japan, and the United States, conducted an oceanographic survey with 137 hydrographic stations within the Scotia Sea and adjoining waters as part of a survey sponsored by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) to estimate the biomass and distribution of Antarctic krill in the Scotia Sea. Chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) measurements showed great variability in phytoplankton biomass within the Scotia Sea, with some areas having among the lowest Chl-a concentrations found in Antarctic waters (o0.1 mg m À3 in surface waters) while other areas were among the richest with 410 mg m À3. This paper describes the distribution and concentration of Chl-a in the upper 100 m of the water column and relates the Chl-a profiles at individual stations to profiles of upper water-column stability, to the depth of the upper mixed layer, and to the mixing of different water masses. The 58 stations with the lowest Chl-a values in surface waters also had low values for integrated Chl-a (33.9719.5 mg m À2) and a Chl-a maximum at depths of between 70 and 90 m, in contrast to all other stations where deep Chl-a maxima did not occur. The T/S diagrams at many of these stations were indicative of Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) waters. The central Scotia Sea and areas to the west and north of South Georgia had significantly higher integrated Chl-a values (98.1746.0 mg m À2 , n ¼ 57), in addition to five stations with very high Chl-a values (mean of 3597270 mg m À2). The mean rate of integrated primary production, which was estimated using the Chl-a data and the mean incident solar radiation measured from previous cruises as well as from satellite data, was estimated to be 994 mg carbon m À2 day À1. The temperature profiles at these stations suggested that considerable interleaving and mixing of water
This book introduces global environmental issues through two case study examples: small oceanic i... more This book introduces global environmental issues through two case study examples: small oceanic islands and the continent Antarctica. Both locations were'discovered'relatively recently, and thus give us a clear and dramatic record of human impact. The book looks at how we deal with human-induced environmental change on an increasingly interconnected planet, and ways in which distant places are linked. It considers the severity and complexity of environmental problems, and how we can distinguish the human contribution to local ...
If citing, it is advised that you check and use the publisher's definitive version for pagination... more If citing, it is advised that you check and use the publisher's definitive version for pagination, volume/issue, and date of publication details. And where the final published version is provided on the Research Portal, if citing you are again advised to check the publisher's website for any subsequent corrections.
Deep Sea Research Part Ii Topical Studies in Oceanography, Jun 1, 2004
In January and February 2000, four ships conducted an extensive hydrographic survey of the Scotia... more In January and February 2000, four ships conducted an extensive hydrographic survey of the Scotia Sea as part of the CCAMLR 2000 Survey. There were 169 CTD stations to at least 1000 m depth, making this the largest synoptic dataset since 1981. A hydrographic section at Drake Passage was used to define water masses and ocean fronts. In 2000, the Subantarctic Front and the Polar Front were unusually close, and the entire survey occurred to the south of the Polar Front. The survey area was bisected by the Subantarctic Circumpolar Current Front and the Southern Boundary of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. In Drake Passage, these fronts were widely spaced. A further two hydrographic sections to the east of Drake Passage show that the relative location of these fronts changes east of Drake Passage. Horizontal maps across the survey area show that close to Drake Passage, properties are aligned in a southwest to northeast direction. At approximately 351W, properties become orientated in a north-south direction. A map of geopotential anomaly shows the flow field across the survey area and allows identification of oceanic fronts. In months previous to the survey, the giant icebergs A22B and B10A crossed the Scotia Sea and closely followed the geopotential field from the CCAMLR 2000 dataset. The SACCF is not the only important front for transporting biological matter from the Antarctic Peninsula to South Georgia; an interaction between the SBACC and the SACCF is also likely to be important.
The primary obstacles to the collection of oceanographic data are the limitations of sampling in ... more The primary obstacles to the collection of oceanographic data are the limitations of sampling in time and in three-dimensional space. Ship-board surveys are well designed for detailed sampling at depth, but are constrained in horizontal space and limited in time by high costs. Satellite monitoring can produce time-series of data over large horizontal spatial scales, but has only limited ability to obtain data concerning parameters at depth, and can also be constrained by the necessity for calibration and'ground-truthing'of data. In contrast, fixed ...
