Emre Saral
Emre Saral, PhD, born in 1983, Ankara, studied international relations and modern Turkish history. His doctoral thesis focuses on the relations between Turkey and Hungary between the two world wars and the World War II. With the scholarship of the Hungarian Balassi Institute he did research for his doctoral thesis under the supervision of the Institute of Oriental Studies & Department of Turcology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest in 2010 and 2012. He is a member of Turkish-Hungarian Friendship Association in Ankara and the editor of the Association’s official webpage. His studies concerning Turkish - Hungarian relations were published in Turkey. He speaks English, Hungarian as well as German. He has currently been working as the assistant researcher and lecturer at the Atatürk Institute, Hacettepe University, Ankara.
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1983 yılında Ankara’da dünyaya geldi. 2000 yılında TED Ankara Koleji’nden, 2004 yılında Bilkent Üniversitesi Uluslararası İlişkiler bölümünden mezun oldu. Yüksek lisansını Ankara Üniversitesi’nde Avrupa Birliği'nin uluslararası ilişkileri üzerine yapan Saral, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılâp Tarihi Enstitüsü’nden 2016 senesinde doktora derecesini almıştır. 2007 yılından beri aynı Enstitü'de araştırma görevlisi olarak çalışmaktadır. 2023 yılında doçent unvanını almıştır. Türk-Macar Dostluk Derneği Yönetim Kurulu üyesidir. Avrupa’daki Macar azınlıklar üzerine çalışmaları yayımlanmıştır. Yurt içi ve yurtdışında düzenlenen çeşitli bilimsel toplantılarda yakın dönem Türk-Macar ilişkileri üzerine konuşmalar yapmıştır. İngilizce, Macarca ve Almanca bilmektedir.
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1983 yılında Ankara’da dünyaya geldi. 2000 yılında TED Ankara Koleji’nden, 2004 yılında Bilkent Üniversitesi Uluslararası İlişkiler bölümünden mezun oldu. Yüksek lisansını Ankara Üniversitesi’nde Avrupa Birliği'nin uluslararası ilişkileri üzerine yapan Saral, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılâp Tarihi Enstitüsü’nden 2016 senesinde doktora derecesini almıştır. 2007 yılından beri aynı Enstitü'de araştırma görevlisi olarak çalışmaktadır. 2023 yılında doçent unvanını almıştır. Türk-Macar Dostluk Derneği Yönetim Kurulu üyesidir. Avrupa’daki Macar azınlıklar üzerine çalışmaları yayımlanmıştır. Yurt içi ve yurtdışında düzenlenen çeşitli bilimsel toplantılarda yakın dönem Türk-Macar ilişkileri üzerine konuşmalar yapmıştır. İngilizce, Macarca ve Almanca bilmektedir.
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Savaş’ın başlangıç aşamasında araya giren engellere rağmen birbirlerine yazmayı sürdürmüşlerdir. Erkin’in diplomatik görevlerini tamamlayıp Türkiye’ye dönmesinin ve savaşın ardından yazışmaların içeriği yeni yıl tebriği vesilesiyle hal hatır sorma biçimine bürünmüştür. Bu yazışmalar dönemin siyasal ve sosyal atmosferini yansıtması, Macaristan’daki Türkoloji bilimine dair ipuçları vermesi açısından dikkate değerdir. Yazışmalar Németh’in de uzmanlık alanıyla uyuştuğu üzere, Erken Cumhuriyet
Dönemi’nde Türk Kültür Devrimi’nin önemli bir sütunu olan Türk tarihi ve dilinin tarihsel kökenlerinin tetkik edildiği döneme denk gelir. Türk yetkililer Macar alimin bilgisinden en ileri düzeyde istifade etmeyi bilmişler; Macar bilgin de meslekî birikimini paylaşma hususunda oldukça istekli davranmıştır. Bu çalışmada söz konusu tasnifte yer alan yazışmalar aynen paylaşılmış olup kronolojik olarak verilen yazışmalarda bahsi geçen kişi ve olaylar açıklanarak yorumlanmıştır.
