These Jessica Escofier
These Jessica Escofier
These Jessica Escofier
THÈSE
Pour obtenir le grade de
DOCTEUR DE L’UNIVERSITÉ JOSEPH FOURIER
Spécialité : Physiologie-Physiopathogies-Pharmacologie
Jessica ESCOFFIER
Le 25 novembre 2009
Je remercie les membres du jury : Madame Valérie Choumet et monsieur Joel Drevet pour
avoir accepté d’être les rapporteurs de ce travail, ainsi que messieurs Gerard Lambeau et
Stéphan Nonchev d’avoir accepté de participer à l’évaluation de ce travail.
Je tiens tout particulièrement à remercier Christophe pour m’avoir fait confiance durant ces 4
ans, pour son encadrement riche en apprentissage, pour son soutien, son aide et l’attention
qu’il a porté à l’ensemble de mon travail et enfin pour sa patience les jours où je n’étais pas
très performante.
Je remercie Michel De Waard pour m’avoir accueillie au sein de son laboratoire, pour ses
conseils avisés et sa diplomatie.
Je tiens aussi à remercier sincèrement les étudiants, Hicham qui a toujours le mot pour rire,
Narendra avec qui j’ai appris à m’exprimer en anglais, enfin je crois, Cathy qui a toujours des
bonnes idées pour s’éclater, Katell et sa bonne humeur bretonne, Julien pour sa gentillesse et
son beau phrasé et enfin Norbert qui s’est révélé être un énorme soutien moral.
Je n’oublie pas aussi les étudiants qui sont parti, mais qui m’on beaucoup aidé Sonia, Paola,
Gina, Ryadh , Julien, Emilie et bien sûr Abir.
Merci à tous…
Résumé
Cyril,
Merci pour ton soutien et ta complicité. Merci de partager mon quotidien et de me remonter le
moral quand il va mal. Merci de partager mes joies, mes peines. Merci de t’être intéressée à
mon travail et d’avoir cherché avec moi des solutions … En fait, merci pour tout ton amour.
Merci pour votre soutien. Merci de m’avoir remontée le moral lorsque celui-ci n’étaient pas
au beau fixe. Merci de partager mes joies, mes peines. Merci de s’être intéressée à mon
travail. Merci pour tout.
Merci de m’avoir donné le goût et les moyens de faire des études. Merci de m’avoir soutenu
durant ma longue formation. Merci de vous être tenus au courant de l’avancée de mes
recherches. Merci de votre réconfort. Merci pour tout. Cette réussite est aussi la vôtre.
Mes sœurs : Sandrine, Deborah, Maureen et Leslie et mes beaux frères : Minou, François,
Noy, et Yannick
Merci à l’ensemble de ma (nombreuse) famille pour leur soutien mais aussi pour les
discussions animées des repas familiaux et pour les questions récurrentes : « Mais quand est-
ce que tu auras réellement fini ? », « A quoi servent tes recherches ? » et les « à quand le
contraceptif masculin ? »…
Introduction 1
Les principes, les étapes et les exigences de la fécondation 1
4. La gaine de mitochondries 7
cholestérol 27
Problématique 65
Méthodologie 73
II. Fractionnement des venins par chromatographie 75
II. Modèle biologique : la mobilité spermatique 75
Résultats 79
I. Découverte de nouveaux outils pharmacologiques à partir de venins d’animaux. 81
1. Introduction 81
Article 1: sPLA2 from snake venom as a source of molecule modulating sperm
physiology: Phospholipases of the toxic snakes Oxyuranus scutellanus strongly modulate
sperm motility, sperm acrosome reaction and in vitro fertilization 83
2. Discussion 85
Les courants calciques dépendant du voltage de type T des cellules germinales est due
seulement à l'activation du canal Cav3.2 101
Le canal Cav3.1 est absent des spermatozoïdes matures 101
-/-
Seule la signalisation calcique des spermatozoïdes Cav3.2 est affectée lors de la
réaction acrosomique 102
Les canaux Cav3.2 ne sont pas les seuls canaux calciques impliqués dans la signalisation
de la RA 102
Figure 20 : Photo des trajectoires des têtes de spermatozoïdes de souris établis par un
appareil de mobilité spermatique (CASA) ............................................................................... 31
Figure 30 : Représentation schématique de l’action des acides gras sur la syntaxine I. .......... 47
Figure 1: Représentation
schématique des étapes de la
fécondation chez la souris.
L’ensemble des étapes de la
fécondation durent en moyenne
90 min chez la souris.
Pour que la fécondation réussisse, les deux gamètes doivent se rencontrer à un moment et un
état de maturité propice. L’ovocyte doit être entouré des cellules folliculaires et bloqué en
métaphase de deuxième division méiotique. Le spermatozoïde doit se trouver dans un état
compatible, il doit être mobile afin de pouvoir traverser l’oviducte et être capable d’interagir
avec la zone pellucide et rentrer dans l’ovocyte.
1
Introduction
Chapitre 1 : Le spermatozoïde de Mammifère
Le spermatozoïde est une cellule autonome qui mesure 100 à 150 µm de long. Il est constitué
de deux parties distinctes : la tête et le flagelle.
I. La tête du spermatozoïde
La tête du spermatozoïde (8 µm sur 4 µm) contient un noyau haploïde allongé recouvert sur
ses deux tiers antérieurs par la vésicule acrosomiale ou acrosome. Le noyau haploïde
renferme les chromosomes à l’état de chromatine compacte, condensation nucléaire renforcée
par l’association de l’ADN à des protamines.
L’acrosome est un organite intracellulaire dérivé de l’appareil de Golgi. Il contient plusieurs
enzymes hydrolytiques et protéolytiques telles que : la β-N-acétylglucosaminidase, la
hyaluronidase, la phosphatase acide et l’acrosine qui participent à la rupture des pontages
entre ZP1, ZP2 et ZP3, (Suarez 1987; Suarez, Vincenti et al. 1987; Ho and Suarez 2001; Ho,
Granish et al. 2002; Turner 2003; Turner 2006; Buffone, Foster et al. 2008)
La tête du spermatozoïde est constituée : d’une membrane plasmique, d’un espace péri-
acrosomique, d’une membrane acrosomique externe, d’un contenu acrosomique, d’une
membrane interne acrosomique, d’un espace sous acrosomique et d’un noyau haploïde (figure
2).
La tête du spermatozoïde est reliée au flagelle par un col court et rétréci. Ce dernier est
constitué des centrioles proximaux et distaux, qui sont à l’origine de l’axonème (Figure 3).
2
Introduction
II. Le flagelle
La partie motrice principale du flagelle est appelée l’axonème. L’axonème est une structure
protéique très complexe, où les microtubules et leurs protéines associées sont organisés en un
long cylindre selon le schéma appelé 9 +2 (Ho and Suarez 2001). L’axonéme est un complexe
microtubulaire entouré de fibres denses externes (ODF) et de mitochondries (M) au niveau de
la pièce intermédiaire, et d’une gaine fibreuse (FS) au niveau de la pièce principale (figure 4).
3
Introduction
L’axonème, dont le diamètre mesure environ 0.2 µm, est constitué d'un cercle de 9 doublets
microtubulaires et d’une paire centrale composée de deux microtubules simples. Les
microtubules de l’axonéme sont formés par association d'unités de tubuline α et β, deux
molécules très semblables. Ces dernières s’empilent de façon alternée afin de former des
protofilaments. Un microtubule est dit « complet » lorsqu’il est constitué de 13
protofilaments. Les 9 doublets microtubulaires de l’axonéme sont constitués en avant d’un
microtubule A « complet » de 13 protofilaments et en arrière d’un microtubule Β
« incomplet » de 10 protofilaments (figure 5).
Figure 5 : Structure de l’axonème du flagelle
d’un spermatozoïde de mammifère. A)
Représentation schématique d’un axonème de
spermatozoïde de mammifère. L’axonème est
constitué d'un cercle de 9 doublets
microtubulaires (A et B) et d’une paire
centrale composée de deux microtubules. Les
microtubules de l’axonéme sont formés par
association d'unités de tubuline α et β. les
différents doublets sont associés entre eux par
des ponts de nexine. Les microtubules A sont
reliés à la gaine centrale (Inner sheat) par des
fibres rayonnantes (Radiale spoke). Les
microtubules Α portent les bras de dynéine.
B) Photographie de l’axonème d’un
spermatozoïde de mammifère par microscopie
électronique (Inaba 2007).
Les différents doublets sont associés entre eux par des ponts très élastiques constitués
principalement de nexine. Les microtubules Α portent par ailleurs des bras de dynéine
ATPasique qui permettent de s'accrocher au microtubule Β du doublet adjacent. L’interaction
cyclique de la dynéine avec le microtubule Β génère un phénomène de « glissement » des
microtubules entre eux, permettant le mouvement flagellaire (cf page 32).
5
Introduction
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (Milisav 1998), 13 chez l'oursin (Milisav 1998), 12 chez la souris
(Vaughan, Mikami et al. 1996) et 13 chez l’homme (Chapelin, Duriez et al. 1997).
Au niveau de la partie N-terminale des chaines lourdes, on retrouve les chaînes
intermédiaires qui permettent d’augmenter l’interaction entre la dynéine et le microtubule Α ,
les chaînes légères et une série de protéines régulatrices de la dyénine.
Les chaînes légères (LC) vont réguler l’activité de la dynéine par des interactions avec
protéines régulatrices dépendantes du calcium comme la calmoduline et Tctex2. La
calmoduline va interagir avec les chaînes légères de la dynéine au niveau de son domaine
LC8. L’identification du domaine d’interaction des chaînes légères avec la calmoduline a été
caractérisée (Narisawa, Hecht et al. 2002) par des expériences de co-immuprécipitation par
l’équipe de Yang (Yang, Diener et al. 2001). Tctex2 lui aussi va interagir avec les chaines
légères de la dynéine, mais au niveau de son domaine LC1, la phosphorylation de Tctex2 par
la protéine kinase A spécifique au spermatozoïde (testis-specifique PKA) va permettre la
régulation de l’activité ATPasique des dynéines (Inaba, Kagami et al. 1999).
6
Introduction
3. Les fibres denses (ODF)
4. La gaine de mitochondries
La gaine fibreuse est une structure unique du flagelle des spermatozoïdes. Elle entoure
l’axonème et les fibres denses ODF au niveau de la pièce principale. Elle se compose de deux
colonnes longitudinales reliées entre elles par des stries de fibres (figure 7).
7
Introduction
Près de la moitié des protéines de la gaine fibreuse, isolées à partir du sperme de souris, sont
des protéines AKAP (A Kinase Anchoring Protein). Les protéines AKAP sont une famille de
protéines d’ancrage. Elles vont permettre, par une simple fixation sur des sous-unités
protéiques, de réguler la localisation des protéines kinases dépendantes de l’AMPc (PKA), des
phosphatases et d'autres enzymes de signalisation (Edwards and Scott 2000). Au niveau de la
gaine fibreuse, on retrouve les protéines AKAP 3, TAKAP-80 et AKAP 4, protéines
d’ancrage des protéines kinases dépendantes de l’AMPc (PKA). Elles sont impliquées dans la
structure et l’assemblage de la gaine fibreuse (Miki, Willis et al. 2002). Les souris déficientes
en protéines AKAP 3 et AKAP 4 ont des spermatozoïdes qui présentent une mobilité
spermatique déficiente, ceci entraînant une infertilité. Au niveau morphologique, la gaine
fibreuse est déstabilisée et le flagelle raccourci (Miki, Willis et al. 2002).
AKAP 3 est aussi une protéine d’ancrage des ropporines. Les ropporines sont impliquées
dans la voie de signalisation des Rho. Cette voie de signalisation permet la réorganisation de
l’actine, la régulation de la motilité et la cytokinèse (Bishop and Hall 2000; Takai, Sasaki et
al. 2001).
La gaine fibreuse est comme la gaine mitochondriale, un générateur d’ATP (figure 8). La
gaine fibreuse va produire l'énergie nécessaire à la mise en place de l’hyperactivité flagellaire
et ainsi permettre au spermatozoïde de traverser la zone pellucide. L’énergie est produite par
le processus de glycolyse grâce à la présence au niveau de la gaine fibreuse d’enzymes
glycoliques spermatogeniques telle que la lactate déshydrogénase isoenzyme C4 (Burgos,
Maldonado et al. 1995), l’hexokinase de type 1 (Mori, Nakamura et al. 1998) et la
Glycéraldéhyde 3-phosphate déshydrogénase (GAPDS).
8
Introduction
La gaine fibreuse est une structure cytosquelettique spermatique importante. Elle permet :
- la régulation des voies de signalisations impliquées dans la mobilité spermatique, la
capacitation et l’hypéractivation flagellaire grâce à ses protéines d’ancrage.
- la production d'énergie nécessaire pour traverser la zone pellucide.
- Les échangeurs ioniques, à l’inverse des ATPases membranaires sont des systèmes
où deux, voire trois transferts ioniques sont couplés.
- Les canaux ioniques sont des systèmes dont le fonctionnement ne dépend que du
gradient électrochimique. Ils présentent une capacité de transfert ionique élevée et
ont le plus souvent une sélectivité pour un ion donné, ainsi qu’une cinétique de
fonctionnement spécifique.
9
Introduction
1. Les ATPase membranaires
Deux sortes d’ATPases membranaires sont particulièrement importantes :
- Les ATPases Sodium (Na+) / Potassium (K+), ont pour rôle le maintien d’un
gradient transmembranaire d’ion Na+ et K+ selon un transport actif de 3 ions Na+
vers l’extérieur et de 2 ions K+ vers l’intérieur. Les ATPases Na+/K+ permettent le
contrôle du potentiel de repos membranaire et sont impliquées dans la régulation
de la capacitation, la réaction acrosomique et la mobilité des spermatozoïdes
(Mrsny and Meizel 1981; Mrsny, Siiteri et al. 1984; Mrsny and Meizel 1985).
- L’ATPase calcique, permet l’expulsion de deux ions Ca2+ par molécule d’ATP
dégradée. Des APTases calciques sont présentes au niveau de la membrane
plasmique du spermatozoïde (Gordon and Barrnett 1967; Ashraf, Peterson et al.
1982; Breitbart and Rubinstein 1982; Breitbart, Stern et al. 1983). L’étude de
Roldan and Fleming 1989, a permis d’établir l’implication des ATPases calcique
dans la signalisation calcique régulant la capacitation, la réaction acrosomique et la
mobilité spermatique. Cette implication a été montrée par l’utilisation
d’antagonistes des ATPases calciques.
10
Introduction
cellule. L’échangeur chlore/bicarbonate (Cl-/HCO3-) permet une augmentation
intracellulaire de bicarbonate, première étape des modifications physiologiques,
intracellulaires ou membranaires du spermatozoïde qui lui permettra de féconder
l’ovocyte (Visconti, Muschietti et al. 1990; Gadella and Harrison 2000; Flesch,
Brouwers et al. 2001; Harrison and Gadella 2005). De plus, des études
fonctionnelles ont démontré qu’il existait dans les spermatozoïdes de souris deux
systèmes régulant le pH : un échangeur Cl-/HCO3- dépendant du Na+ et un système
-
inhibé par des antagonistes des canaux Cl mais qui ne possède pas toutes les
caractéristiques des échangeurs Cl-/HCO3- indépendants du Na+(Zeng, Oberdorf et
al. 1996).
12
Introduction
effectivement transmembranaires. Les ClC s’organiseraient en homo- ou
hétéromultimères (par 2 ou par 4) pour former un canal fonctionnel.
Les cellules spermatogoniques de souris possèdent aussi des canaux Cl- ouverts à des
potentiels au-dessus de -50 mV et sensibles à l’acide niflumique, inhibiteur anionique
(Espinosa, De la Vega et al. 1998). Chez la souris, ce dernier inhibe la réaction acrosomique
induite par différents inducteurs tels que la zone pellucide, la progestérone et le GABA
(Espinosa, De la Vega et al. 1998) (Espinosa, de la Vega-Beltran et al. 1998; Darszon,
Labarca et al. 1999). L’étude de Yeung 2005 a permis d’établir la présence de deux canaux
chlore dépendant du voltage : le CLCN3 et CLNS1A au niveau des spermatozoïdes humains.
Ces canaux sont impliqués dans la régulation du volume cellulaire des spermatozoïdes
humains (Yeung, Barfield et al. 2005).