A revised precautionary catch limit for Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) in the Scotia Sea of ... more A revised precautionary catch limit for Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) in the Scotia Sea of 4 million tons was recently adopted by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). The limit was based on a total biomass of 44.3 million tons, as estimated from an acoustic and net survey of krill across the Scotia Sea sector of the Southern Ocean, and a harvest rate of 9.1%, as determined from an analysis of the risks of exceeding defined conservation criteria. We caution, however, that before the ...
Breiðamerkurjökull flows from the Vatnajökull ice cap and calves into the Jökulsárlón proglacial ... more Breiðamerkurjökull flows from the Vatnajökull ice cap and calves into the Jökulsárlón proglacial lagoon. The lagoon is connected to the North Atlantic Ocean through a 6 m deep narrow channel. Four hydrographic surveys in spring 2012, and a 2011 4-month long temperature and salinity time series of lagoon inflow show that the lake has significantly changed since 1976. Warm saline ocean water enters each tidal cycle and descends below the maximum sampled depths. The lagoon has a surface layer of ice melt, freshwater and Atlantic derived water. Beneath 10 m depth an advective/diffusive balance is responsible for determining the temperature and salinity of the lagoon waters down to ~90 m. To maintain the observed hydrographic structure, we calculate an upwelling of deep water of ~0.2 m d−1. A survey within 30 m of Breiðamerkurjökull showed that the warmest and most saline waters sampled within the lagoon below 10 m depth were adjacent to the glacier face, along with multiple interleaved ...
Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 2008
Internal waves and coastal upwelling have important roles in both physical oceanography and marin... more Internal waves and coastal upwelling have important roles in both physical oceanography and marine ecosystems, via processes such as mixing of water masses and transfer of heat and nutrients to biologically active layers. In this paper we use quasi-weekly hydrographic profiles and moored records of temperature, salinity and water velocity to investigate the nature of internal tides and coastal upwelling behaviour in northern Marguerite Bay at the western Antarctic Peninsula. Within Ryder Bay, a near-coastal site in northern Marguerite Bay, atmospherically-forced oscillations of the water column with periods around 2-7 days are observed, associated with wind-induced coastal upwelling and downwelling. Sea ice cover is seen to play a role in the seasonal suppression of these oscillations. Significant internal tides are also observed at this site. A range of processes are seen to be important in controlling internal tide variability, including changes in local stratification and sea ice conditions. Both diurnal and semi-diurnal internal tidal species are observed, despite the study region being poleward of the critical latitude for diurnal internal tides. This suggests that at least the diurnal internal tides are generated close to the study location, and we investigate likely sources. Our work adds understanding to how such phenomena are generated, and what controls their variability, in a region of rapid physical change and profound ecosystem importance.
The AUV AUTOSUB 2 has been used on two campaigns in Antarctica. The first was in February 2000 at... more The AUV AUTOSUB 2 has been used on two campaigns in Antarctica. The first was in February 2000 at the northern edge of the Weddell Sea (~63S, 50W), the second in March 2003 at the shelf break region of Pine Island Bay (~71S, 102W). The aim in both cases for this project was to determine the sea ice thickness distribution on scales of 10's of km. In the first campaign the AUV was sent on missions of up to 80 km length at depths in the range 150-250 m. It was equipped with an upward looking scientific echo sounder operating at two frequencies as well as a full suite of oceanographic sensors including 2 CTD's, and both upward and downward looking ADCP's. The data allow derivation of the sea ice distribution and iceberg size distribution as well as recording under ice hydrographic data at very high spatial scales. We will show examples of the thickness data and give an example of the hydrographic data from a close approach to a small iceberg. In the second campaign the vehicle was substantially different and thickness data were obtained from upward looking ADCP data with shorter missions (~30 km) but at shallower depths. In total the AUV has collected over 500 km of data for this project and is part of the Autosub Under Ice programme. The AUV will be sent to the Greenland Sea in 2003 and then back to Antarctica in 2004/5 for missions beneath the Filchner Ronne ice shelf.