The Austro-Hungarian artillery, which consisted of two batteries, arrived in Turkey during mid-November 1915 in order to assist the Ottoman troops that were fighting on the Gallipoli front in World War I. The Austrian public learned about the details of this collaboration through a film shot by Count Alexander “Sascha” Kolowrat, an Austrian film-maker and director. Kolowrat came to the Gallipoli front and shot the film at the end of 1915 and presented his film at various conferences held in Vienna in March 1916. Scenes such as activities and transportation of the artillery batteries and collaboration between the ally Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman soldiers are covered in the film entitled “The Last Days of the Entente in Gallipoli”. The film is unique in that it is the first and only film shot by an Austran filmmaker on the Gallipoli front. Some scenes from the film were broadcast in the 63rd and 64th episodes of a documentary entitled “Tarihin Ruhu” on Turkish TRT 2 channel together with other scenes from different films shot on the same front. Nevertheless, due to insufficient information at hand, it could not be found out from which film these scenes were taken. News and detailed relevant illustrations from the Austrian newspaper and magazines of the period prove that Kolowrat originally shot some of the referred scenes used in the documentary. Kolowrat’s film is highly significant in that it shows motion pictures from the period December 1915-January 1916, which have reached today.
Alexander Kolowrat, a member of a noble family, lived between 1886 and 1927 and is known as the founder of the Austrian film industry. Apart from cinema, he had keen interest on cars and aeroplanes and made effort for expanding speed races in Austria as well. He joined the Austro-Hungarian army as First Lieutenant in World War I and shot propaganda films from different fronts and attracted general public attention through his conferences in which he presented those films.
Belligerents of the World War I used various propaganda tools in order to motivate their own people and to demoralize their enemies. One of these propaganda tools is cinema. Kolowrat’s film has strong propaganda implications aimed at the Austrian public in that it shows and highlights the devotion of Austro-Hungarian soldiers fighting on foreign lands, particularly the power of artillery batteries and that their heroic efforts are not futile. Moreover; it contains propaganda in favour of their Turkish allies in order to create a sympathetic image in the eye of the Austrian public. Hence, Kolowrat’s film and his four public conferences is crucially functional.
Apart from Kolowrat’s life and activities as well as his referred film and conferences, this article also touches on the use of cinema as a propaganda tool. Cinema had already been used as propaganda tool in Germany and Austria-Hungary even before the breakout of the war. The Ottoman officials, who later figured out the importance of cinema as a propaganda tool during the war sought technical assistance and training experts through the support of its allies but they failed, which is one of the other focus points of this article.
had been an uncontrolled flow of workers to Turkey. Enduring poor living conditions and facing several problems, including low wages and lack of social insurance, they were employed in jobs such as house building and railroad construction, and they made a serious contribution to the development of the country in the 1920s and 1930s. This essay presents the situation of the Hungarian migrant workers in Turkey in the interwar period on the basis of official documents held in Hungarian, Turkish, and
British archives. I examine the socio-economic situation of Hungarians in Anatolia, the obstacles they faced, the stance of and measures adopted by the Turkish government, and the attempts that were made by the Hungarian diplomatic mission on behalf of the Hungarian citizens living in Turkey.
Keywords: Foreign labor force, Hungarians in Turkey, workers, Turkish–Hungarian relations in the interwar period
Gallipoli Campaign
Austro-Hungarian artillery batteries as an ally of the Ottoman
Empire had a determining effect on the fate of the World War I on fronts
such as Gallipoli and Palestine. Ottoman army which was strengthened
by the arrival of these artilleries by November 1915 repelled British and
Anzac troops by effective artillery shooting. Georg Bittner, an Austrian
war correspondent, followed the activities of the artilleries and published
articles in a newspaper entitled Neues Wiener Journal between December 31, 1915 and January 28, 1916 on issues including the evacuation of the British troops, his observations on the trenches as well as some stories on some Turkish officers and privates. This study aims to introduce and analyze the referred articles of Georg Bittner in detail. In the study full translation of the articles are given as well.
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Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nda Osmanlı Devleti’nin müttefiklerinden
Avusturya-Macaristan ordusu birliklerinden özellikle topçu bataryaları
Çanakkale ve Filistin Cephelerinde savaşın akıbetini etkilemiştir. 1915 senesi Kasım ayından itibaren Türkiye’ye gelmeye başlayan topçu bataryalarının katılımıyla gücü artan Osmanlı ordusu, etkili top atışlarıyla İngiliz ve Anzak (Anzac) kuvvetlerini püskürtmüştür. Avusturyalı savaş muhabiri Georg Bittner, bu topçuların faaliyetlerini izlemiş ve İngilizlerin bölgeden çekilişi başta olmak üzere siperlere dair gözlemleriyle kimi Türk subay ve erlere dair kişisel hikâyeleri 31 Aralık 1915 – 28 Ocak 1916 tarihleri arasında Neues Wiener Journal isimli gazetede neşretmiştir. Bu çalışma, Bittner’in haberlerini takdim ve tahlil etmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Metin içerisinde Bittner’in ilgili yazılarının Almanca’dan tam tercümeleri bulunmaktadır.