Des études d’imunohistochimie ont montré la présence de deux canaux CNG au niveau du
flagelle des spermatozoïdes, CNGA3 et CNGA1 (Wiesner, Weiner et al. 1998; Kobori,
Miyazaki et al. 2000). Des études utilisant un analogue du GMPc, le 8-BrcGMP a permis de
montrer l’implication des canaux CNG dans la signalisation calcique spermatique. En effet,
ces études montrent que le 8-BrcGMP induit d’une part la réaction acrosomique (Rotem,
Zamir et al. 1998) et d’autre part une vague calcique au niveau de la tête des spermatozoïdes
13
Introduction
(Kobori, Miyazaki et al. 2000). Cependant, l’invalidation du gène GNCA3 n’induit aucune
infertilité spermatique (Biel, Seeliger et al. 1999). La découverte d’une nouvelle famille de
canaux calcique dépendant du voltage et de l’activation par AMPc : « Catsper » au niveau du
flagelle des spermatozoïdes (Ren, Navarro et al. 2001), jette un doute sur le rôle des canaux
CNG dans la signalisation calcique spermatique.
Afin de répondre à la pluralité de fonctions cellulaires du calcium au sein d’une même cellule,
les canaux calciques présentent une variabilité moléculaire importante et permettent à la
cellule de mettre en place une large gamme de signalisations calciques différentes, d’une
élévation rapide, transitoire et localisée, à une augmentation persistante et généralisée. Le
répertoire en canaux calciques des cellules germinales en général, et du spermatozoïde en
particulier, est extrêmement étendu puisque nous retrouvons sur ces cellules des représentants
de toutes les familles de canaux calciques. (Figure 9)
Figure 9 : Représentation schématique de la distribution des canaux calciques dans le sperme de mammifères
(Darszon, Nishigaki et al. 2005).
14
Introduction
Il a ainsi été décrit au niveau des spermatozoïdes :
Ces canaux sont des protéines hétéro-oligomériques (Figure 10), situés sur la membrane
plasmique, qui s’ouvrent lorsque la cellule est soumise à une dépolarisation. Ces canaux sont
impliqués dans la réaction acrosomique et la mobilité spermatique. Il existe deux classes de
canaux calciques activés par le voltage. La classification de ces canaux a tout d’abord été
fondée sur des critères biophysiques (Tsien, Ellinor et al. 1991) puis sur des critères
pharmacologiques, avec la découverte de toxines spécifiques et enfin sur des critères
phylogéniques par la comparaison de leurs séquences génomiques.
Figure 10 : Représentation
schématique de la structure des
canaux calciques dépendants du
voltage. Les canaux calciques
dépendants du voltage sont
constitués d’une sous-unité
principale α1 qui constitue
notamment le pore du canal. Elle
comprend 4 domaines
membranaires (I-IV) qui
possèdent chacun 6 hélices
transmembranaires (S1-S6)
reliées par des boucles intra et
extracellulaires. Pour les canaux
HVA, la sous unité α1 est
associée à des protéines
auxiliaires : α2, δ, β et γ
(McCleskey 1994; Darszon,
Nishigaki et al. 2005).
Six canaux ont été clairement identifiés et regroupés en deux grandes familles (Nargeot and
Charnet 1994):
15
Introduction
- La famille des canaux à haut seuil d’activation qui nécessitent de fortes
dépolarisations de la membrane (de -90 mV à 0 mV) pour s’activer. Ces canaux
appartiennent aux sous-familles Cav1.x et Cav2.x
Au niveau des spermatozoïdes, des membres de ces deux familles sont présents : Cav1.2,
Cav2.1, 2.2 et 2.3, Cav3.1, 3.2 et 3.3 (Florman, Corron et al. 1992; Aanesen, Fried et al. 1996;
Goodwin, Leeds et al. 1998; Perez-Reyes 1998; Westenbroek and Babcock 1999; Goodwin,
Karabinus et al. 2000; Wennemuth, Westenbroek et al. 2000; Park, Ahn et al. 2003; Trevino,
Felix et al. 2004; Escoffier, Boisseau et al. 2007). Ces canaux sont impliqués dans la
régulation de la réaction acrosomique (Florman and First 1988; Florman, Corron et al. 1992;
Florman 1994; Arnoult, Cardullo et al. 1996; Arnoult, Zeng et al. 1996; Lievano, Santi et al.
1996; Bai and Shi 2002; Escoffier, Boisseau et al. 2007).
Récemment, une nouvelle famille de ces canaux calciques, nommée CatSper, a été
découverte. Ce canal a été initialement trouvé par une recherche « in silico » basée sur des
homologies de séquences avec les canaux calciques dépendant du voltage (CCDV) (Quill,
Ren et al. 2001; Ren, Navarro et al. 2001). Cependant, contrairement aux CCDV, CatSper est
composé d’un seul domaine de 6 hélices transmembranaires (S1-S6), autrement dit, 4
molécules ou sous-unités de CatSper sont nécessaires pour former un canal calcique
fonctionnel, à l’image des canaux potassiques (Figure 11). Quatre gènes, situés sur des
chromosomes différents codent actuellement pour 4 isoformes de CatSper (CatSper1, 2, 3 et
4) (Ren, Navarro et al. 2001; Carlson, Westenbroek et al. 2003; Lobley, Pierron et al. 2003;
Carlson, Quill et al. 2005; Kirichok, Navarro et al. 2006). CatSper est associé à des protéines
auxiliaires : CatSper β (Liu, Xia et al. 2007) et CatSper γ (Wang, Liu et al. 2009). Mais
l’expression hétérologue des différentes isoformes de CatSper (séparément ou ensemble) n’a
pas permis de mettre en évidence la fonction canal de ces protéines. On suppose actuellement
que les canaux CatSper nécessitent d’autres sous-unités auxiliaires inconnues pour que la
fonction canal s’exprime.
16
Introduction
Figure 11 : Représentation schématique du canal
CatSper. Le complexe CatSper est formé de
CatSper 1-4 et d'une sous-unité auxiliaires :
CatSper β. CatSper ß est constitué de 2 domaines
transmembranaires, séparés par une grande boucle
extracellulaire (~ 1000 acides aminés). Comme les
autres canaux calciques dépendant du voltage, les 4
isoformes de CatSper sont constituées de 6
domaines transmembranaires (S1-S6) reliés par des
boucles intra et extracellulaires. Le domaine
transmembranaire S4 constitue le senseur de
potentiel (sensor voltage domain). Les domaines
transmembranaires S5, S6 et les boucles S5, S6 transmembranaire constitue le pore du canal. La sélectivité du
canal pour le calcium est déterminée par une séquence consensus d’acides aminés négatifs ([T/S]x[D/E]xW)
située au niveau du pore du canal(Navarro, Kirichok et al. 2008)
Les quatre membres de la famille CatSper sont exprimés presque exclusivement dans le
testicule, et les spermatozoïdes de mammifère. Ces canaux sont localisés au niveau de la pièce
principale du spermatozoïde. Bien que leur mode d’activation reste inconnu, ces canaux
calciques sont impliqués dans l’hyperactivité du flagelle et la fertilité. L’invalidation d’un des
4 gènes de CatSper (CatSper 1, 2, 3 ou 4) chez la souris mâle induit une immobilité flagellaire
et une infertilité (Ren, Navarro et al. 2001; Avidan, Tamary et al. 2003; Carlson, Westenbroek
et al. 2003; Lobley, Pierron et al. 2003; Carlson, Quill et al. 2005; Qi, Moran et al. 2007;
Navarro, Kirichok et al. 2008; Carlson, Burnett et al. 2009)
L’activation de ces canaux dépend du niveau de remplissage des stocks calciques internes,
d’où leur nom. Parmi les canaux SOC, la sous-famille de canaux, appelée TRPC (7 gènes),
semble majoritairement responsable de cette entrée de calcium (Figure 12). L’activation des
SOCs qui fait suite à la vidange des stocks est encore un mécanisme mal compris ainsi que
leur rôle dans la physiologie spermatique. Quatre modes d’activations des TRPC ont été
envisagés :
- un recrutement des canaux vers la membrane plasmique par exocytose (Yao, Ferrer-
Montiel et al. 1999).
17
Introduction
- La vidange des stocks pourrait permettre le relâchement d’un facteur diffusant jusqu'à
la membrane plasmique (Randriamampita and Tsien 1993).
- Depuis les 3 dernières années, une nouvelle famille de protéine senseur de calcium a
été identifiée comme régulateur des TRPC : Les STIM (STromal Interaction
Molecule). Elles permettraient l’activation des TRPC par une interaction fonctionnelle
(Potier and Trebak 2008; Bojarski, Pomorski et al. 2009; Deng, Wang et al. 2009;
Potier, Gonzalez et al. 2009).
celle des canaux CNG et des canaux calciques dépendants du voltage, sauf que le domaine S4 ne possède pas
de résidus positif, ce qui leur confère une insensibilité aux variations de voltage.(Darszon, Nishigaki et al. 2005)
Plusieurs membres des TRPC ont été décrits dans le spermatozoïde comme TRPC 1,
2, 3, 4 et 6 (O'Toole, Arnoult et al. 2000; Jungnickel, Marrero et al. 2001; Stamboulian,
Waard et al. 2002; Castellano, Trevino et al. 2003; Sutton, Jungnickel et al. 2004).
L’implication de TRPC2 dans la physiologie spermatique a été mise en évidence par
l’utilisation d’un anticorps spécifique dirigé contre TRPC2 qui permet l’inhibition des
courants calciques dépendant du TRPC2. L’inhibition de ces courants calciques bloque la
réaction acrosomique induite par ZP3 (Jungnickel, Marrero et al. 2001). Cependant, la souris
KO TRPC2 reste fertile (Leypold et al., 2002), suggérant que les autres TRPCs présents
pourraient se substituer à TRPC2.
18
Introduction
Les récepteurs canaux.
Ces canaux, eux aussi localisés dans la membrane plasmique, s’ouvrent par la fixation d’une
molécule sur leur domaine extracellulaire. Le récepteur à l’acétylcholine qui appartient à cette
famille est lui aussi présent sur le spermatozoïde. Son rôle dans la physiologie spermatique
reste encore mal défini. Il pourrait cependant être impliqué dans le contrôle de la RA (Son and
Meizel, 2003).
Ils permettent la vidange des stocks internes et sont de deux types : le récepteur à l’IP3 activé
par une augmentation de la concentration de l’IP3 (3 gènes) et le récepteur de la Ryanodine (3
gènes), activé par le calcium ou grâce à un couplage mécanique avec des canaux dépendant
du voltage de la membrane plasmique. Au niveau du spermatozoïde, on les retrouve
majoritairement au niveau de la membrane acrosomique (Walensky and Snyder 1995).
Le récepteur à l’inositol 1.4.5 triphosphate (IP3R) récepteur tétramérique est activé par la
liaison de l’inositol 1.4.5 triphosphate (IP 3 ). L’IP 3 est un messager secondaire, provenant de
l’IP 3 permet le relâchement de calcium contenu dans les stocks intracellulaires (figure 13).
Du point de vue de sa structure, il s’agit d’un tétramère (Jiang, Thrower et al. 2002). La
région du canal calcique possède des homologies avec le RyR et est localisée au niveau Cter
de la protéine. Le filtre de sélectivité est codé par une séquence précise en acides aminés
GVGD. La sélectivité au calcium est déterminée par un résidu Asp2550(Boehning, Joseph et
al. 2001). La protéine comprend six domaines transmembranaires et sa partie Cter se projette
dans le cytoplasme. Le site de liaison pour l’IP3 se situe au niveau Nter de la protéine. L’IP3R
est une très grosse protéine d’environ 1000 kDa.
19
Introduction
Figure 13 : Représentation schématique d’un
monomère du récepteur à l’IP3. Le récepteur
l’IP3R est un tétramère formé de 4 sous-unités
identiques. Chaque sous-unité comprend six
domaines transmembranaires et une partie Cter
cytoplasmique. La sélectivité du canal pour le
calcium est déterminée par un résidu Asp2550
(Patterson, Boehning et al. 2004).
L’IP3R n’a pas qu’une fonction de canal calcique. En effet, de nombreuses protéines
interagissent directement avec l’IP3R qui est impliqué dans de nombreuses voies de
signalisations. La régulation de cette protéine est assez complexe. Plusieurs acteurs peuvent
réguler l’IP3R :
- Le calcium contrôle l’IP3R de façon biphasique. Le calcium à forte concentration
intracellulaire (100 nM) active l’IP3R et à faible concentration intracellulaire l’inhibe.
- La régulation de l’IP3R peut s’effectuer par le biais de phosphorylations. L’IP3R peut
être phosphorylé par plusieurs protéines kinases. La phosphorylation de l’IP3R modifie
les caractéristiques spatiotemporelles du relâchement de calcium (Ferris, Cameron et
al. 1991; Ferris, Huganir et al. 1991).
- L’ATP augmente l’influx de calcium via l’IP3R quand sa concentration est de 100 µM.
En revanche, lorsque sa concentration est élevée, l’ATP inhibe le relâchement de
calcium induit par l’IP3 (Ferris, Huganir et al. 1990).
- Régulation par des interactions protéine - protéines, plus de 25 protéines ont été
identifiées comme interagissant avec l’IP3R, comme l’ankrine, la calmoduline, la
myosine, la caspase 3, la calpain, le cytochrome C, TRPC, etc…
Walensky et Snyder en 1995 ont réalisé une étude de référence sur la présence du récepteur à
l’IP3 dans le spermatozoïde mature. Ils ont montré que le spermatozoïde était une cellule très
riche en IP3R, que l’IP3R se colocalisait essentiellement avec l’acrosome et que le signal
disparaissait lors de la réaction acrosomique (Walensky and Snyder 1995). D’autres études
ont par la suite démontré l’implication du récepteur à l’IP3 dans la mise en place de la
signalisation calcique qui induit la réaction acrosomique (Arnoult, Kazam et al. 1999).
Nous l’avons vu, le spermatozoïde est une cellule très complexe, hautement différencié. Il va
subir tout au long de son existence une série de modifications physiologiques, intracellulaires
ou membranaires qui lui permettront de féconder l’ovocyte. Ces changements
s’accompagnent de signaux et d’activation des voies de transduction intracellulaires. Ils sont
principalement composés de signaux ioniques et métaboliques. La première série de
modifications est la capacitation. La capacitation est une étape de maturation des
spermatozoïdes lors de leur ascension dans le tractus génital femelle. On appelle capacitation
l’ensemble des changements physiologiques qui rendent les spermatozoïdes capables de
féconder l’ovocyte.
21
Introduction
La capacitation est une étape de maturation des spermatozoïdes lors de leur ascension
dans le tractus génital femelle. On appelle capacitation l’ensemble des changements
physiologiques qui rendent les spermatozoïdes capables de féconder l’ovocyte. C’est un
phénomène réversible, les spermatozoïdes capacités peuvent être « décapacités » s’ils sont
incubés dans le plasma séminal (Vadnais, Kirkwood et al. 2005; Vadnais, Kirkwood et al.
2005). À l’heure actuelle, on ne connaît pas toutes les modifications moléculaires qui
accompagnent la capacitation, cependant on en connaît quatre principales :
22
Introduction
I. Modification de la composition lipidique membranaire lors de la
capacitation
Lors de la capacitation, la membrane plasmique du spermatozoïde subit des modifications et
notamment des modifications lipidiques. Ces dernières correspondent à des changements dans
la distribution et la composition en lipides et phospholipides, ce qui conduit à une
augmentation de la fluidité membranaire et à des changements de l’architecture et de la
composition de la membrane (Baldi, Luconi et al. 2000; Gadella, Tsai et al. 2008).
La composition lipidique des membranes des spermatozoïdes est inhabituelle par rapport à
celle des autres cellules somatiques de mammifères (Mack, Everingham et al. 1986; Alvarez
and Storey 1995; Martinez and Morros 1996) . En effet, ces membranes présentent :
- Des acides gras polyinsaturés tels que les acides arachidoniques, docosapentanoïque et
docosahexaénoïque fixés au niveau sn-2 des phospholipides (Ladha 1998).(figure 15)
- Des acides gras saturés tels que l’acide palmitique et l’acide stéarique fixés au niveau
sn-1 des PC et PE (Ladha 1998). (Tableau 1)
23
Introduction
24
Introduction
Tableau 1: Noms et formules chimiques de quelques AG communément rencontrés dans les membranes
cellulaires (Murray, Mayes et al. 1999)
25
Introduction
façon prépondérante dans le feuillet interne (cytosolique) de la bicouche lipidique alors que
les phospholipides neutres (phosphatidylcholine (PC) et sphingomyéline) sont davantage
présents dans le feuillet externe (Flesch, Brouwers et al. 2001; Flesch, Wijnand et al. 2001;
Gadella, Tsai et al. 2008). Une large proportion de lipides peut cependant diffuser
latéralement dans la membrane (Gadella, Tsai et al. 2008).