In February 2001 the AUV Autosub 2 was used to investigate the marginal ice zone of the northern ... more In February 2001 the AUV Autosub 2 was used to investigate the marginal ice zone of the northern Weddell Sea. Targeted goals were to deploy the AUV from a research ship and derive the thickness of Antarctic sea ice on the scale of 10's of km, make measurements beneath different types of icebergs, determine whether a very important food resource - the Antarctic krill - was more abundant under sea ice or in open water and to measures downwelling irradiance beneath sea ice. Here we report on the first two of these goals. For these missions Autosub was comprehensively equipped with a scientific package including two CTD's, two ADCP's, a light sensor, oxygen and chlorophyll sensors, transmissiometer and a scientific echosounder operating at two frequencies. There were routinely two types of missions: relatively long transects from open water into the ice and back out again, and short missions under selected icebergs in various states of decay. There were 20 missions in total ...
Substantial open-ocean phytoplankton blooms in the Antarctic Zone to the northwest of South Georg... more Substantial open-ocean phytoplankton blooms in the Antarctic Zone to the northwest of South Georgia, South Atlantic are described. Chlorophyll a , nutrient and physical oceanography data, collected between 2 and 5 January 1994 and again 1 mo later between 2 and 4 February along a 450 km transect comprising 14 stations, are presented. The transect crossed the Subantarct~c and the Polar Front During the January transect survey, in 2 locations to the south of the Polar Front, average surface mixed-layer chlorophyll a concentrations were >8 and > l 3 mg m-.', and were associated wlth silicate, nitrate and phosphate depletions (<2.0, < l 1.0 and 1.0 mm01 m-"respectively), and nitrite and ammonium enhancement (>0.3 and >1.4 mm01 m-3 respectively). O n e of the phytoplankton blooms was associated wlth the nearby Polar Front, but the origin of a bloom further south, well w~t h l n the Antarctic Zone, was not clear. Phytoplankton production predicted by nutrient drawdown was far greater than the observed biomass on both surveys. If a common Antarctic Zone origin is accepted for the southern bloom, a dechne in biomass of -2.7 m01 C m-2 occurred in the upper 50 m of the water column between the 2 surveys, which cannot be accounted for by zooplankton grazlng. If the bloom had originated in Subantarctic water advected to the south of the Polar Front, in~tial nutrient concentrat~ons would have been lower and consequently predicted production was closer to the observed biomass values. Nevertheless, the area may be one of intense but local carbon export. KEY WORDS: Phytoplankton blooms -Nutnents . Antarctic Zone Polar Front. South Atlantic Carbon export 0 lnter-Research 1996 Resale of full artlcle not permitted
Abstract The part of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet that drains into the Amundsen Sea is currently ... more Abstract The part of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet that drains into the Amundsen Sea is currently thinning at such a rate that it contributes nearly 10% of the observed rise in global mean sea level. Acceleration of the outlet glaciers appears to be caused by thinning at their downstream ends, where the ice goes afloat, indicating that the changes are probably being forced from the ocean. Observations made since the mid-1990s on the Amundsen Sea continental shelf have revealed that the deep troughs, carved by previous glacial ...
Sea ice around Antarctica plays a key role in determining the properties and circulation of the u... more Sea ice around Antarctica plays a key role in determining the properties and circulation of the underlying Southern Ocean across a range of scales, whilst simultaneously numerous ocean processes impact profoundly on the temporally-evolving sea ice field. This chapter provides an overview of key aspects of this integrated system, including the nature and dynamics of the large-scale horizontal and overturning circulations of the Southern Ocean, the role of sea ice in producing various of the water masses that form here and which spread around the world, and ocean-ice interactions in the different climatic sectors of Antarctica. Improved capability for gathering ocean data are required in order to better understand the interplay of ocean and ice, and to better predict the consequences for regional and global climate; the status and future of the observing system required to achieve this are outlined.