Treaty. Budapest, seeking ways to break its international isolation, leaned towards a possible alliance with Rome. Italy was also a determinant factor in the development of the relations between Turkey and Hungary. With the initiatives of the Italian statesmen, Tevfik Rüstü Aras, the Turkish foreign minister and Count István Bethlen, the Hungarian premier, had meetings twice in 1928, first in Milano, then in Budapest. In consequence of these meetings, a non-aggression and arbitration pact was signed between the parties in 1929. Afterwards, Lajos Walko, the Hungarian foreign minister, and Bethlen, the Hungarian premier, paid official visits to Ankara in 1930. With the support of Italy, Hungary contributed to the thaw between Athens and Ankara in 1930s with the mediation role between Turkey and Greece who had problems in their bilateral relations. In consequence of these reconciliation efforts between 1928 and 1933, a tripartite bloc aspired by Italy could not have been established. Instead, the Balkan Pact was formed including Turkey, Greece, Yugoslavia and Romania without any Italian influence in 1934. These developments that can be regarded as against the Italian interests affected the Turkish
-Hungarian relations negatively. This study examines the role of Italy in the political relations between Turkey and Hungary in the light of the Hungarian archival sources.
Macaristan'in aleyhinedir. Böyle bir ittifak engellenemediği takdirde paktın etkili devleti Türkiye'nin Macaristan tarafına çekilerek ittifaka nüfuz edilme si düşünülmüştür. Öte yandan, Türkiye, Macaristan'ı da Balkan Antantı' na dahil etmeye çalışmıştır. Bunun yanı sıra, Orta Avrupa'da Macaristan karşıtı bir ittifak olan Küçük İtilaf üyeleri Romanya ve Yugoslavya'nın Balkan Antantı'na da girmeleri iki oluşumun birbirleriyle ilgisini de gündeme getirmiştir. Macarlar, başlangıçta Balkan Antantı'nın Küçük İtilaf'ın gücünü pekiştireceğini düşünmüşler, fakat zamanla Balkan Antantı giderek etkili bir oluşum haline gelirken Küçük İtilaf önemini yitirmiştir.
Savaş’ın başlangıç aşamasında araya giren engellere rağmen birbirlerine yazmayı sürdürmüşlerdir. Erkin’in diplomatik görevlerini tamamlayıp Türkiye’ye dönmesinin ve savaşın ardından yazışmaların içeriği yeni yıl tebriği vesilesiyle hal hatır sorma biçimine bürünmüştür. Bu yazışmalar dönemin siyasal ve sosyal atmosferini yansıtması, Macaristan’daki Türkoloji bilimine dair ipuçları vermesi açısından dikkate değerdir. Yazışmalar Németh’in de uzmanlık alanıyla uyuştuğu üzere, Erken Cumhuriyet
Dönemi’nde Türk Kültür Devrimi’nin önemli bir sütunu olan Türk tarihi ve dilinin tarihsel kökenlerinin tetkik edildiği döneme denk gelir. Türk yetkililer Macar alimin bilgisinden en ileri düzeyde istifade etmeyi bilmişler; Macar bilgin de meslekî birikimini paylaşma hususunda oldukça istekli davranmıştır. Bu çalışmada söz konusu tasnifte yer alan yazışmalar aynen paylaşılmış olup kronolojik olarak verilen yazışmalarda bahsi geçen kişi ve olaylar açıklanarak yorumlanmıştır.
The Austro-Hungarian artillery, which consisted of two batteries, arrived in Turkey during mid-November 1915 in order to assist the Ottoman troops that were fighting on the Gallipoli front in World War I. The Austrian public learned about the details of this collaboration through a film shot by Count Alexander “Sascha” Kolowrat, an Austrian film-maker and director. Kolowrat came to the Gallipoli front and shot the film at the end of 1915 and presented his film at various conferences held in Vienna in March 1916. Scenes such as activities and transportation of the artillery batteries and collaboration between the ally Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman soldiers are covered in the film entitled “The Last Days of the Entente in Gallipoli”. The film is unique in that it is the first and only film shot by an Austran filmmaker on the Gallipoli front. Some scenes from the film were broadcast in the 63rd and 64th episodes of a documentary entitled “Tarihin Ruhu” on Turkish TRT 2 channel together with other scenes from different films shot on the same front. Nevertheless, due to insufficient information at hand, it could not be found out from which film these scenes were taken. News and detailed relevant illustrations from the Austrian newspaper and magazines of the period prove that Kolowrat originally shot some of the referred scenes used in the documentary. Kolowrat’s film is highly significant in that it shows motion pictures from the period December 1915-January 1916, which have reached today.