Il existe également dans la membrane des spermatozoïdes des régions ou des microdomaines
particuliers, appelés « lipids rafts », riches notamment en sphingolipides, en phospholipides à
longues chaînes saturées et en cholestérol (Simons and Vaz 2004), mais aussi en protéines
spécifiques (cavéoline-1 par exemple) (Simons and Toomre 2000) (Figure 17).
Figure 17: Membrane plasmique des spermatozoïdes immatures. Modifié d’après (Vadnais, Galantino-Homer et al.
2007)
L’AMPc est produite à partir d'ATP par une enzyme : l’Adénylate-Cyclase (sAC ou SACY).
L’adénylate cyclase du spermatozoïde est différente des autres adénylate-cyclases des cellules
somatiques : sa forme soluble la rend unique en son genre et des quantités élevées d’ARNm
codant pour cette enzyme s’accumulent dans les spermatides ronds de rat (Sinclair, Wang et
26
Introduction
al. 2000). Ces caractéristiques sont différentes de celles des enzymes de la superfamille des
adénylate cyclases transmembranaires qui interagissent avec les protéines G. Elle est
insensible aux protéines G, à la toxine cholérique et aux GTP non hydrolysables (activateurs
des protéines G) (Hess, Jones et al. 2005; Visconti 2009). L’activité de cette adénylate
cyclase, qu’elle soit utilisée sous sa forme purifiée à partir de testicules, ou recombinante, ou
exprimée dans une lignée cellulaire, est stimulée par l’ajout de bicarbonate (sous forme de
NaHCO3 ouKHCO3) et de calcium (Litvin, Kamenetsky et al. 2003), et ceci, de façon
indépendante des modifications du pH intracellulaire (Chen, Cann et al. 2000). Cette
activation est aussi observée avec les ions bisulfites (Na2SO3 ou NaHSO3) dont la structure est
proche de celle des bicarbonates, mais pas avec les ions chlorures, sulfates ou phosphates.
L'AMPc produite à partir d'ATP par sAC est capable d'activer des protéines telles que la
protéine kinase A. La protéine kinase A activée va phosphoryler différentes protéines
transmembranaires et intracellulaires, dont les protéines scramblases (Darszon, Acevedo et
al. 2006; Vadnais, Galantino-Homer et al. 2007). La phosphorylation des protéines
« Scramblase » par la PKA va induire l’externalisation des phosphatidyléthanolamines et
phosphatidylsérines du feuillet interne vers le feuillet externe de la bicouche lipidique.
efflux de cholestérol
L’efflux de cholestérol constitue une autre étape essentielle dans l’initiation de la capacitation.
Les lipoprotéines présentes dans les liquides folliculaires ou de l’oviducte (notamment
humains et bovins), plus spécifiquement les HDL (high density lipoproteines) vont capturer le
cholestérol des membranes plasmiques des spermatozoïdes (Visconti, Ning et al. 1999).
L’efflux de cholestérol est aussi induit par des protéines liant les lipides comme les protéines
de type « bovine séminal plasma » (BSP) présentes en quantité abondante dans le plasma
séminal bovin et humain (Aanesen, Fried et al. 1996; Moreau, Frank et al. 1999; Manjunath
and Therien 2002). Des études réalisées chez les bovins, montrent que les protéines BSP
pourraient être associées à des HDL du liquide folliculaire et donc avoir un effet synergique
dans la capacitation (Therien, Bousquet et al. 2001). L’activation d’un transporteur de stérol,
ressemblant au scavenger receptor de type 1, SRB-1 (Flesch, Brouwers et al. 2001) et
l’activation d’une sphingomyélinase seraient également impliquées dans cet efflux de
cholestérol (van Gestel, Brewis et al. 2005) .
27
Introduction
L’efflux de cholestérol induit une augmentation de la fluidité membranaire (Vadnais,
Galantino-Homer et al. 2007) et permet la diffusion latérale du cholestérol restant (Travis and
Kopf 2002). Ce dernier se retrouve concentré uniquement dans la zone apicale ou partie
antérieure de la tête du spermatozoïde lors de la capacitation (Flesch, Brouwers et al. 2001).
C’est également dans cette zone que l’on observe une perte de l’asymétrie des phospholipides
due à leur réorganisation (Flesch, Brouwers et al. 2001).
À l’heure actuelle, il est difficile de savoir si la réorganisation des phospholipides est due à la
perte du cholestérol ou si la perte de cholestérol est due à la réorganisation des phospholipides
induite par l’augmentation de bicarbonate. En effet, différentes études montrent que la perte
du cholestérol provoque une interaction entre les cavéolines-1 et les protéines de translocation
de phospholipides appelées scramblases, ce qui conduit à leur activation et au passage des
phospholipides d’un feuillet à un autre (« flip-flop » ou scramble) (Flesch, Brouwers et al.
2001; Travis and Kopf 2002). D’autres études montrent que le bicarbonate présent à forte
concentration dans un milieu capacitant induit une translocation de phosphatidylcholine et de
sphingolipides du feuillet externe au feuillet interne via l’activation des scramblases (Flesch,
Brouwers et al. 2001; de Vries, Wiedmer et al. 2003; Gadella, Tsai et al. 2008). Et que le
réarrangement de la bicouche lipidique par les scramblases, permet une relocalisation du
cholestérol au niveau de la partie apicale de la tête du spermatozoïde. La relocalisation du
cholestérol semble nécessaire à son élimination par les accepteurs de cholestérol tels que
l’albumine, l’héparine ou le glycoaminoglycane (GAG) (figure 18).
La capacitation est également associée à l’augmentation de la méthylation des phospholipides
et à l’origine d’une synthèse accrue de phosphatidylcholine à partir de phosphatidyl
éthanolamine (Stojanoff, Bourne et al. 1988).
Figure 18 : Modèle des voies signalisations de la modification de la composition lipidique membranaire lors de la
capacitation des spermatozoïdes de mammifère (Flesch, Brouwers et al. 2001). En absence de niveaux élevés de bicarbonate
(c'est-à-dire dans l'épididyme ou le fluide séminal) et de lipoprotéines la réorganisation des phospholipides « scrambling »
est bloquée. Le cholestérol est localisé au niveau apical et équatorial de la membrane plasmique de la tête des
spermatozoïdes et les cavéolines-1 sont à l’extérieur des « lipids rafts ». En présence de niveaux élevés de bicarbonate
soluble et de lipoprotéines, l’échangeur Cl-/ HCO3- va s’activer et induire une augmentation intracellulaire de bicarbonate.
Le bicarbonate va activer l’adénylate cyclase. L’activation de l’adénylate cyclase par le bicarbonate initie la voie
AMPc/PKA aboutissant à la phosphorylation des protéines membranaire (Cheng et al., 2000). Cette voie conduit à
l'activation des scramblases, localisées au niveau apical de la membrane plasmique de la tête des spermatozoïdes (Gadella
and Harrison 2000) par l'intermédiaire d'une voie encore peu claire. L’activation de la scramblase va induire
l’externalisation des phosphatidyléthanolamines et phosphatidylsérines du feuillet interne vers le feuillet externe de la
bicouche lipidique. Ce réarrangement des phospholipides coïncide avec la relocalisation du cholestérol par les SRB-1
(Scavenger Receptor de type 1) au niveau de la partie apicale de la tête du spermatozoïde (Fielding and Fielding 2000), son
efflux par les lipoprotéines et la redistribution de protéines des « lipids rafts » notamment de la cavéoline-1.
Figure 19 : Modifications
ioniques lors de la capacitation
des spermatozoïdes de
mammifères. (schéma modifié
de (Darszon, Beltran et al.
2001)
30
Introduction
III. L’hyperactivation flagellaire.
Le mouvement flagellaire est créé par l’interaction cyclique des bras de dynéines
ATPasiques avec les microtubules β. Cette interaction génère un phénomène de
« glissement » des microtubules entre eux. La génération de ce glissement microtubulaire
nécessite la phosphorylation et la déphosphorylation des bras de dynéines ATPasique (Inaba
2003; Turner 2006). Après phosphorylation par la protéine kinase PKA, la dynéine
ATPasique est activée. Elle va alors pouvoir hydrolyser l’ATP, l’énergie qui en résulte va
permettre le glissement des bras de dynéine d’un microtubule à l’autre. La dynéine sera par la
suite inactivée par déphosphorylation par l’action du complexe calmoduline-calcineurine
phosphatase ou des sérines/thréonine phosphatases. Comme les bras de dynéines interagissent
31
Introduction
toujours avec les mêmes microtubules adjacents, une activation et une inactivation
asynchrone des bras de dynéines le long de l’axonème sont nécessaires pour générer le
mouvement flagellaire symétrique (Figure 21).
33
Introduction
4. Voie de signalisation Calmoduline/CamK/Calcineurine dépendante du calcium
34
Introduction
C’est la synergie entre les deux voies de signalisation AMPc/PKA et CamK/Calcineurine qui
va permettre la mise en place de la mobilité spermatique. L’absence de la cascade de
signalisation induite par la calmoduline peut être compensée par la voie de signalisation
AMPc/PKA. Par contre, la cascade de signalisation induite par la calmoduline ne suffit pas à
la mise en place de la mobilité spermatique. En effet, les spermatozoïdes de souris présentant
l’invalidation du gène de l’adénylate cyclase soluble, premier effecteur de la voie AMPc/PKA
sont immobiles (Wu, Ribar et al. 2000; Ignotz and Suarez 2005; Marin-Briggiler, Jha et al.
2005).
35
Introduction
L’augmentation intracellulaire de bicarbonate lors de la capacitation va activer l’adénylate
cyclase permettant ainsi la production d’AMPc. L’AMPc de manière directe ou indirecte va
activer un échangeur Na+/H+(NHX), ce qui permet alors une augmentation du pH interne.
L’augmentation du pH interne va activer les canaux potassiques appelés KSper (ou Slo3).
L’activation de KSper va permettre l’hyperpolarisation de la membrane plasmique du
spermatozoïde. L’augmentation du pH interne et l’hyperpolarisation de la membrane induite
par KSper vont permettre l’activation d’une famille de canaux dépendants du voltage :
CatSper, situés au niveau de la pièce principale du spermatozoïde. L’activation des canaux
CatSper va induire une forte augmentation intracellulaire de calcium (Figure 24). La
modification de la balance de calcium intracellulaire par les canaux CatSper va permettre aux
spermatozoïdes d’acquérir la mobilité asymétrique c'est-à-dire l’hyperactivation flagellaire.
L’invalidation d’un des 4 gènes de CatSper (CatSper 1, 2, 3 ou 4) chez la souris mâle induit
une immobilité flagellaire et une infertilité (Ren, Navarro et al. 2001; Avidan, Tamary et al.
2003; Carlson, Westenbroek et al. 2003; Lobley, Pierron et al. 2003; Carlson, Quill et al.
2005; Qi, Moran et al. 2007; Navarro, Kirichok et al. 2008; Carlson, Burnett et al. 2009).
À l’heure actuelle, on connait seulement deux voies de signalisation qui pourraient être
régulées par la modification de la balance de calcium : la voie de phosphorylation par les
Camk et la voie de la glycolyse.
- L’implication de la voie de phosphorylation par les Camk a tout d’abord été montrée
par l’étude de Brokaw and Nagayama 1985. Cette étude montre que l’addition de
calmoduline sur des spermatozoïdes sans membrane plasmique induit
l’hypéractivation flagellaire. De plus, l’exposition d’inhibiteur des Calmodulines tel
que le W7 et calmidazolium (CZ) sur de spermatozoïdes hyperactifs change la
caractéristique de leur mobilité. Ils réacquièrent une mobilité symétrique. Cette perte
de mobilité asymétrique est corrélée avec une diminution de phosphorylation des
protéines spermatiques (Tash and Means 1987; Si and Olds-Clarke 2000); Tash,
Krinks et al. 1988).
- La régulation de la voie glycolyse par la modification de la balance de calcium a été
mise en évidence tout d’abord par le fait intéressant que les spermatozoïdes CatSper1
-/-
montraient un taux faible d'ATP par rapport aux spermatozoïdes Wt et ensuite par le
-/-
fait que spermatozoïdes CatSper1 ne montraient aucune production de NADH,
36
Introduction
produit intermédiaire de la voie de la glycolyse (Xia, Reigada et al. 2007; Navarro,
Kirichok et al. 2008).
Nous l’avons vu, la capacitation est une étape de maturation des spermatozoïdes lors
de leur ascension dans le tractus génital femelle. C’est une série de modifications
physiologiques, intracellulaires ou membranaires qui lui permettront de féconder l’ovocyte.
Ces changements s’accompagnent de signaux et d’activation des voies de transduction
intracellulaires. Cette étape lui permet de se trouver dans un état compatible, afin de pouvoir
traverser l’oviducte et d’être capable d’interagir avec la zone pellucide. Lorsqu’ils rentrent en
contact avec la zone pellucide, les spermatozoïdes subissent une modification physiologique
ultime la Réaction Acrosomique (RA). La RA correspond à l’exocytose de la vésicule de
sécrétion (l’acrosome) située au niveau de la tête du spermatozoïde. Les gamètes males ne
seront ensuite plus la cible de modifications, mais participeront à la transformation profonde
de l’ovocyte et à la création d’un nouvel individu.
37
Introduction
38
Introduction
des patients. La souris a donc été le modèle privilégié depuis le début des années 80. La zone
pellucide constitue une matrice extracellulaire de l’ovocyte. Il s’agit d’une structure épaisse et
complexe entourant l’ovocyte. Elle intervient lors de l’interaction gamétique en établissant
une barrière d’espèce, évitant ainsi des fécondations hétérospécifiques. Son maillage (Figure
26) est composé de 3 glycoprotéines ZP1, ZP2 et ZP3. ZP2 et ZP3 s’associent pour former
des filaments réunis par des ponts de ZP1 (Greve and Wassarman 1985; Wassarman and
Mortillo 1991). L’épaisseur de la zone pellucide est normalement de 12 µm. ZP1, ZP2 et ZP3
sont des glycoprotéines qui sont constituées d’une charpente polypeptidique et glycosylées de
façon hétérogène par des oligosaccharides de type asparagine (N) et sérine-thréonine (O). La
zone pellucide joue trois rôles principaux pendant la fécondation : elle empêche le brassage
inter-espèce, elle lie le spermatozoïde et déclenche la réaction acrosomique.
On connaît depuis les années 80 le rôle de ZP3 chez la souris. Cette protéine intervient dans la
fixation primaire du spermatozoïde à la zone pellucide (Bleil and Wassarman 1980). Des trois
glycoprotéines constituant la ZP, seule ZP3, purifiée à partir d’ovocytes de souris non
fécondés, est capable de lier les spermatozoïdes présentant leur acrosome intact (Bleil and
Wassarman 1980; Wassarman 1990). Cette capacité de liaison est modifiée après la
fécondation, car les ZP3 isolées à partir des zones pellucides d’œufs fécondés perdent cette
propriété (Bleil and Wassarman 1980; Wassarman 1990).