This meeting explores the recent, rapid Arctic sea ice reduction. We will discuss the evidence fo... more This meeting explores the recent, rapid Arctic sea ice reduction. We will discuss the evidence for change, the inability of our climate models to predict these changes, the processes responsible for sea ice reduction and improved representation of these processes in climate models, and the impacts of sea ice change on local and global weather and climate.
Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 2004
During January and February 2000 four research vessels, from Russia, the UK, Japan, and the Unite... more During January and February 2000 four research vessels, from Russia, the UK, Japan, and the United States, conducted an oceanographic survey with 137 hydrographic stations within the Scotia Sea and adjoining waters as part of a survey sponsored by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) to estimate the biomass and distribution of Antarctic krill in the Scotia Sea. Chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) measurements showed great variability in phytoplankton biomass within the Scotia Sea, with some areas having among the lowest Chl-a concentrations found in Antarctic waters (o0.1 mg m À3 in surface waters) while other areas were among the richest with 410 mg m À3. This paper describes the distribution and concentration of Chl-a in the upper 100 m of the water column and relates the Chl-a profiles at individual stations to profiles of upper water-column stability, to the depth of the upper mixed layer, and to the mixing of different water masses. The 58 stations with the lowest Chl-a values in surface waters also had low values for integrated Chl-a (33.9719.5 mg m À2) and a Chl-a maximum at depths of between 70 and 90 m, in contrast to all other stations where deep Chl-a maxima did not occur. The T/S diagrams at many of these stations were indicative of Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) waters. The central Scotia Sea and areas to the west and north of South Georgia had significantly higher integrated Chl-a values (98.1746.0 mg m À2 , n ¼ 57), in addition to five stations with very high Chl-a values (mean of 3597270 mg m À2). The mean rate of integrated primary production, which was estimated using the Chl-a data and the mean incident solar radiation measured from previous cruises as well as from satellite data, was estimated to be 994 mg carbon m À2 day À1. The temperature profiles at these stations suggested that considerable interleaving and mixing of water
This book introduces global environmental issues through two case study examples: small oceanic i... more This book introduces global environmental issues through two case study examples: small oceanic islands and the continent Antarctica. Both locations were'discovered'relatively recently, and thus give us a clear and dramatic record of human impact. The book looks at how we deal with human-induced environmental change on an increasingly interconnected planet, and ways in which distant places are linked. It considers the severity and complexity of environmental problems, and how we can distinguish the human contribution to local ...
If citing, it is advised that you check and use the publisher's definitive version for pagination... more If citing, it is advised that you check and use the publisher's definitive version for pagination, volume/issue, and date of publication details. And where the final published version is provided on the Research Portal, if citing you are again advised to check the publisher's website for any subsequent corrections.
Deep Sea Research Part Ii Topical Studies in Oceanography, Jun 1, 2004
In January and February 2000, four ships conducted an extensive hydrographic survey of the Scotia... more In January and February 2000, four ships conducted an extensive hydrographic survey of the Scotia Sea as part of the CCAMLR 2000 Survey. There were 169 CTD stations to at least 1000 m depth, making this the largest synoptic dataset since 1981. A hydrographic section at Drake Passage was used to define water masses and ocean fronts. In 2000, the Subantarctic Front and the Polar Front were unusually close, and the entire survey occurred to the south of the Polar Front. The survey area was bisected by the Subantarctic Circumpolar Current Front and the Southern Boundary of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. In Drake Passage, these fronts were widely spaced. A further two hydrographic sections to the east of Drake Passage show that the relative location of these fronts changes east of Drake Passage. Horizontal maps across the survey area show that close to Drake Passage, properties are aligned in a southwest to northeast direction. At approximately 351W, properties become orientated in a north-south direction. A map of geopotential anomaly shows the flow field across the survey area and allows identification of oceanic fronts. In months previous to the survey, the giant icebergs A22B and B10A crossed the Scotia Sea and closely followed the geopotential field from the CCAMLR 2000 dataset. The SACCF is not the only important front for transporting biological matter from the Antarctic Peninsula to South Georgia; an interaction between the SBACC and the SACCF is also likely to be important.