Alexander Kolowrat, a member of a noble family, lived between 1886 and 1927 and is known as the founder of the Austrian film industry. Apart from cinema, he had keen interest on cars and aeroplanes and made effort for expanding speed races in Austria as well. He joined the Austro-Hungarian army as First Lieutenant in World War I and shot propaganda films from different fronts and attracted general public attention through his conferences in which he presented those films.
Belligerents of the World War I used various propaganda tools in order to motivate their own people and to demoralize their enemies. One of these propaganda tools is cinema. Kolowrat’s film has strong propaganda implications aimed at the Austrian public in that it shows and highlights the devotion of Austro-Hungarian soldiers fighting on foreign lands, particularly the power of artillery batteries and that their heroic efforts are not futile. Moreover; it contains propaganda in favour of their Turkish allies in order to create a sympathetic image in the eye of the Austrian public. Hence, Kolowrat’s film and his four public conferences is crucially functional.
Apart from Kolowrat’s life and activities as well as his referred film and conferences, this article also touches on the use of cinema as a propaganda tool. Cinema had already been used as propaganda tool in Germany and Austria-Hungary even before the breakout of the war. The Ottoman officials, who later figured out the importance of cinema as a propaganda tool during the war sought technical assistance and training experts through the support of its allies but they failed, which is one of the other focus points of this article.
had been an uncontrolled flow of workers to Turkey. Enduring poor living conditions and facing several problems, including low wages and lack of social insurance, they were employed in jobs such as house building and railroad construction, and they made a serious contribution to the development of the country in the 1920s and 1930s. This essay presents the situation of the Hungarian migrant workers in Turkey in the interwar period on the basis of official documents held in Hungarian, Turkish, and
British archives. I examine the socio-economic situation of Hungarians in Anatolia, the obstacles they faced, the stance of and measures adopted by the Turkish government, and the attempts that were made by the Hungarian diplomatic mission on behalf of the Hungarian citizens living in Turkey.
Keywords: Foreign labor force, Hungarians in Turkey, workers, Turkish–Hungarian relations in the interwar period
Gallipoli Campaign
Austro-Hungarian artillery batteries as an ally of the Ottoman
Empire had a determining effect on the fate of the World War I on fronts
such as Gallipoli and Palestine. Ottoman army which was strengthened
by the arrival of these artilleries by November 1915 repelled British and
Anzac troops by effective artillery shooting. Georg Bittner, an Austrian
war correspondent, followed the activities of the artilleries and published
articles in a newspaper entitled Neues Wiener Journal between December 31, 1915 and January 28, 1916 on issues including the evacuation of the British troops, his observations on the trenches as well as some stories on some Turkish officers and privates. This study aims to introduce and analyze the referred articles of Georg Bittner in detail. In the study full translation of the articles are given as well.
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Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nda Osmanlı Devleti’nin müttefiklerinden
Avusturya-Macaristan ordusu birliklerinden özellikle topçu bataryaları
Çanakkale ve Filistin Cephelerinde savaşın akıbetini etkilemiştir. 1915 senesi Kasım ayından itibaren Türkiye’ye gelmeye başlayan topçu bataryalarının katılımıyla gücü artan Osmanlı ordusu, etkili top atışlarıyla İngiliz ve Anzak (Anzac) kuvvetlerini püskürtmüştür. Avusturyalı savaş muhabiri Georg Bittner, bu topçuların faaliyetlerini izlemiş ve İngilizlerin bölgeden çekilişi başta olmak üzere siperlere dair gözlemleriyle kimi Türk subay ve erlere dair kişisel hikâyeleri 31 Aralık 1915 – 28 Ocak 1916 tarihleri arasında Neues Wiener Journal isimli gazetede neşretmiştir. Bu çalışma, Bittner’in haberlerini takdim ve tahlil etmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Metin içerisinde Bittner’in ilgili yazılarının Almanca’dan tam tercümeleri bulunmaktadır.