Plusieurs observations indiquent que la charpente polypeptidique ne joue qu’un rôle mineur
comme ligand du spermatozoïde. En effet, chez la souris, l’aptitude de ZP3 à agir in vitro
comme récepteur spermatique n’est pas altérée par des températures élevées, des détergents,
des agents dénaturants ou par protéolyse partielle (Florman and Wassarman 1985). Les
récepteurs spermatiques de la zone pellucide sont spécifiques d’une espèce à l’autre, en effet
les préparations de ZP solubilisée d’un ovocyte de souris inhibent partiellement la fécondation
39
Introduction
in vitro des œufs de hamster (Gwatkin and Williams 1977). L’interaction spécifique d’espèce
entre la ZP et son récepteur spermatique est un évènement plutôt médié par des sucres et
dépend de la nature des oligosaccharides de la ZP. Une inactivation chimique ou enzymatique
des oligosaccharides des ZP (Litscher, Juntunen et al. 1995) inhibe la liaison des
spermatozoïdes à la ZP chez la souris. Des oligosaccharides O-liée, isolés de ZP3 par
hydrolyse alcaline douce ou en conditions réductrices, inhibent également in vitro la liaison
des spermatozoïdes à la ZP (Florman and Wassarman 1985). Des expériences de type
protéolyse partielle (Litscher and Wassarman 1996) ou de mutagenèse dirigée (Kinloch, Sakai
et al. 1995) indiquent que les oligosaccharides, essentiels à la liaison avec le récepteur
spermatique, sont localisés chez la souris sur deux des cinq résidus sérine Ser-332 et -334,
dans une région polypeptidique proche de l’extrémité C terminale. La liaison entre ZP3 et son
récepteur spermatique est un événement complexe mettant en jeu des récepteurs spermatiques
à fortes et basses affinités (Thaler and Cardullo 1996). Il existerait au moins 30 000 sites de
liaison à ZP3 par le spermatozoïde de souris (Thaler and Cardullo 1996). Deux douzaines de
protéines différentes ont été identifiées, mais aucune n’a été formellement reconnue comme
étant « Le » récepteur à ZP3 (Wassarman 1999). Pourquoi un tel nombre et une telle
variété (Wassarman 1999) ? Plusieurs hypothèses ont été avancées :
Parmi les nombreux récepteurs spermatiques identifiés pouvant jouer un rôle dans la liaison
avec ZP3, seule une minorité semble impliquée dans la réaction acrosomique (Wassarman
1999)(Figure 27) :
- La β−galactosyltranferase
β− (GalTase) est une protéine testiculaire insérée dans la
membrane plasmique recouvrant l’acrosome. Elle est capable de se lier aux résidus N-
acetylglucosamine de ZP3 chez la souris (Shur 1991). L’interaction entre la
β−galactosyltranferase et la ZP3 induit la réaction acrosomique chez la souris (Gong,
Dubois et al. 1995). Les spermatozoïdes knock-out pour une isoforme de GalTase
présentent une diminution notable de la capacité à réaliser la réaction acrosomique en
présence de ZP3, de la capacité de pénétrer la zone pellucide et une diminution notable
40
Introduction
du taux de fécondation (Lu and Shur 1997). L’existence de GalTase, ou de ses
isoformes chez l’homme à l’heure actuelle n’a pas été confirmée. Des études montrent
qu’il s’agirait d’une α-mannosidase qui jouerait un rôle similaire (Tulsiani, Skudlarek
et al. 1989; Brandelli, Miranda et al. 1996).
- La protéine SP56 est une protéine de souris, qui est localisée au niveau de la
membrane plasmique recouvrant l’acrosome. Cette protéine est aussi retrouvée chez le
rat et le singe (appelé AM67), mais pas chez l’homme. L’interaction entre SP56 et
ZP3 a été démontrée par des techniques de co-immunoprécipitation (Cheng, Le et al.
1994; He, Yan et al. 2003).
- La zonoadhésine est une protéine localisée au niveaux de la tête du spermatozoïde de
souris, des isoformes de cette protéine ont été retrouvés chez les porcs, les bovins, les
lapins et les primates. Elle joue un rôle dans la liaison du spermatozoïde à la ZP
(Hardy and Garbers 1995; Herlyn and Zischler 2008).
SP56 GalTase
Motifs sushi
zonadhésine
ZRK
EXT
Membrane plasmique
INT Coprécipitation
Retrouvé chez la souris Surexpression augmente
Non présent chez l ’Homme la liaison Sp-ZP et la RA
localisée au niveau de la Knock-out diminue la fertilité
tête du spermatozoïde
retrouvés chez les porcs, domaine catalytique
les bovins, les lapins et tyrosine kinase
les primates
Figure 27 : Représentation schématique des récepteurs spermatiques impliqués dans la liaison avec la Zone
pellucide.
- La Zona Receptor Kinase (ZRK) a été initialement décrite chez la souris. C’est une
protéine de 95 kDa qui présente une activité tyrosine kinase. Elle va
s’autophosphoryler sur des résidus tyrosine en présence de ZP3 (Leyton and Saling
1989; Leyton and Saling 1989). Son homologue humain Hu9 a été découvert à partir
41
Introduction
d’un ADN complémentaire exprimé uniquement dans les cellules germinales mâles et
codant pour une protéine similaire à celle décrite chez la souris (Burks, Carballada et
al. 1995). Des anticorps dirigés contre le domaine intracellulaire de ZRK
reconnaissent une protéine de 95 kDa chez l’homme. Cette protéine humaine présente
une activité kinase quand elle est stimulée par la ZP3. Des peptides de synthèse
correspondant au domaine extracellulaire de cette protéine humaine inhibent la liaison
entre spermatozoïde et la ZP (Burks, Carballada et al. 1995). Enfin, l’induction de la
RA par ZP3 recombinante humaine (ZP3r) est associée à la phosphorylation des
résidus tyrosines de cette protéine de 95 kDa (Brewis, Clayton et al. 1998). La
protéine ZRK humaine joue un rôle dans le processus de stimulation acrosomique, car
les anticorps anti-ZRK inhibent la RA induite par ZP3r. Des études contradictoires on
émis un sérieux doute sur l’existence réelle de la protéine Hu9 au niveau des
spermatozoïdes. Ils ont montrés en se basant sur la séquence génomique de la protéine
Hu 9 de l’équipe de Burk que cette séquence présente une très forte homologie avec
une protéine humaine la proto-oncogéne c-mer ((Bork 1996; Tsai and Silver 1996)).
Ces études contradictoires on ainsi établit que la protéine Hu 9 n’existait pas. Aucune
étude depuis n’a été réalisée afin d’éclaircir cette controverse.
42
Introduction
L’exocytose de l’acrosome est un processus très régulé, composé de plusieurs étapes. Les
protéines SNAREs jouent un rôle primordial dans l’exocytose de l’acrosome. Elles constituent
des étiquettes qui permettent la reconnaissance mutuelle et le déclenchement de la fusion
entre la vésicule acrosomale et la membrane plasmique du spermatozoïde.
43
Introduction
La famille des SNAREs est caractérisée par la présence d’un domaine SNARE de 60-70
acides aminés formant des heptades répétées adoptant une structure en hélice. D'autre part, la
plupart des SNAREs présentent soit un domaine C-terminal transmembranaire, soit des
résidus palmitoylés (cas de SNAP-25) ou encore une « boîte » CAAX permettant leur
farnésylation et ainsi leur ancrage membranaire (McNew, Sogaard et al. 1997).
Lorsque les SNAREs sont sous forme monomérique, elles ne sont pas structurées. C’est la
rencontre avec des partenaires définis (Rabs, NSF, α-SNAP et des facteurs d’arrimage) qui
permet l’association de leurs motifs en structures hélicoïdales très stables (Fasshauer, Antonin
et al. 2002; Fasshauer 2003) formées de quatre hélices α fournies par les motifs SNARE de
chaque partenaire du complexe. Chaque complexe implique 4 types d’hélices : Qa, Qb, Qc et
R, qui définissent des familles de SNAREs très conservées (Bock, Matern et al. 2001; Hong
2005). Les SNAREs sont associées à des compartiments spécifiques. Elles participent à la
mise en place de cette compartimentation et à la régulation des échanges vésiculaires en
contrôlant la fusion des vésicules avec leurs compartiments cibles. L'association préférentielle
de certaines synaptobrévines avec des syntaxines données, détermine la spécificité de la
fusion.
La syntaxine I (35 kDa) est une protéine membranaire de type II, localisée essentiellement
dans la membrane plasmique. Elle comporte une région N-terminale orientée vers le
cytoplasme (résidus 1-120), contenant trois motifs distincts en hélice, impliquée dans la
régulation de l’assemblage du complexe SNARE (Bennett, Calakos et al. 1992; Walch-
Solimena, Blasi et al. 1995; Tomes, Michaut et al. 2002; De Blas, Roggero et al. 2005;
Darios, Connell et al. 2007; Davletov, Connell et al. 2007; Tomes 2007). Le motif qui assure
la liaison des deux partenaires (SNAP-25 et synaptobrevine) est contenu dans une région plus
centrale (résidus 180-262) également structurée en hélice. Enfin, le segment
transmembranaire est très proche de l’extrémité C-terminale, laissant quelques résidus dans le
milieu extracellulaire. La Syntaxine I est présente au niveau de la membrane plasmique dans
une conformation fermée avec sa région amino-terminale cytoplasmique repliée contre son
domaine central. C’est l’intervention de protéines régulatrices et d’acides gras (Darios,
44
Introduction
Connell et al. 2007; Davletov, Connell et al. 2007) qui lui permet l’acquisition d’une
conformation ouverte, permissive à la liaison de la SNAP-25 et finalement la mise en place du
complexe (Figure 30).
La SNAP-25 (25 kDa) ne possède aucune région transmembranaire. Elle est ancrée dans la
membrane plasmique par l’intermédiaire de la palmitoylation des résidus cystéine localisés au
milieu de la chaîne polypeptidique, et orientée vers le cytoplasme. La SNAP-25 renferme
deux motifs d’interaction avec les autres SNAREs, séparés par la boucle d’ancrage
palmitoylée (Oyler, Higgins et al. 1989; Walch-Solimena, Blasi et al. 1995; Sutton, Fasshauer
et al. 1998; Tomes, Michaut et al. 2002; Darios, Connell et al. 2007; Davletov, Connell et al.
2007; Tomes 2007).
La synaptobrévine (13 kDa) est une protéine membranaire des vésicules de sécrétion (Chin
and Goldman 1992). La partie N-terminale (résidus 1-33) est variable entre les différentes
isoformes, à la différence de la région centrale (résidus 33-96) impliquée dans la formation du
complexe SNARE. Le segment transmembranaire est localisé à l’extrémité C-terminale.
(Chin and Goldman 1992; De Blas, Michaut et al. 2002; Tomes, Michaut et al. 2002; De Blas,
Roggero et al. 2005; Hong 2005; Tomes 2007).
La synaptotagmine VI est une protéine senseur de calcium. Elle est située au niveau de la
membrane de l’acrosome. Elle possède deux domaines C2 (C2A et C2B) (Tomes 2007)
pouvant lier les lipides et le calcium, mais elle peut également interagir avec le complexe
SNARE, les canaux calciques et la calmoduline (Chapman, Hanson et al. 1995; De Blas,
Michaut et al. 2002; De Blas, Roggero et al. 2005; Davies and Zamponi 2008). De part ces
nombreuses interactions, la synaptotagmine permet de mettre en place une plateforme
fonctionnelle regroupant les acteurs indispensables au bon déroulement de l’exocytose.
Au niveau du spermatozoïde les facteurs de régulation du complexe SNARE sont la NSF, l’α-
SNAP et Rab3. Elles vont permettre d’une part l’association des protéines SNAREs en
configuration trans active (Fasshauer, Antonin et al. 2002; Fasshauer 2003), et d’autre part le
recyclage des protéines SNAREs après leur participation à la fusion membranaire.
La NSF (N-ethylmaleimidesensitive factor) est une protéine chaperone ATP dépendante. Elle
va permettre le recyclage des SNAREs après la fusion membranaire. C’est un hexamère de
sous-unités identiques de 752 résidus (Block, Glick et al. 1988; Whiteheart, Griff et al. 1993).
45
Introduction
- Un domaine D1 qui lie l’ATP et catalyse son hydrolyse, processus qui fournit l’énergie
pour la dissociation du complexe SNARE (Zhao, Slevin et al. 2007).
α-SNAP est une protéine soluble (NSF adaptor proteins) de 1.8 kDa. C’est une protéine
L’α
adaptatrice permettant la liaison de la NSF aux protéines SNAREs membranaires (Sollner,
Whiteheart et al. 1993; Whiteheart, Griff et al. 1993; Bock, Matern et al. 2001).
Les protéines Rab3 sont des petites GTPases. Ce sont des protéines qui basculent entre deux
états : lié au GTP (actif)) et lié au GDP (inactif) (Zerial and McBride 2001). Elles sont
associées à la membrane grâce à l’ajout d’acides gras. Il s’agit de deux acides géranyliques
ajoutés par la géranylgéranyltransférase II sur deux résidus cystéine spécifiques de la partie
hypervariable de leur queue C-terminale. Cette modification est essentielle à l’ancrage
membranaire, tandis que la partie hypervariable est spécifique d’un type de membrane
(Chavrier, Gorvel et al. 1991; Brennwald and Novick 1993; Novick and Brennwald 1993).
Les Rabs (liées au GTP) permettent le recrutement de facteurs d'arrimage (Gonzalez and
Scheller 1999; Pfeffer 1999; Waters and Hughson 2000; Zerial and McBride 2001; Tomes,
Michaut et al. 2002; Tomes 2007). Ces derniers rapprochent les membranes vésiculaires et les
membranes cibles, favorisant l'interaction entre les protéines SNAREs vésiculaires (v-
SNAREs) et les protéines SNAREs de la membrane cible (t-SNAREs) (De Blas, Michaut et
al. 2002; De Blas, Roggero et al. 2005; Tomes 2007).
46
Introduction
Figure 29 : Représentation schématique du complexe SNARE présent au niveau des membranes acrosomiques
et plasmiques du spermatozoïde. Le complexe SNARE est formé par l’association des quatre hélices α de la
synaptobrevine, la syntaxine I et la SNAP-25. La synaptotagmine VI sert de senseur de calcium et régule le
« zippering » du complexe SNARE.
Figure 30 : Représentation schématique de l’action des acides gras sur la syntaxine I. La syntaxine I se trouve
dans une conformation fermée avec sa région amino-terminale cytoplasmique repliée contre son domaine
central. Les Acides gras induisent un changement de conformation de la syntaxine I, qui lui permet
l’acquisition d’une conformation ouverte, permissive à la liaison de la SNAP-25 (Darios, Connell et al. 2007).
47
Introduction
Initialement, la syntaxine I se trouve dans une conformation fermée avec sa région amino-
terminale cytoplasmique repliée contre son domaine central. L’intervention de protéines
régulatrices et d’acides gras favorise l’acquisition d’une conformation ouverte, permissive à la
liaison de la SNAP-25 (Figure 30).
48
Introduction
Figure 31: Représentation du cycle de fonctionnement des protéines SNAREs. Les trois hélices α de la syntaxine
(en vert) et SNAP-25 (en rouge) (ancrées dans la membrane plasmique) s’assemblent avec l’hélice α de la
synaptobrévine (en bleu) (ancrée dans la membrane vésiculaire). Les SNAREs sont alors complexées en
configuration trans lâche. L’arrivé de la synaptotagmine (protéine régulatrice) au niveau du complexe SNARE
induit un resserrage de la configuration trans. Cela génère une force vers l'intérieur qui tire les membranes
ensemble, les forçant à fusionner. Lorsque la fusion a eu lieu, la force disparaît et les SNAREs se retrouvent
complexées en configuration Cis. Les protéines NSF et α-SNAP vont dissocier le complexe, pour permettre un
nouveau cycle. Modifié de (Jahn and Scheller 2006).
Comme toutes les exocytoses, la réaction acrosomique est sous le contrôle d’une
augmentation biphasique de la concentration cytosolique en calcium. Dans le spermatozoïde,
le calcium nécessaire à cette réaction d’exocytose provient de deux sources, du milieu
extracellulaire et du stock calcique interne (acrosome). Les influx de calcium sont contrôlés
par des canaux calciques. La reconnaissance de ZP3 par les récepteurs spécifiques
spermatiques situés au niveau de la tête du spermatozoïde est l’élément déclencheur de cette
signalisation calcique biphasique.
49
Introduction
La réaction acrosomique est rythmée par l’ouverture successive de différents canaux
calciques (Figure 32):
50
Introduction
2) Ensuite le récepteur à l’IP3 s’active et permet une libération massive de calcium à
partir de l’acrosome qui joue ici le rôle de stock calcique intracellulaire joué habituellement
par le réticulum endoplasmique.