The primary obstacles to the collection of oceanographic data are the limitations of sampling in ... more The primary obstacles to the collection of oceanographic data are the limitations of sampling in time and in three-dimensional space. Ship-board surveys are well designed for detailed sampling at depth, but are constrained in horizontal space and limited in time by high costs. Satellite monitoring can produce time-series of data over large horizontal spatial scales, but has only limited ability to obtain data concerning parameters at depth, and can also be constrained by the necessity for calibration and'ground-truthing'of data. In contrast, fixed ...
A revised precautionary catch limit for Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) in the Scotia Sea of ... more A revised precautionary catch limit for Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) in the Scotia Sea of 4 million tons was recently adopted by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). The limit was based on a total biomass of 44.3 million tons, as estimated from an acoustic and net survey of krill across the Scotia Sea sector of the Southern Ocean, and a harvest rate of 9.1%, as determined from an analysis of the risks of exceeding defined conservation criteria. We caution, however, that before the ...
Breiðamerkurjökull flows from the Vatnajökull ice cap and calves into the Jökulsárlón proglacial ... more Breiðamerkurjökull flows from the Vatnajökull ice cap and calves into the Jökulsárlón proglacial lagoon. The lagoon is connected to the North Atlantic Ocean through a 6 m deep narrow channel. Four hydrographic surveys in spring 2012, and a 2011 4-month long temperature and salinity time series of lagoon inflow show that the lake has significantly changed since 1976. Warm saline ocean water enters each tidal cycle and descends below the maximum sampled depths. The lagoon has a surface layer of ice melt, freshwater and Atlantic derived water. Beneath 10 m depth an advective/diffusive balance is responsible for determining the temperature and salinity of the lagoon waters down to ~90 m. To maintain the observed hydrographic structure, we calculate an upwelling of deep water of ~0.2 m d−1. A survey within 30 m of Breiðamerkurjökull showed that the warmest and most saline waters sampled within the lagoon below 10 m depth were adjacent to the glacier face, along with multiple interleaved ...
Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 2008
Internal waves and coastal upwelling have important roles in both physical oceanography and marin... more Internal waves and coastal upwelling have important roles in both physical oceanography and marine ecosystems, via processes such as mixing of water masses and transfer of heat and nutrients to biologically active layers. In this paper we use quasi-weekly hydrographic profiles and moored records of temperature, salinity and water velocity to investigate the nature of internal tides and coastal upwelling behaviour in northern Marguerite Bay at the western Antarctic Peninsula. Within Ryder Bay, a near-coastal site in northern Marguerite Bay, atmospherically-forced oscillations of the water column with periods around 2-7 days are observed, associated with wind-induced coastal upwelling and downwelling. Sea ice cover is seen to play a role in the seasonal suppression of these oscillations. Significant internal tides are also observed at this site. A range of processes are seen to be important in controlling internal tide variability, including changes in local stratification and sea ice conditions. Both diurnal and semi-diurnal internal tidal species are observed, despite the study region being poleward of the critical latitude for diurnal internal tides. This suggests that at least the diurnal internal tides are generated close to the study location, and we investigate likely sources. Our work adds understanding to how such phenomena are generated, and what controls their variability, in a region of rapid physical change and profound ecosystem importance.