Treaty. Budapest, seeking ways to break its international isolation, leaned towards a possible alliance with Rome. Italy was also a determinant factor in the development of the relations between Turkey and Hungary. With the initiatives of the Italian statesmen, Tevfik Rüstü Aras, the Turkish foreign minister and Count István Bethlen, the Hungarian premier, had meetings twice in 1928, first in Milano, then in Budapest. In consequence of these meetings, a non-aggression and arbitration pact was signed between the parties in 1929. Afterwards, Lajos Walko, the Hungarian foreign minister, and Bethlen, the Hungarian premier, paid official visits to Ankara in 1930. With the support of Italy, Hungary contributed to the thaw between Athens and Ankara in 1930s with the mediation role between Turkey and Greece who had problems in their bilateral relations. In consequence of these reconciliation efforts between 1928 and 1933, a tripartite bloc aspired by Italy could not have been established. Instead, the Balkan Pact was formed including Turkey, Greece, Yugoslavia and Romania without any Italian influence in 1934. These developments that can be regarded as against the Italian interests affected the Turkish
-Hungarian relations negatively. This study examines the role of Italy in the political relations between Turkey and Hungary in the light of the Hungarian archival sources.
Macaristan'in aleyhinedir. Böyle bir ittifak engellenemediği takdirde paktın etkili devleti Türkiye'nin Macaristan tarafına çekilerek ittifaka nüfuz edilme si düşünülmüştür. Öte yandan, Türkiye, Macaristan'ı da Balkan Antantı' na dahil etmeye çalışmıştır. Bunun yanı sıra, Orta Avrupa'da Macaristan karşıtı bir ittifak olan Küçük İtilaf üyeleri Romanya ve Yugoslavya'nın Balkan Antantı'na da girmeleri iki oluşumun birbirleriyle ilgisini de gündeme getirmiştir. Macarlar, başlangıçta Balkan Antantı'nın Küçük İtilaf'ın gücünü pekiştireceğini düşünmüşler, fakat zamanla Balkan Antantı giderek etkili bir oluşum haline gelirken Küçük İtilaf önemini yitirmiştir.
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Regarding the Armistice of Mudros, signed in October 30th 1918, soldiers of the Austro-Hungarian army served at Turkish fronts as an ally was obliged to leave the Turkish territories within three months. The referred soldiers were initially gathered at certain meeting points in Istanbul and afterwards they were taken to their homelands in groups by ships. Those who either did not or were not able to leave the country after the deadline were regarded as prisoners of war. Evacuation was made under severe conditions. For example, soldiers who were the origins of the victor nations such as Italians, Czechs and Slovaks were given privilages under the auspieces of the Entente powers whereas the German, Austrian and Hungarian origins were stood up. Studies were done on the implementation of the relevant clauses of the Armistice. Therefore, this study aims to shed light to the incidents happened in the course of their departure, their departure route, discrepancies between the authorities and the soldier groups in the light of the experiences and personal observations of the evacuated Austro-Hungarian soldiers published in the Austrian newspapers.
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Türkiye, iki savaş arasındaki dönemde bulunduğu hassas konum itibarıyla Avrupa'daki gelişmelere kayıtsız kalmamış; statüko yanlısı bir siyaset izlediği için bölgedeki konjonktürün devamını savunmuştur. 1920'li yıllarda Orta Avrupa ve Tuna Havzası'nda cereyan eden gelişmelerin Türkiye'ye doğrudan bir etkisi olmamıştır. Önceleri Türkiye-Sovyetler Birliği ekseninde belirlenen bölgeye yönelik siyaset zamanla Türk-İtalyan ilişkilerinin seyrine göre şekillenmiştir. 1930'lu yıllarda Türkiye ve Yunanistan'ın öncülüğünde kurulan Balkan Antantı'nın diğer iki üyesi Yüugoslavya ve Romanya'nın aynı zamanda Küçük İtilaf'ın üyeleri olmaları Orta Avrupa meselelerinin Türkiye'nin de dikkatini çekmesine sebep olmuştur. Türkiye, İtalya'nın bölgedeki yayılmacı emellerinin karşısında olmuş, Avusturya'nın ilhakı (Anschluss) ve Monarşi'nin yeniden tesis edilmesi (restorasyon) meseleleriyle ilgilenmiştir.