Figure 33: Représentation schématique du mécanisme moléculaire de la réaction acrosomique. Avant de réaliser la
réaction acrosomique (à gauche), la synaptotagmine est phosphorylée et les protéines SNAREs sont engagées dans
la configuration cis. Toutes les protéines sont « inactives ». L’entrée de calcium extracellulaire permet l’activation
des protéines Rab3, NSF et α-SNAP. Il en résulte la déphosphorylation de la synaptotagmine et la dissociation du
complexe SNARE (deuxième à partir de la gauche). Le complexe SNARE va ensuite se rassembler en une
configuration trans active (troisième en partant de la gauche). Le deuxième influx calcique, provenant de
l’acrosome, va permettre l’activation de la synatotagmine et le « zippering » du complexe SNARE (quatrième en
partant de la gauche). Le zippering des SNAREs va générer une force d’invagination des membranes qui permet la
formation des pores de fusion (à droite). La Synaptobrevine est représentée en vert, la syntaxine est représentée en
rose (domaine Habc amino-terminale) et violette (motif SNARE et domaine transmembranaire), la SNAP-25 en
bleu. La synaptotagmine en bleu (domaine transmembranaire), en vert (domaine C2A) et en
jaune (domaine C2B). OAM, membrane externe acrosomale ; PM, membrane plasmique (De Blas, Roggero et al.
2005).
51
Introduction
NSF et α-SNAP. L’apport d’énergie produit par les NSF-ATPases va permettre de
dissocier le complexe SNARE de sa forme cis.
- Les complexes SNAREs vont être alors libres de se réunir en configuration trans, ce
qui va permettre l'irréversible arrimage de la membrane acrosomique externe à la
membrane plasmique. (Tomes 2007)
52
Introduction
sont pas capables (Llanos, Morales et al. 1993; Roldan and Fragio 1993 ). En faite, les lysoPS
semblent avoir un rôle inhibiteur de la réaction acrosomique dans certaines conditions
(Llanos, Morales et al. 1993).
Les premiers travaux suggérant l’implication des acides gras comme messagers lipidiques
dans le contrôle de la réaction acrosomique ont été réalisés par Meizel et al. 1983. Cette étude
a permis de montrer que certains acides gras Cis-insaturés tels que l’acide oléique, l’acide
arachidonique et l’acide vaccénique induisaient la réaction acrosomique des spermatozoïdes
capacités de hamster (Meizel and Turner 1983). D’autres études ont par la suite confirmé
l’implication de l’acide arachidonique dans le contrôle de la réaction acrosomique par des
expériences d’inhibition du métabolisme de l'acide arachidonique (Meizel and Turner 1984;
Joyce, Nuzzo et al. 1987; Lax, Grossman et al. 1990). Ces études ont permis de mettre en
évidence que, bien que l’acide arachidonique soit une molécule fusiogène (Pollard, Burns et
al. 1988), il induirait la réaction acrosomique des spermatozoïdes de hamster par le biais de
ses dérivés métaboliques. En effet, la réaction acrosomique induite par l’acide arachidonique
est partiellement ou voir totalement bloquée par les inhibiteurs du métabolisme de l’acide
arachidonique tel que le Phenidone ou l’acide nordihydroguaiaretique (Meizel and Turner
1984). Ces résultats devront être réévalués, car les niveaux d'acide arachidonique ou des
métabolites générés par la voie métabolique n'ont pas été mesurés. Des études plus récentes
ont également montré que l'acide arachidonique est en mesure d'améliorer le pourcentage de
réaction acrosomique des spermatozoïdes de bélier en réponse à l’A23187 (Roldan and Fragio
1993).
53
Introduction
La phospholipase C intervient sur la fonction ester liant le glycérol et le phosphate, libérant
un diacyglycéride et un inositol triphosphate.
La phospholipase D lyse la fonction ester entre la fonction acide du phosphate et l'alcool,
libérant un acide phosphatidique (PA) et un alcool.
Au niveau des spermatozoïdes matures, on retrouve les phospholipases de type C (PLC), les
phospholipases de type D (PLD) et les phospholipases de type A2 (PLA2).
- La phospholipase C-β, qui est activée par les récepteurs couplés aux protéines G.
- La phospholipase C-γ, qui est activée par des récepteurs à activité tyrosine kinase.
Comme tous les messagers secondaires, le DAG et l’IP3 (produit par la PLC) sont rapidement
dégradés en métabolites inactifs au sein de la cellule. Le DAG a plusieurs molécules cibles :
parmi les cibles connues, on retrouve la protéine kinase C, qui, comme la protéine kinase A
(PKA), phosphoryle spécifiquement des protéines sur les résidus sérine et/ou thréonine ou
certains canaux de la famille des TRPC (Lucas, Ukhanov et al. 2003). La molécule cible de
l’IP3 est un canal calcique, « le récepteur à l’IP3 ». On sait depuis 1990 que L’IP3 et le DAG
sont impliqués dans la réaction acrosomique. En effet, lors de réactions acrosomiques induites
par l’ionophore calcique A23187, les concentrations intracellulaires de DAG et d’IP3
54
Introduction
augmentent dans les spermatozoïdes de bélier (Harrison, Roldan et al. 1990; Roldan and
Murase 1994) ou de verrat (Vazquez and Roldan 1997), à la suite d’une stimulation d’une
phospholipase C (Roldan and Murase 1994). Différents types de phospholipases C pourraient
être impliquées dans cette activité. L’étude menée par Tomes et al 1996 a démontré
l’existence d’une PLCγ1 dans les spermatozoïdes de souris (Tomes, McMaster et al. 1996),
soulignant également que l’activité de cette enzyme était dépendante d’une activité tyrosine
kinase. Une PLCβ1 a également été identifiée dans la région acrosomique des spermatozoïdes
de mammifères (Walensky and Snyder 1995). L’étude menée par Heytens a montré la
présence d’une phospholipase C : la PLCζ au niveau de la région équatoriale de la tête dans
les spermatozoïdes humains par immunohistochimie et western blot (Yoon, Jellerette et al.
2008; Heytens, Parrington et al. 2009). Cette phospholipase est impliquée dans les vagues
calciques indispensables à l’activation ovocytaire (Parrington, Swann et al. 1996; Parrington,
Jones et al. 1999; Parrington, Jones et al. 2002; Saunders, Larman et al. 2002; Yoon, Jellerette
et al. 2008) et sa perte induit une infertilité masculine (Yoon, Jellerette et al. 2008; Heytens,
Parrington et al. 2009).
Les phospholipases A2 (PLA2) sont des enzymes qui hydrolysent la liaison ester des
phospholipides membranaires en position sn-2, produisant ainsi des lysophospholipides et des
acides gras libres. Ce clivage des phospholipides est à l’origine de la synthèse des médiateurs
lipidiques. Ces enzymes sont classées en trois sous-groupes selon leur localisation, leur poids
55
Introduction
moléculaire et leur sensibilité au calcium (Ca2+) nécessaire à leur activité catalytique (Dennis
1997; Schaloske and Dennis 2006) :
- Les PLA2 Ca2+ dépendantes cytosoliques (cPLA2). Ce sont des enzymes de haut poids
moléculaire (85 kDa) nommées ainsi de par leur localisation principalement
cytosolique. Ce sous-groupe de PLA2 comprend trois membres : les cPLA2 α, β et γ
également appelées respectivement cPLA2- IVA, -IVB et -IVC (Brown, Chambers et
al. 2003).
- Les PLA2 Ca2+ indépendantes (iPLA2). Elles comprennent uniquement deux membres :
la iPLA2β (VIA) et la iPLA2γ (VIB) (Bingham, Fijneman et al. 1999). Ce sont des
enzymes ayant un poids moléculaire de 85-88 KDa.
- Les PLA2 Ca2+ dépendantes secrétées (sPLA2). Elles ont été initialement découvertes
dans les venins d’abeilles et de serpents (Davidson and Dennis 1990). Ces sPLA2 sont
considérées comme myotoxiques et neurotoxiques puisque leur administration
entraine une nécrose rapide des fibres musculaires squelettiques ainsi que des
dommages nerveux importants (Kini and Evans 1989). Chez les mammifères, les
sPLA2 représentent le sous-groupe de PLA2 le plus volumineux, comprenant dix
enzymes ou isoformes différentes : sPLA2-IB, -IIA, -IIC, -IID, -IIE, -IIF, -III, -V, -X et
–XII. Le profil d’expression de ces différentes sPLA2 varie énormément d’une cellule
à l’autre. Cependant, elles partagent certaines caractéristiques communes soit un faible
poids moléculaire (14 à 19 kDa), un contenu important en ponts disulfures et le besoin
de Ca2+ (concentration de l’ordre du millimolaire) pour soutenir leur activité
catalytique. Ces enzymes sont exprimées et emmagasinées à l’intérieur des cellules.
Suite à une activation appropriée de ces dernières, les sPLA2 sont habituellement
sécrétées dans le milieu extracellulaire, mais peuvent également rester dans des
vésicules cytoplasmiques ou être associées aux membranes de différents organelles
(Dennis 1997; Bingham, Fijneman et al. 1999).
56
Introduction
Les premières études montrant l’implication des phospholipases A2 dans le mécanisme de la
réaction acrosomique ont été faites à partir d’inhibiteurs des PLA2. Ces études montrent que le
traitement des spermatozoïdes de bélier (Roldan and Fragio 1993 ; Garde and Roldan 1996),
d’hamster (Lui and Meizel 1979; Ono, R. Yanagimachi et al. 1982 ; Llanos, Morales et al.
1993 ), de cochon d'Inde (Singleton and Killian 1983) et d’humain (Fry, Ghosh et al. 1992)
par des inhibiteurs de PLA2 tels que le Rho 31-4493, la quinacrine dihydrochloride, le p-
bromophenacyl-bromide, le PBx et la mepacrine diminuent le pourcentage de réaction
acrosomique qu’elle soit spontanée ou induite par le ionophore calcique A23187.
La diminution du taux de réaction acrosomique par l’inhibiteur de PLA2 peut être restaurée
par l’addition de lysoPC et d’acide arachidonique (Llanos, Morales et al. 1993; Garde and
Roldan 1996). Ces résultats fournissent des preuves solides pour penser que les PLA2 peuvent
avoir un rôle essentiel dans le mécanisme de la réaction acrosomique. Une autre preuve de
l’implication des phospholipases A2 dans le mécanisme de la réaction acrosomique a été
établie par l’équipe de Riffo en 1996. Cette équipe a montré que le traitement des
spermatozoïdes de hamster par un anticorps dirigé contre la phopholipase A2 secrétée IB a
inhibé la réaction acrosomique spontanée (Riffo and Parraga 1996).
Des efforts ont été ensuite principalement faits sur la caractérisation biochimique des PLA2
dans les spermatozoïdes de différentes espèces. Il a été ainsi décrit la présence de
phospholipases A2 secrétées IID, IIC, V, X et IIF au niveau des spermatozoïdes de souris par
la technique de Western Blot (Masuda, Murakami et al. 2004), mais leurs fonctions
particulières dans la réaction acrosomique reste à l’heure actuelle à être déterminée. Aucune
cPLA2 n’a été aujourd’hui découverte au niveau des spermatozoïdes.
Il a aussi été décrit la présence de l’iPLA2 de type VIA au niveau des spermatozoïdes de
souris par la technique de Western Blot (Bao, Miller et al. 2004). Cette iPLA2 semble jouer un
rôle important dans la physiologie spermatique. En effet des travaux effectués à partir
d’animaux, dont le gêne de la iPLA2 VIA a été invalidé montre que l’absence de l’iPLA2 VIA
induit une diminution de la mobilité spermatique et une réduction notable du taux de
fécondation (Bao, Miller et al. 2004).
Les diverses études montrant l’implication des messagers lipidiques et des phospholipases
dans le mécanisme de contrôle de la réaction acrosomique ont permis d’établir un modèle de
57
Introduction
voie de régulation lipidique de la réaction acrosomique chez la souris (Figure 35) (Baldi,
Luconi et al. 2000).
L’interaction de ZP3, avec son récepteur spermatique va induire son autophosphorylation qui
résulte en l’activation des protéines G. Les protéines G vont ainsi pouvoir activer les
phospholipases C. Les phospholipases C actives vont catalyser l’hydrolyse du
phosphatidylinositol diphosphate membranaire (PIP2) en diacyclglycérol (DAG) et inositol-1-
4-5-triphosphate (IP3). L’augmentation intracellulaire du DAG va induire l’activation de la
protéine kinase C qui résultent en la phosphorylation de diverses protéines et induit la réaction
acrosomique. L’augmentation intracellulaire d’IP3 va activer le récepteur à l’IP3 et permettre
une libération massive de calcium de l’acrosome (stock calcique). Les phospholipases A2 et D
présentes au niveau du spermatozoïde, vont être activées par l’augmentation intracellulaire de
calcium et par les protéines G. Elles vont permettre la production de lysophospholipides et
58
Introduction
d’acide gras à partir des phospholipides membranaires. Les lysophospholipides et les acides
gras produits vont induire la réaction acrosomique.
Nous l’avons vu, la réaction acrosomique est finement régulée dans l'espace et le temps par
différents modes de régulation tels que le calcium, les protéines SNAREs, les phospholipases,
les messagers lipidiques. À l’heure actuelle, tous les mécanismes de contrôle de la réaction
acrosomique ne sont pas encore élucidés. Les spermatozoïdes qui ont réalisé leur réaction
acrosomique restent attachés à la ZP2 pour faciliter leur pénétration de la zone pellucide. La
pénétration de la ZP et la fusion avec l’ovocyte sont facilitées par la mobilité spermatique et
l’interaction avec différents partenaires protéiques.
59
Introduction
60
Introduction
cyritestine comme les protéines indispensables à la liaison et la fusion du
spermatozoïde à l’ovocyte (McLaughlin, Frayne et al. 2001). Des expériences
d’invalidation de gène ont montré que les souris fertiline β -/-
et cyritestine -/-
(Cho,
Bunch et al. 1998; Cho, Ge et al. 2000; Nishimura, Cho et al. 2001) présentaient une
diminution de fertilité. La fertiline β et la cyritestine font parties des éléments clés de
la fusion des gamètes.
- Des tests d’inhibitions ont permis de proposer l’intégrine α6β1 comme le récepteur du
spermatozoïde sur l’ovocyte (Almeida, Huovila et al. 1995). Mais, la situation est loin
d’être aussi simple, car diverses intégrines sont exprimées à la surface de l’ovocyte et
leur inhibition avec des anticorps ou des ligands spécifiques inhibent la fécondation.
Des souris femelles invalidées pour les intégrines de la famille β1, incluant les sous-
unités α2, α 3, α 5, α 6, α 9, α v, ainsi que αvβ3 et αvβ5, sont fertiles (Miller, Georges-
Labouesse et al. 2000; He, Brakebusch et al. 2003; Stein, Primakoff et al. 2004).
Toutes ces intégrines jouent un rôle dans la fusion des gamètes, mais ne sont pas
essentielles pour la fécondation. À l’heure actuelle leur rôle reste à définir.
- Des expériences de gène knock-out suggèrent que la fusion des gamètes de mammifère
dépend d’une interaction entre une protéine spermatique et une protéine CD9 de
l’ovocyte. La protéine CD9 appartient à la famille des tétraspamines, elle est
constituée de quatre domaines transmembranaires, deux boucles extra-cellulaires et de
deux petits domaines cytoplasmiques. La protéine CD9, située au niveau de la
membrane plasmique ovocytaire, est associée aux intégrines α6β1 et aux protéines
glycosylphosphatidyltinositol (GPI-anchored protéine) (Stein, Go et al. 2006). Les
souris femelles dépourvues de CD9 sont stériles (Miyado, Yamada et al. 2000), leurs
ovocytes ne permettent pas la fusion membranaire avec la membrane acrosomique
interne des spermatozoïdes. La protéine CD9 pourrait être un élément clef de la fusion
des gamètes (Miyado, Mekada et al. 2000; Miyado, Yamada et al. 2000).
63
Problématique
Problématique
La baisse de la fertilité masculine mondiale ces dernières décennies est devenue préoccupante.
Ainsi, un homme sur quinze est subfertile (Auger, Kunstmann et al. 1995). Les principales
causes de l'infertilité masculine peuvent être réparties en trois catégories : les anomalies de la
production des spermatozoïdes de causes génétiques (Escalier 2006; Dieterich, Soto Rifo et
al. 2007 ) affectant la qualité et/ou la quantité de ces derniers (Sherins 1995); les obstructions
anatomiques et les facteurs environementaux (Sharpe and Skakkebaek 1993). Bien que
produits en nombre suffisant, les spermatozoïdes peuvent être immatures, présenter des
formes anormales ou être incapables de se déplacer correctement, caractéristiques qui les
priveront de leur capacité de féconder un ovocyte.