The AUV AUTOSUB 2 has been used on two campaigns in Antarctica. The first was in February 2000 at... more The AUV AUTOSUB 2 has been used on two campaigns in Antarctica. The first was in February 2000 at the northern edge of the Weddell Sea (~63S, 50W), the second in March 2003 at the shelf break region of Pine Island Bay (~71S, 102W). The aim in both cases for this project was to determine the sea ice thickness distribution on scales of 10's of km. In the first campaign the AUV was sent on missions of up to 80 km length at depths in the range 150-250 m. It was equipped with an upward looking scientific echo sounder operating at two frequencies as well as a full suite of oceanographic sensors including 2 CTD's, and both upward and downward looking ADCP's. The data allow derivation of the sea ice distribution and iceberg size distribution as well as recording under ice hydrographic data at very high spatial scales. We will show examples of the thickness data and give an example of the hydrographic data from a close approach to a small iceberg. In the second campaign the vehicle was substantially different and thickness data were obtained from upward looking ADCP data with shorter missions (~30 km) but at shallower depths. In total the AUV has collected over 500 km of data for this project and is part of the Autosub Under Ice programme. The AUV will be sent to the Greenland Sea in 2003 and then back to Antarctica in 2004/5 for missions beneath the Filchner Ronne ice shelf.
In February 2001 the AUV Autosub 2 was used to investigate the marginal ice zone of the northern ... more In February 2001 the AUV Autosub 2 was used to investigate the marginal ice zone of the northern Weddell Sea. Targeted goals were to deploy the AUV from a research ship and derive the thickness of Antarctic sea ice on the scale of 10's of km, make measurements beneath different types of icebergs, determine whether a very important food resource - the Antarctic krill - was more abundant under sea ice or in open water and to measures downwelling irradiance beneath sea ice. Here we report on the first two of these goals. For these missions Autosub was comprehensively equipped with a scientific package including two CTD's, two ADCP's, a light sensor, oxygen and chlorophyll sensors, transmissiometer and a scientific echosounder operating at two frequencies. There were routinely two types of missions: relatively long transects from open water into the ice and back out again, and short missions under selected icebergs in various states of decay. There were 20 missions in total ...
Substantial open-ocean phytoplankton blooms in the Antarctic Zone to the northwest of South Georg... more Substantial open-ocean phytoplankton blooms in the Antarctic Zone to the northwest of South Georgia, South Atlantic are described. Chlorophyll a , nutrient and physical oceanography data, collected between 2 and 5 January 1994 and again 1 mo later between 2 and 4 February along a 450 km transect comprising 14 stations, are presented. The transect crossed the Subantarct~c and the Polar Front During the January transect survey, in 2 locations to the south of the Polar Front, average surface mixed-layer chlorophyll a concentrations were >8 and > l 3 mg m-.', and were associated wlth silicate, nitrate and phosphate depletions (<2.0, < l 1.0 and 1.0 mm01 m-"respectively), and nitrite and ammonium enhancement (>0.3 and >1.4 mm01 m-3 respectively). O n e of the phytoplankton blooms was associated wlth the nearby Polar Front, but the origin of a bloom further south, well w~t h l n the Antarctic Zone, was not clear. Phytoplankton production predicted by nutrient drawdown was far greater than the observed biomass on both surveys. If a common Antarctic Zone origin is accepted for the southern bloom, a dechne in biomass of -2.7 m01 C m-2 occurred in the upper 50 m of the water column between the 2 surveys, which cannot be accounted for by zooplankton grazlng. If the bloom had originated in Subantarctic water advected to the south of the Polar Front, in~tial nutrient concentrat~ons would have been lower and consequently predicted production was closer to the observed biomass values. Nevertheless, the area may be one of intense but local carbon export. KEY WORDS: Phytoplankton blooms -Nutnents . Antarctic Zone Polar Front. South Atlantic Carbon export 0 lnter-Research 1996 Resale of full artlcle not permitted
Abstract The part of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet that drains into the Amundsen Sea is currently ... more Abstract The part of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet that drains into the Amundsen Sea is currently thinning at such a rate that it contributes nearly 10% of the observed rise in global mean sea level. Acceleration of the outlet glaciers appears to be caused by thinning at their downstream ends, where the ice goes afloat, indicating that the changes are probably being forced from the ocean. Observations made since the mid-1990s on the Amundsen Sea continental shelf have revealed that the deep troughs, carved by previous glacial ...
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