Les anomalies des spermatozoïdes, dues à des problèmes de production, de maturation des
spermatozoïdes et de transport, sont les causes les plus communes de l'infertilité masculine.
On en distingue quatre types :
67
Problématique
Bien que chacune de ces anomalies puisse exister séparément, elles sont généralement
combinées. On parle alors d’OATS (oligoasthénotératospermie).
Ces anomalies du spermogramme peuvent avoir des causes diverses (Jameson 1981;
Ceccarelli, Canale et al. 2008 ; Matsumoto, Hirose et al. 2008 ; Matzuk and Lamb 2008 ;
Poongothai, Gopenath et al. 2009 ; Shefi, Kaplan et al. 2009; Shefi, Levron et al. 2009 ) :
68
Problématique
o Des Mutations de l’ADN mitochondriale (Diez-Sanchez, Ruiz-Pesini et al.
2003; Diez-Sanchez, Ruiz-Pesini et al. 2003) : anomalies des gènes
mitochondriaux qui induisent une diminution de la production d’ATP,
indispensable à la mobilité spermatique.
Des facteurs liés à l'environnement (Sokol, Kraft et al. 2006) et au mode de vie peuvent
également affecter la qualité des spermatozoïdes. Une exposition à des composés chimiques
tels que les insecticides (Matzuk and Lamb 2008), une consommation excessive d'alcool, une
consommation de tabac (Collodel, Capitani et al. 2009), une exposition à des radiations
(Benoff, Jacob et al. 2000) et certains traitements anticancéreux peuvent inhiber la production
de spermatozoïdes, soit temporairement, soit définitivement. Dans 30% à 40% des cas
d'infertilité masculine, l'origine du problème reste inexpliquée.
Au cours des dernières décennies, de grands progrès ont été accomplis dans le traitement de
l'infertilité masculine et le choix de traitements actuellement disponibles comprend le
traitement médicamenteux, la chirurgie et les techniques d'Assistance Médicale à la
Procréation (AMP), notamment l'insémination artificielle, la fécondation in vitro et les
techniques de microinjection. Cependant, les progrès dans le traitement de l'infertilité
masculine restent à l’heure actuelle encore insuffissant, car sur 60% des embryons qui
peuvent être transféré, seulement 12.3 % des embryons se développe in utéro (Donnée ABM,
France 2005 en FIV humaine).
L’équipe de Inoue a développé une nouvelle stratégie pour identifier de nouveaux partenaires
qui régulent le pouvoir fécondant des spermatozoïdes. Ils ont découvert un nouveau partenaire
protéique « Izumo » impliqué dans la fusion des spermatozoïdes avec l’ovocyte (Inoue, Ikawa
et al. 2005) à partir d’un anticorps, identifié en 1987 par l’équipe d’Okabe, dont on ne
connaissait pas l’antigène, mais dont on savait qu’il est capable d’empêcher la fécondation in
69
Problématique
vitro (Okabe, Adachi et al. 1987). Leur stratégie a été tout d’abord d’isoler l’antigène par
immunoblotting et d’identifier par spectrométrie de masse de l’anticorps capable d’empêcher
la fécondation in vitro. Ensuite d’identifiée par clonage in silico, à partir de cet antigène, la
protéine spermatique cible de l’anticorps. Cette dernière a été dénommée Izumo. Et enfin de
montrer l’implication d’Izumo dans la fusion des spermatozoïdes avec l’ovocyte avec
-/- -/-
l’élaboration de souris Izumo . Les spermatozoïdes Izumo même s’ils se lient à la
membrane de l’œuf sont incapables de fusionner avec l’ovocyte.
Ces dernières années, d’autres stratégies expérimentales ont été mises en avant pour
comprendre la régulation de mécanismes physiologiques. L’explosion de l’analyse
protéomique, le développement de techniques de séparation et d’analyse toujours plus
performantes et plus sensibles et l’émergence d’une nouvelle discipline : la vénomique (étude
du génome et du protéome des venins) ont permis le développement de nouveaux axes de
recherche fondamentale.
70
Problématique
- le traitement de certaines pathologies :
• Un exemple frappant est la création et le développement d’un médicament le
Captopril® à partir d’une toxine de venin la Teprotide. Elle a initialement été
extraite du venin du serpent Botrops jararaca (Ondetti, Williams et al. 1971) et
s’est révélée efficace pour le traitement de l’hypertension artérielle et les
insuffisances cardiaques.
L’objectif de mon travail de thèse est de : comprendre les voies de signalisations qui régulent
la physiologie spermatique à l’aide de nouveaux outils pharmacologiques à partir de venins
d’animaux.
71
Méthodologie
Méthodologie
- Des espèces : Sélection des familles où il a déjà été décrit dans la littérature, la
présence de peptides bioactifs envers les canaux ioniques, tels que les serpents,
scorpions et araignées.
Chaque venin a été fractionné par FPLC par l’intermédiaire d’une colonne d’exclusion
Superdex peptide 10/300 GL. La colonne d’exclusion va permettre de fractionner le venin en
fonction de la taille de ses composés et de ne garder que les molécules d’intérêt situées entre
1000 et 15000 Da.
Chacune des fractions obtenues est ensuite testée sur la mobilité spermatique.
75
Méthodologie
Cet appareil permet à l’aide d’une caméra fréquencée à 50 Hz de suivre les mouvements de la
tête du spermatozoïde et d’en déterminer sa trajectoire. De cette trajectoire plusieurs
paramètres vont en être déduits (Figure 37) :
Cet appareil de mesure de la mobilité spermatique est configuré spécifiquement pour mesurer
les déplacements de la tête des spermatozoïdes de différents types de mammifères tels que les
béliers, les verrats, les rats, les chevaux, les singes, les pigeons, les hommes, etc.…
Figure 37 : Analyse automatique du mouvement spermatique par le système CASA. Cet appareil permet à
l’aide d’une caméra fréquencée à 50 Hz de suivre les mouvements de la tête du spermatozoïde et d’en
déterminer sa trajectoire. De cette trajectoire plusieurs paramètres vont en être déduits : la VAP, la VSL, la
VCL, la STR, la LIN, la BCF et L’ALH.
76
Méthodologie
Sur les sept paramètres CASA, que l’appareil m’établissait, j’ai sélectionné seulement deux
paramètres CASA pour mon test d’activité biologique afin de réduire le temps d’analyse du
test. J’ai choisi deux paramètres les plus représentatifs de l’augmentation de la mobilité
spermatique due à la capacitation (Figure 39) : la vitesse curvilinéaire (VCL) et le
déplacement latéral de la tête (ALH).
77
Méthodologie
78
Résultats
Résultats
1. Introduction
Le venin étant très complexe et une première étape de fractionnement par chromatographie a
était nécessaire. Chacune des fractions obtenues a été testées sur notre modèle biologique, ici
la mobilité spermatique chez la souris, afin de déterminer si elle contient ou non une activité
intéressante. Nous avons pu caractériser et identifier la composition des fractions des venins
qui présentait une activité biologique sur la mobilité spermatique par spectrométrie de masse
MALDI-TOF/TOF avec séquençage de novo en collaboration avec le Dr Michel Seve et
l’ingénieur de recherche Morgane Couvet de la Plate-forme de Protéomique Médicale de
Grenoble. Après avoir identifié les molécules d’intérêts, nous avons pu ensuite évaluer l’effet
de ces molécules sur les différentes étapes de la physiologie spermatique telles que : la
mobilité, la réaction acrosomique, la modification lipidique lors de la capacitation et la
fécondation in vitro, grâce à une collaboration avec le Dr Gérard Lambeau qui nous a fourni
ces molécules.
81
Résultats
Jessica Escoffier, Ikram Jemel, Morgane Couvet, Michel Sève, Pierre Ray, Gérard
Lambeau, Michel De Waard and Christophe Arnoult
Article en préparation
83
Venoms as a source of molecules modulating sperm physiology:
sPLA2s of the snake Oxyuranus scutellatus strongly modulate
sperm motility, sperm acrosome reaction and in vitro fertilization
Jessica Escoffier1,2, Morgane Couvet2,3, Harold de Pommier4, Pierre Ray5,6, Michel Sève2,3,
Gérard Lambeau7,8, Michel De Waard1,2 and Christophe Arnoult1,2*
1 Inserm, U836, Grenoble, F-38000, France ; 2 Univ Joseph Fourier Grenoble, Grenoble, F-
38000, France ; 3 Inserm, U823, Grenoble, F-38000, France ; 4 Latoxan, Valence, F-26000,
France ; 5 CHRU Grenoble, Hop Michallon, UF de Biochimie et Génétique Moléculaire,
Grenoble, F-38000, France ; 6 CNRS, UMR5525, La Tronche, F-38710, France ; 7 CNRS,
UMR6097, Valbonne, F-06560, France ; 8 Univ Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Nice, F-06000,
France.
* Corresponding author
Grenoble Institute of Neurosciences
Equipe 3 “Calcium channels, functions and pathologies”
Bâtiment Edmond J. Safra, Site Santé à La Tronche
BP 170 38042 Grenoble Cedex 9 - France tel: 33 456 520 564
E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
We screened on sperm motility the effect of 16 snake venoms cleared of molecules with a
molecular weight above 15 kDa. Venoms known to be rich in neurotoxic sPLA2, like those of
Oxyuranus scutellatus or Daboia russelii, were potent inhibitors of sperm motility. In contrast,
venoms rich in myotoxic sPLA2 like those of Echis carinatus, Bothrops alternatus and
Macrovipera lebetina, were fully inactive. By a proteomic approach, OS1 and OS2, two
sPLA2 of the taipan Oxyuranus scutellatus, were identified in the inhibitory fraction of the
venom. Purified OS1 and OS2 sPLA2 inhibited sperm motility, triggered acrosome reaction
of sperm and induced lipid rearrangements of the plasma membrane. Catalytic activity of OS2
was required to modulate sperm physiology since catalytically inactive mutants of OS2
sPLA2 were inactive. Finally, sperm treated by OS2 were not as competent as control sperm
to induce in vitro fertilization. It is the first report of using toxins to modulate in vitro sperm
physiology.
INTRODUCTION
Since several decades, human reproduction is going downhill and is becoming a real
problem in modern society [1]. Human reproduction decline is due to several causes : societal
causes like the postponed decision of the first pregnancy at a later age of the mother,
environmental causes like endocrine disruptors [2] and obviously hereditary factors [3-5]. As
observed in many pathologies, infertility treatment is weakened by our incomplete knowledge
of sperm physiology and fertilization, especially at the molecular level. The molecular
pathways and the different proteins involved in the three main physiological steps of mature
sperm that are sperm motility, capacitation and acrosome reaction are still the object of active
research [6; 7]. Discovering new molecular pathways and/or proteins involved in the control
of sperm physiology is a necessity. Different strategies have been used to decipher the
molecular mechanisms of sperm physiology like invalidating gene or proteomic analyses.
Another strategy is based on the use of a very specific inhibitor of a cellular sperm function,
and the purification of the targeted protein by using the inhibitor as a bait. This strategy has
been very successful in the ion channels domain: for instance ryanodine, a plant alkaloid,
allowed to characterize a calcium channel of the reticulum, dihydropyridines allowed to
characterized another calcium channel of the tubule T in muscles [8]. In the sperm domain, a
similar approach, using a specific sperm antibody, allowed to characterize a unique protein
involved in sperm-oocyte binding that is izumo [9]. Venoms, as a source of biological active
molecules, have also been used to purify and characterize new proteins. For instance apamin,
a bee toxin, allowed to characterize a Ca2+-activated K+-channel [10]. Several types of
molecules are present in venoms, like proteins, peptides or polyamines and up to 100 different
molecules are present in one venom. Most of the venom compounds are very specific. This
high specificity is illustrated by the property of the toxin ω-AgaIVA, obtained from a spider
venom, which is able to differentiate two spliced variants: ω-AgaIVA inhibiting P-type
channels but in contrast not Q-type channels, two channels resulting from the alternative
splicing of the alpha 1A subunit gene [11]. The specificity of venom compounds is also
illustrated by the fact that several toxins or compounds structurally close of toxins are
currently used as drugs in the treatments of pain, neurological diseases, cancers or
autoimmune disease [12]. Based on the specificity of venoms compounds, we seeked, from a
venom bank, new biologically active molecules on sperm physiology, in order to find new
actors of sperm physiology.
In this paper, we screened venoms of 16 different snakes belonging to different families
(Elapidae, Viperidae, Colubidae) on sperm motility. Crude venoms have been fractioned in
order to remove proteases from the venom samples. We conserved and tested only fractions
containing molecules with a molecular weight (MW) below 15 kDa. Most of the tested
venoms were potent inhibitors of sperm motility except the venoms of Echis carinatus,
Bothrops alternatus and Macrovipera lebetina. The two most potent inhibiting venoms were
those of Oxyuranus scutellatus and Daboia rusellii. We then focused on the most potent
inhibiting fraction from the venom of Oxyuranus scutellatus. By proteomic analysis, we
demonstrated that this fraction is enriched in secreted phospholipase A2 (sPLA2), of which
OS1 and OS2, two neurotoxic sPLA2 [13]. We thus tested the effects of several recombinant
sPLA2, OS1, OS2 and different mutant proteins showing different enzymatic activities, on
sperm motility, sperm acrosome reaction (AR), and in vitro fertilization (IVF). In accord with
result previously obtained with mammalian sPLA2, recombinant OS1 and OS2 toxins were
potent inhibitors of sperm motility, and potent activators of acrosome reaction. However, OS2
sPLA2 did not mimic the improvement of mouse IVF performed by the sPLA2 of the group
X, but inhibited the IVF outcome instead.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Venom separation —Venoms have been obtained from Latoxan, SA (Valence, France).
100 mg of crude venom was dissolved in 1 ml of 100 mM ammonium acetate and
centrifugated at 10 000 g during 10 min. 250 µl of the supernatant was used in the separation
stage. Separation of the different compounds of the venom was performed with a superdexTM
peptides 10/300 GL column: each fraction of 500 µL was frozen after collection. Fractions
containing molecules with a MW above 15 kDa were discarded (fraction A1 to A8). For the
screening procedure, we first pooled fractions A9-B4 to test global activity. The pooled
fraction corresponds to the addition of 100 µL of fractions A9 to B4. It was lyophilized and
re-suspended in 120 µL of M16 medium.
Computer-assisted motility analysis — Sperm cells from caudae epididymes were allowed to
swim in 1 ml of M2 medium for 10 min. Sperm was re-suspended in M16 and incubated with
different test fractions at 37°C for 10 min (247.5 µL of sperm were incubated with a aliquot of
12.5 µL of the test fraction). After incubation, the sperm suspension was immediately placed
onto analysis chamber (2X-CEL Slides, 100 µm depth, Leja Products B.V., Netherlands) kept
at 37 °C for microscopic quantitative study of sperm movement. Sperm motility parameters
were measured at 37°C using a sperm analyzer (Hamilton Thorn Research, Beverley). The
settings employed for analysis were as follows: acquisition rate: 60 Hz; number of frames:
100; minimum contrast: 25; minimum cell size: 10; low static-size gate: 2.4; high static-size
gate: 2.4; low static-intensity gate: 1.02; high static-intensity gate: 1.37 ; minimum elongation
gate: 12; maximum elongation gate: 100; magnification factor: 0.70. The motility parameters
measured were: curvilinear velocity (VCL) and amplitude of lateral head displacement
(ALH). A minimum of 100 motile spermatozoa for each sample were analyzed.
Production of recombinant sPLA2s —Native OS1 and OS2 sPLA2s from Oxyuranus
scutellatus scutellatus (Taipan) snake venom and native Ba-II and Ba-IV K-49 sPLA2-like
proteins from Bothrops asper venom were purified as described [14; 15]. Recombinant wild
type OS2 and its catalytically-inactive mutants were prepared as described previously [13].
Acrosome reaction assay — Sperm cells from caudae epididymes were allowed to swim in
M2 medium for 10 min. If necessary, sperm were capacitated in M16 medium with 2% fatty
acid free BSA (Bovine Serum Albumin) at 37°C in a 5% CO2 incubator during various
periods of time. For sPLA2 treatment, sperm were incubated with sPLA2 in M16 medium at
37°C for the last 10 min. Cells were transferred in PBS solution and then fixed with 4% PFA
solution for 2 min. Sperm were washed with 100 mM ammonium acetate for 2 min and wet-
mounted on slides and allowed to air dry. Slides were then rinsed with water and stained with
Coomassie blue (0.22%) for 2 min and finally rinsed with water. Slides were counted
immediately and 150 sperm cells at least were scored per slide.
Confocal microscopy — Control untreated sperm cells (non capacitated or capacitated during
35 min in 2% BSA 5% C02) or equivalent treated sperm (10 min in the presence of 200 nM
OS2-sPLA2) were washed twice in PBS and transferred in a staining buffer (10mM
HEPES/NaCl, 0.14 M NaCl and 250 nM CaCl2, pH=7.4) containing both carboxufluorescein
diacetate (6-CFDA) and 1 µg/mL of annexin V-Cy3 for 15 min in the dark at room
temperature. After incubation with annexin V-Cy3, the sperm suspension was washed twice
with the binding buffer. Sperm cells were then fixed in 4% PFA and annexin-V staining was
measured using a confocal microscope (Leica).
Chemical compounds — M2 and M16 medium, low fatty acid BSA (fraction V) and Annexin
V-Cy3 (from Apoptosis dectection kit) were purchased from Sigma.
RESULTS
These results highlight the importance of sPLA2 as modulator of sperm physiology. Indeed,
mammalian secreted phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) are widely expressed in male reproductive
tissues and are likely involved in a large set of biological functions [26; 27]. Recently, we
showed that some mammalian secreted phospholipase A2 (sPLA2), and more particularly
sPLA2 belonging to group X, control specifically key events of mouse sperm physiology that
are sperm motility [23] and acrosome reaction [16]. This study confirms that changing the
sperm plasma membrane composition, and more particularly phospholipids via sPLA2
enzymatic activity has important physiological consequences in term of sperm motility,
capacitation and acrosome reaction. It is important to point out that the strong decrease of
sperm motility was not due to a loss of cell viability since treated sperm with OS2 were still
able to hydrolyse the fluorescent probe by non-specific esterases. The decrease of sperm
motility was likely related to the change of the composition of the plasma membrane, as
demonstrated by the change in annexin-V staining after OS2 treatment. This result supports
the idea that phospholipids are important for sperm motility as suggested by the knock-out of
the gene of internal PLA2 VIA (iPLA2β), which leads to a severe motility phenotype [28].
OS1 and OS2 were also very potent inducers of acrosome reaction, with marked effect from
0.2 nM for OS2. Interestedly, the potent OS2 sPLA2 was unable to trigger AR in the whole
sperm population even at very high concentrations, and more than 30-40% of sperm are fully
resistant to its action. This result is in accordance with the results obtained with group X
sPLA2 and confirms that a subpopulation of sperm is not sensitive to sPLA2 action, in regard
to acrosome reaction. This point highlights the heterogeneity of sperm population [29; 30] and
the great importance of sperm sorting, especially in ART, where a physiological sorting is
absent [31]. Finally, we have previously shown that mammalian sPLA2 of the group X is able
to improve the rate of success of in vitro fertilization (IVF) in mouse and this result suggest
that sPLA2 activity may be used as a therapeutic compound in infertility treatment. The fact
that venom sPLA2 are able to modulate sperm physiology, allows speculating that different
sPLA2 may have more potent effect on IVF, than mGX. Although these snake enzymes were
able to strongly modulate sperm physiology, they were unable to mimic the advantageous
action of the mammalian sPLA2 of the group X on the yield of IVF. We have tested several
mammalian sPLA2 (unpublished data) and none of these enzymes were also able to reproduce
the beneficial effect of the sPLA2 of the group X. The absence of beneficial effect on mouse
IVF of the different sPLA2 tested is likely related to specific enzymatic activity of each
sPLA2, characterized by the types of phospholipid hydrolyzed, the kinetic of hydrolysis and
its capacity to bind on a specific plasma membrane in function of the cell curvature [17].
Altogether, these results suggest that the effect of sPLA2 of the group X on mouse IVF
outcome is more specific than its effect on sperm motility.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to J.M. Gutiérrez (San José, University of Costa Rica) for providing us Ba-II
and Ba-IV sPLA2s. This work was supported in part by the Région Rhône-Alpes (to C.A.),
CNRS (to C.A. and G.L.), INSERM (M.D.W.), the Association pour la Recherche sur le
cancer [grant 3977] and the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (to G.L.). J.E. is supported by
a fellowship by the Région Rhône-Alpes.
N Unused Total %Cov Accession Name Species
1 28,40 28,40 70,55 gi|71066730 PLA-7 precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus
OS2=secretory phospholipase A2 [Oxyuranus scutellatus=Taipan snakes, ssp.
1 0,00 26,40 84,03 gi|913014 Oxyuranus scutellatus
scutellatus, venom, Peptide, 119 aa]
2 16,54 16,54 64,94 gi|71066720 PLA-1 precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus
2 0,00 16,54 64,94 gi|66475088 OS5 precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
OS1=secretory phospholipase A2 [Oxyuranus scutellatus=Taipan snakes, ssp.
2 0,00 16,00 73,23 gi|913013 Oxyuranus scutellatus
scutellatus, venom, Peptide, 127 aa]
3 13,57 13,57 65,06 gi|71066802 SNTX-1 precusor [Oxyuranus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus
RecName: Full=Short neurotoxin 1; Short=SNTX-1; AltName: Full=Toxin 3; Flags:
3 0,00 13,57 65,06 gi|123910874 Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
Precursor
3 0,00 13,52 57,83 gi|66475096 toxin 3 [Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
3 0,00 12,00 67,74 gi|254772678 RecName: Full=Short neurotoxin 2; Short=SNTX-2 Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
taicatoxin serine protease inhibitor component [Oxyuranus
4 10,69 10,69 91,94 gi|263546 Oxyuranus scutellatus
scutellatus=Australian taipan snakes, ssp. scutellatus, venom, Peptide, 62 aa]
5 10,00 14,00 57,93 gi|71066718 beta taipoxin variant 1 precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus
5 0,00 14,00 57,93 gi|66475082 beta taipoxin precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
5 0,00 14,00 71,19 gi|129435 RecName: Full=Phospholipase A2 homolog, taipoxin beta chain Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
6 10,00 14,00 44,52 gi|66475084 alpha taipoxin-2 precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
7 8,01 8,01 40,22 gi|254772668 RecName: Full=Long neurotoxin 1; Short=LNTX-1; Flags: Precursor Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
7 0,00 8,01 40,22 gi|118151706 LNTX-1 precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus
RecName: Full=Phospholipase A2, taipoxin alpha chain; AltName:
8 6,89 14,89 70,59 gi|129413 Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
Full=Phosphatidylcholine 2-acylhydrolase
9 6,00 26,00 69,86 gi|66475090 OS6 precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
9 0,00 24,00 68,49 gi|66475092 OS7 precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
10 6,00 10,00 56,82 gi|239977265 RecName: Full=Venom protease inhibitor 1; Flags: Precursor Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
RecName: Full=Taicatoxin, serine protease inhibitor component; Short=TCX;
10 0,00 10,00 56,82 gi|239938649 Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
Flags: Precursor
10 0,00 10,00 56,82 gi|185533608 taicatoxin serine protease inhibitor precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus
10 0,00 10,00 56,82 gi|129919019 venom protease inhibitor precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus
10 0,00 10,69 62,50 gi|239977272 RecName: Full=Venom protease inhibitor 2; Flags: Precursor Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
10 0,00 10,69 62,50 gi|129919043 venom protease inhibitor precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus
11 4,96 4,96 75,00 gi|348613 alpha-neurotoxin-like taicatoxin component - Australian taipan (fragment) Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
taicatoxin alpha-neurotoxin-like component {N-terminal} [Oxyuranus
11 0,00 4,96 75,00 gi|263548 scutellatus=Australian taipan snakes, ssp. scutellatus, venom, Peptide Partial, Oxyuranus scutellatus
28 aa]
12 4,00 4,00 53,33 gi|71725729 venom natriuretic peptide OsNP-d precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus
12 0,00 4,00 53,33 gi|123916490 RecName: Full=Natriuretic peptide OsNP-d; Flags: Precursor Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
RecName: Full=Peptide TNP-b; AltName: Full=Taipan natriuretic peptide;
12 0,00 4,00 29,73 gi|189047090 Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
AltName: Full=Venom natriuretic peptide OxsSNPb; Flags: Precursor
RecName: Full=Peptide TNP-b; AltName: Full=Taipan natriuretic peptide;
12 0,00 2,00 88,57 gi|32363244 Oxyuranus scutellatus canni
AltName: Full=Venom natriuretic peptide OxsSNPb
RecName: Full=Peptide TNP-a; AltName: Full=Taipan natriuretic peptide;
12 0,00 2,00 88,57 gi|32363241 Oxyuranus scutellatus canni
AltName: Full=Venom natriuretic peptide OxsSNPa
RecName: Full=Peptide TNP-a; AltName: Full=Taipan natriuretic peptide;
12 0,00 2,00 88,57 gi|32363240 Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
AltName: Full=Venom natriuretic peptide OxsSNPa
RecName: Full=Peptide TNP-c; AltName: Full=Taipan natriuretic peptide;
12 0,00 2,00 28,21 gi|32363246 Oxyuranus scutellatus canni
AltName: Full=Venom natriuretic peptide OxsSNPc
13 4,00 4,00 37,35 gi|239977119 RecName: Full=Scutellin-3; Flags: Precursor Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
13 0,00 4,00 37,35 gi|185534290 scutellin-3 precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus
13 0,00 4,00 37,35 gi|157683297 scutellin-3 precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus
14 2,00 4,00 29,73 gi|66475094 natriuretic peptide [Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
RecName: Full=Peptide TNP-b; AltName: Full=Taipan natriuretic peptide;
14 0,00 4,00 29,73 gi|189047090 Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
AltName: Full=Venom natriuretic peptide OxsSNPb; Flags: Precursor
15 2,00 4,00 12,50 gi|66475086 gamma taipoxin-2 precursor [Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
RecName: Full=Phospholipase A2, taipoxin gamma chain; AltName:
15 0,00 4,00 14,29 gi|129446 Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus
Full=Phosphatidylcholine 2-acylhydrolase
16 2,00 2,00 3,27 gi|145982762 scutellatease-1 [Oxyuranus scutellatus] Oxyuranus scutellatus
Table 1: list of identified proteins in the fraction 9 of Oxyuranus scutellatus
N: rank of the specified protein relative to all other proteins in the list of detected proteins.
Unused (ProtScore): measure of the protein confidence for a detected protein, calculated
from the peptide confidence for peptides from spectra that have not already been completely
"used" by higher scoring winning proteins. Total (ProtScore): measure of the total amount of
evidence for a detected protein. The Total ProtScore is calculated using all of the peptides
detected for the protein. % Cov (% Coverage): number of amino acids matching to at least
one identified peptide divided by the total number of amino acids in the protein sequence,
expressed as a percentage. Accession: accession number for the protein. Name: name of the
protein. Species: species for this protein.
Figure 1: Snake venoms modulate sperm motility
A. Venoms have been separated by size exclusion chromatography and fractions containing
molecules above 15 kDa (A1-A8) have been discarded and not tested. Example of the
separation of the crude venom of Oxyuranus scutellatus (blue curve). A calibration run using
cytochrom C (12.3 kDa), aprotinin (6.5 kDa) and vit B12 (1.8 kDa) is presented (red curve).
Fractions of interest, corresponded to fraction A9-B4, were pooled in the global activity test
presented in panel B of figure 1 B. Global activity test of 16 different venoms on sperm
motility (VCL) performed with pooled fractions (A9-B4), containing molecules below 15
kDa. C. Effect of the different fractions of Oxyuranus scutellatus on sperm motility.
Figure 2: OS1 and OS2, two sPLA2s of the venom of Oxyuranus scutellatus inhibit
sperm motility
A. Tracks of the position of the head of non capacitated sperm measured by a CASA system
in three conditions: control (non treated) sperm, sperm treated with OS1 sPLA2 and sperm
treated with OS2 sPLA2. B. Dose-response curves corresponding to the inhibition of VCL
and ALH by the two sPLA2 OS1 and OS2.
Figure 3: Inhibition of sperm motility by OS2 is dependent of its enzymatic activity
A. Comparison of the effect of OS1, OS2, OS2-H48Q (catalytically inactive mutant) and
OS2-Cter (catalytically inactive OS2-OS1 chimera) on sperm motility at 200 nM. B.
Comparison of the effect of different myotoxins (BaII-K49 and BaIV-K49 are both myotoxins
from the venom of Bothrops asper) and OS2-D49K (catalytically inactive mutant) on sperm
motility.
Figure 4: OS2 is a potent activator of acrosome reaction
A. Image of non capacitated control sperm: most sperm are non-acrosome reacted and exhibit
dark staining in the apical head (arrows). B. Image of sperm incubated 10 min in the presence
of 200 nM OS2: most sperm are acrosome reacted, as indicated by the absence of a stained
region in the apical head (black arrows). Note that some sperm are not acrosome reacted
(white arrows) C. Dose response curves corresponding to the acrosome reaction triggered by
OS1 and OS2.
Figure 5: OS2 does not induce a sperm death and trigger externalization of
phosphatidylserine.
A,B. Distribution of the different subpopulations of sperm in function of the VCL or ALH of
non treated sperm (control red bars) and OS2-treated sperm (black bars). C,D. Image of non-
capacitated sperm incubated in the presence of carboxufluorescein diacetate (6-CFDA) for 15
min, after a 10 min pre-incubation with control medium (C) or in the presence of 200 nM OS2
(D). E,F. Image of non-capacitated sperm incubated in the presence of annexin-V for 15 min,
after a 10 min pre-incubation with control medium (E) or in the presence of 200 nM OS2 (F).
Figure 6: OS2 inhibits in vitro fertilization
A. Schematic drawing of typical IVF experiment. Sperm were first capacitated for 35 min in
M16-2% BSA and then incubated for the last 10 min with M16 medium containing 20 nM or
200 nM OS2. After treatment, sperm were washed by centrifugation to remove unbound OS2,
putative catalytic products and all acrosomal compounds released during sPLA2-induced AR.
Finally, washed sperm were introduced into droplets containing oocytes (20-85 oocytes per
experiment). After 4 hours of gamete mixing, unbound sperm were washed away and IVF
outcomes were scored at 24 h. B. Pictures of the different stages obtained after IVF at 24
hours: unfertilized oocytes; 2-cell embryos (normal development); aborted embryos
corresponding to oocytes with either multiple and uncontrolled divisions or presenting a
second polar body (2 PB) but no cell division (not shown). C. outcomes of in vitro
fertilization performed either with control sperm or with sperm treated briefly with 20 or 200
nM OS2.
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Résultats
2. Discussion
Après avoir identifié les sPLA2 comme les molécules actives sur la mobilité spermatique, par
analyse protéomique, nous avons ensuite évalué l’effet des sPLA2 de venin sur les différentes
étapes de la physiologie spermatique (mobilité, réaction acrosomique et FIV), par
l’intermédiaire du Dr Gérard Lambeau qui nous a fourni les sPLA2 de venin (OS1 et OS2).
Utilisation des sPLA2 purifiées et des formes recombinante de OS2 nous a permis de mettre
en évidence que :
- La modulation de la mobilité spermatique par OS2 est effectuée via son activité
enzymatique, car les isoformes inactifs d’OS2, OS2-H48Q et OS2 C-term, ont été
incapables de moduler la mobilité des spermatozoïdes.
- La diminution de la mobilité spermatique par OS2 n’est pas liée à une perte de la
viabilité des spermatozoïdes, mais à une modification de la composition lipidique de la
membrane plasmique.
La recherche de nouveaux outils pharmacologiques dans les venins par des tests activités
biologiques nous a permis de mettre en évidence une voie de régulation de la physiologie
spermatique via les phospholipases A2 secrétées.
85
Résultats
Dix gènes de PLA2 sécrétées différents ont été décrits à ce jour chez la souris,
correspondant aux groupes d'IB, IIA, IIC, IID, IIE, IIF, III, V, X et XIIA-sPLA2.
L’identification de ces nombreuses sPLA2 a été effectuée par homologie de séquences avec
les sPLA2 de venin (Valentin and Lambeau 2000). À l’heure actuelle, de nombreuses études
ont montré que les sPLA2 de mammifères étaient largement exprimées dans de nombreux
tissus et organes (Lambeau and Gelb 2008), mais leur rôle physiologique reste encore
largement inconnu.
Les sPLA2 de mammifères ne pourraient-elles pas comme la sPLA2 OS2 de venins réguler
les étapes de la physiologie spermatique ?
86
Résultats
3. Introduction
Les phospholipases A2 (PLA2) sont des enzymes qui hydrolysent la liaison ester des
phospholipides membranaires en position sn-2, produisant ainsi des lysophospholipides et des
acides gras libres. Ce clivage des phospholipides est à l’origine de la synthèse des médiateurs
lipidiques.
Les organes reproducteurs mâles présente un large panel de sPLA2: les cellules
spermatogéniques, l’épididyme, le vas déférent et les vésicules séminales expriment les
sPLA2 des groupes IIC, IID, IIE, IIF, en V et X-sPLA2; la prostate exprime les sPLA2 des
groupes IIC, IID, IIE et IIF-sPLA2 et le spermatozoïde mature exprime les sPLA2 des groupes
IID, IIC, V, X et IIF (Masuda, Murakami et al. 2004).
Nous nous sommes demandés pourquoi un tel panel de sPLA2 était présent au niveau du
spermatozoïde. Quelle est l’implication réelle de ces phospholipases sPLA2 dans la
physiologie spermatique ? Les sPLA2 de mammifères ne pourraient-elles pas comme les
phospholipases de venins réguler les étapes de la physiologie spermatique ?
Afin de répondre à ces questions, nous avons regardé l’effet des différents sPLA2 de
mammifères sur deux étapes clés de la physiologie spermatique : la mobilité flagellaire (cf
Article 2) et la réaction acrosomique (cf Article 3).
87
Résultats
Jessica Escoffier, Ikram Jemel, Michel De Waard, Gérard Lambeau and Christophe
Arnoult.
Article en préparation
89
Mammalian Group X secreted phospholipase A2 regulates
specifically sperm motility
Jessica Escoffier1, Ikram Jemel2, Michel De Waard1, Gérard Lambeau2 and Christophe
Arnoult1*
INTRODUCTION
The molecular pathways involved in sperm flagellum beat are complex and still badly
understood. If several aspects of sperm flagellum beat, like the molecular structure of the
axonema (Escalier, 2006), the molecular machinery involved in microtubules sliding via the
macromolecular dynein complex (Esposito et al, 2004) or the control of flagellum beat by
Ca2+ (Ren et al, 2001;Castellano et al, 2003;Ho and Suarez, 2003;Schuh et al, 2004), have
been more particularly studied, the importance of the lipid composition of the plasma
membrane and the roles of lipid metabolism in sperm motility have been poorly explored.
Nevertheless several reports suggest that lipids are important for sperm motility. For instance,
sperm from male deficient in group VIA intracellular phospholipase A2 (iPLA2β) or group III
secreted phospholipase A2 (mGIII-sPLA2) present a strong decrease of their motility (Bao et
al, 2004;Sato et al, 2009). Moreover, platelet-activating factor (PAF; ether phospholipid 1-O-
alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glyceryl-3-phosphocholine), is secreted during capacitation and increases
sperm motility via a PAF receptor (Roudebush, 2001;Wu et al, 2001), underlining the
importance of lipids metabolism in sperm motility. These results suggest that lipid
rearrangement or lipid metabolites are important for flagellum beat, in order either to change
membrane fluidity or to control key proteins involved in flagellum beat. Besides
astenozoospermia (sperm with low motility) is associated in human with a defective sperm
plasma membrane composition with an excess of cholesterol and desmosterol (Montell,
1997;Buffone et al, 2009), a low concentration of specific fatty acid like decosahexaenoic
acid found in different phospholipids (Gulaya et al, 2001) and a overall increase of fatty acid
content (Ollero et al, 2001;Aksoy et al, 2006).
Irrespective of the above, capacitation of sperm leads to major reorganization of the plasma
membrane with lipid remodelling and formation of membrane subdomains (Gadella and
Harrison, 2000;Jones et al, 2007;Gadella et al, 2008). Cholesterol efflux is the most well-
known modification of the plasma membrane and plays a major role in sperm maturation both
in vivo and in vitro (Visconti et al, 1999;Travis and Kopf, 2002). Other major changes during
capacitation include efflux of desmosterol, changes in sterol sulfates, phospholipids,
sphingomyelin and ceramides, and finally remodeling of lipid rafts (Travis and Kopf,
2002;Buffone, Verstraeten, Calamera, and Doncel, 2009;Zalata et al, 2009). All these events
likely contribute to increase membrane fluidity by changing lipid packing and contribute to
increase heterogeneity of the sperm population. If obviously different families of lipolytic
enzymes are involved in these lipid rearrangements (Wang et al, 2004), phospholipases A2
(PLA2) are good candidates, because of their large diversity of action in phospholipid
remodeling and lipid mediator release in a large set of biological functions (Lambeau and
Gelb, 2008).
PLA2 is a large family of enzymes, and in function of their locations, they have been split in
two groups: intracellular and secreted PLA2s (Schaloske and Dennis, 2006). In the
intracellular PLA2 group, three different families of enzymes are present: the cytosolic PLA2s
(cPLA2s or also named group IV PLA2s) which are calcium dependent enzymes, iPLA2s
(also named group VIA PLA2s) and PAF-acetylhydrolase (also named group VIIIB PLA2s),
both group being calcium independent. For secreted PLA2s (sPLA2), ten different genes have
been described in mouse so far, corresponding to the groups of IB-, IIA-, IIC-, IID-, IIE-, IIF-,
III-, V-, X- and XIIA-sPLA2 (labelled mGy for mouse group y-sPLA2). In male reproductive
organs, both intracellular and secreted phospholipase A2 have been described (Bao, Miller,
Ma, Wohltmann, Eng, Ramanadham, Moley, and Turk, 2004;Masuda et al, 2004;Koizumi et
al, 2003;Yan et al, 2003). Concerning the sPLA2, a wide range of different groups is
expressed. Spermatogenic cells, epididymis, vas deferens and seminal vesicle express sPLA2
of the groups IIC, IID, IIE, II-, V and X; epididymis express sPLA2 of the groups IIC, IID,
IIE, IIF, III, V and X; prostate express groups IIC, IID, II- and IIFs and mature sperm X-
sPLA2 {Masuda, Murakami, et al. 2004 502 /id}(Sato, Taketomi, Isogai, Miki, Yamamoto,
Hosono, Arata, Ishikawa, Ishii, Kobayashi, Nakanishi, Ikeda, Taguchi, Hara, Murakami, and
Kudo, 2009;Escoffier et al, 2009). The reasons for such a diversity of sPLA2s expression in
the different components of the genital male organs, and for most of them, their specific
cellular functions are unknown so far. Deciphering the specific roles of each PLA2 involved
in male reproduction is a challenging goal. Recent studies point out specific roles for mGIII
and mGX: mGIII is involved in sperm lipid homeostasis in the epididymis and lack of this
sPLA2 leads to defective sperm (Sato, Taketomi, Isogai, Miki, Yamamoto, Hosono, Arata,
Ishikawa, Ishii, Kobayashi, Nakanishi, Ikeda, Taguchi, Hara, Murakami, and Kudo, 2009) and
mGX is present in the acrosome of mature sperm and paracrine secretion of mGX during
sperm capacitation promotes an anticipated acrosome reaction that excludes a sperm
subpopulation from fertilization (Escoffier, Jemel, tanemoto, Taketomi, Coatrieux, Sato,
Yamamoto, Masuda, Pernet-Gallay, Pierre, Hara, Murakami, De Waard, Lambeau, and
Arnoult, 2009).
Concerning the enzymatic activity, the sPLA2 family is characterized by its ability to
hydrolyse the sn-2 ester of glycero-phospholipids of the extracellular leaflet of the plasma
membrane in two components, a fatty acid (FA) and a lysophospholipid (LysoPL). These both
compounds have the ability to leave the plasma membrane. Because FAs rapidly equilibrate
between both leaflets of the membrane bilayers, they diffuse into the cytoplasm and control
different cellular signalling pathways as second messengers. By contrast, LysoPLs
accumulate in the outer leaflet. However, the lysophospholipid contains a polar group
(glycero-phospho head) and a more lipophil group (fatty acid in position 1 on the glycerol). In
function of the size of its fatty acid, the lysophospholipid may be able to leave the membrane
and may act as a bioactive metabolite in different extracellular pathways in an autocrine or
paracrine mode.
Here, we evaluated the effect of some different mammalian secreted phospholipase A2 known
to be present in male reproductive organs, like mGIIA, mGIID-, mGIIE-, mGV- and mGX-
sPLA2 {Masuda, Murakami, et al. 2004 502 /id} or in female tract like mGIIE (Valentin et al,
1999) on sperm motility. By using different strategies (modified inactive sPLA2, specific
inhibitors), we showed for the first time that mouse sperm motility is specifically modulated
by the enzymatic activity of mGX-sPLA2.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Computer-assisted motility analysis — Sperm cells from caudae epididymes were allowed to
swim in 1 ml of M2 medium for 10 min. sperm was re-suspended in M16 and incubated with
different sPLA2 at 37°C for 10 min. After incubation, the sperm suspension was immediately
placed onto analysis chamber (2X-CEL Slides, 100 µm depth, Leja Products B.V.,
Netherlands) kept at 37 °C for microscopic quantitative study of sperm movement. Sperm
motility parameters were measured at 37°C using a sperm analyzer (Hamilton Thorn
Research, Beverley). The settings employed for analysis were as follows: acquisition rate: 60
Hz; number of frames: 100; minimum contrast: 25; minimum cell size: 10; low static-size
gate: 2.4; high static-size gate: 2.4; low static-intensity gate: 1.02; high static-intensity gate:
1.37 ; minimum elongation gate: 12; maximum elongation gate: 100; magnification factor:
0.70. The motility parameters measured were: curvilinear velocity (VCL) and amplitude of
lateral head displacement (ALH). A minimum of 100 motile spermatozoa for each sample
was analyzed.
Production of recombinant sPLA2s — Recombinant mouse sPLA2s group IIA, IID, IIE, V
and X and the H48Q mutant mGX sPLA2 were produced as described previously (Rouault et
al, 2007;Singer et al, 2002). Pro-mGX sPLA2 was produced as for WT mature mGX sPLA2
using the pAB3 vector in which the full-length cDNA coding for Pro-mGX was inserted in
frame with the ∆GST protein and the factor Xa cleavage site, which were removed from Pro-
mGX sPLA2 by using the factor Xa protease (Rouault, Le Calvez, Boilard, Surrel, Singer,
Ghomashchi, Bezzine, Scarzello, Bollinger, Gelb, and Lambeau, 2007).
The results presented in this paper are important for several reasons. First, they underline the
importance of phospholipid in sperm motility, second they demonstrate that mGX present a
unique feature among five different sPLA2, by decreasing sperm motility of non capacitated
sperm, and finally they demonstrate that endogenous mGX released during in vitro
capacitation controls sperm motility. Altogether, these results demonstrate that sperm motility
is dependent of i/ lipid homeostatis and ii/ enzymatic activity of secreted GX PLA2
Figure 1. mGX sPLA2 is the most potent inhibitor of sperm motility among 5 different
mammalian sPLA2s.
A, B: Effects of mGIIA, mGIID, mGIIE, mGV and mGX sPLA2 at 200 nM on sperm motility
were analysed with a CASA (computer assisted sperm analysis) system. Two different sperm
motion parameters “track speed” VCL (A) and “lateral displacement of the head” ALH (B)
are showed. For each sPLA2, we compared the values obtained in the presence of the enzyme
with the values obtained in a control experiment with sperm cells from the same animal, n=
16 for mGX, n=5 for mGV and n=3 for mGIIA, mGIID and mGIIE sPLA2. C: Dose response
curve of mGX sPLA2 on two different sperm motion parameters ALH (●) and VCL (◊).
mGX concentrations tested were 0.2, 2,20,200 and 500 nM.
Figure 2. The effect of mGX is heterogeneous and high-speed sperm are less affected
than low speed sperm by sPLA2 treatment.
A: Control sperm cells population presents an heterogeneous VCL distribution, ranging from
0-50 µm/s to value above 450 µm/s and showing two peaks (blue bars/line). In the presence of
200 nM mGX, we observed a shift of sperm VCL distribution (black bars/line). B: This
distribution is different of a theoretical distribution obtained after a 30% decrease of each sub-
population (red line), which is the mean decrease of the sperm VCL population sample in the
presence of 200 nM mGX sPLA2. C: Control sperm cells population presents an
heterogeneous ALH distribution, ranging from 0-2 µm to value above 18 µm (blue bars/line).
In the presence of 200 nM mGX, we observed a shift of sperm ALH distribution (black
bars/line). D: This distribution is different of a theoretical distribution obtained after a 17%
decrease of each sub-population (red line), which is the mean decrease of the sperm ALH
population sample in the presence of 200 nM mGX sPLA2. E, F: Effects of mGX sPLA2 on
individual sperm tracking (blue lines). Comparison of control sperm (E) and sperm incubated
with 200 nM mGX during 10 min (F) obtained from the same animal. Note that the length of
the tracks, which is proportional to the speed of the sperm cell, is more heterogeneous after
application of sPLA2. Static and slow cells have been erased.
Control and mGX conditions of graphs A and C corresponded to 3 different mice, where a
mean of 205 sperm per control mouse and 310 sperm per mGX-treated mouse were scored.
Figure 3. Enzymatic activity of mGX is required to affect sperm motility.
A, C: mutation of the catalytic site of mGX (H48Q) abolishes its ability to affect sperm
motility (n=3). Pro-mGX, the inactive pro-enzyme of mGX is also unable to affect sperm
motility (n=3).
B, D: the specific sPLA2 inhibitor LY329722 blocks the effect of mGX on sperm VCL and
ALH (n=5, for mGX at 200 nM and n=3 for mGX at 500 nM, p as indicated).
Figure 4. Change in lipid composition during capacitation decreases mGX potency.
Confocal images of sperm stained with annexine-V- cyanine-3. A. non capacitated sperm, B.
capacitated sperm, C. Non capacitated sperm treated with 200 nM mGX during 10 min., D
capacitated sperm treated with 200 nM mGX during 10 min. E. Mean VCL of control (black
bars) or mGX (200 nM) treated sperm populations (white bars), before capacitation (two left
bars) or after capacitation (two righ bars), n=6. Sperm were capacitated by incubating them in
2% BSA in M16 medium during 90 min.
0 min 55 min 90 min
300
NS
250 p=0.73 NS ***
p=0.51 p=0.038
200
VCL, µm/s
150
100
50
LY 329722
- + - + - +
1 µM
Figure 5. LY329722, a specific inhibitor of mGX increases the mean VCL of sperm
capacitated during 90 min.
Sperm were capacitated by incubating them in 2% BSA in M16 medium in a % CO2
incubator at 37°C in the absence or presence of LY329722 a 1 µM. At various time of
capacitation, (0, 45 and 90 min), the VCL of control (black bars) or LY329722 treated sperm
(white bars) were compared, n=11.
Figure 6. Absence of correlation between acrosome reaction and decrease of sperm
motility
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by Région Rhône-Alpes (to C.A.), NNRS (to G.L.) and
INSERM (M.D.W.). J.E. is supported by a fellowship of Région Rhône-Alpes.
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Résultats
91
Group X phospholipase A2 is secreted during sperm acrosome
reaction and controls fertility outcome
1
Grenoble Institute of Neuroscience
Inserm U.836 Team 3 “Calcium channels, functions and pathologies”;
Université Joseph Fourier
Chemin Ferrini
38700 La Tronche, France
2
Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire
CNRS - UMR 6097
Université de Nice-Sophia Antipolis
660 route des Lucioles, Sophia Antipolis
06560 Valbonne, France
3
Department of Health Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
4
Biomembrane Signaling Project
The Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science
2-1-6 Kamikitazawa
Setagaya-ku
Tokyo 156-8506, Japan
5
PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, 4-1-8
Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
*Corresponding author
Christophe ARNOULT
Grenoble Institute of Neuroscience, Inserm U.836 Team 3 “Calcium channels, functions and
pathologies”; Université Joseph Fourier
Chemin Ferrini, 38700 La Tronche, France
Phone 33- 4 56 52 05 63 Fax 33- 4 56 52 05 72 E-mail: [email protected]
1
Nonstandard abbreviations used:
A comprehensive abbreviation system for the various mammalian sPLA2s is used: each
sPLA2 is abbreviated with a lowercase letter indicating the sPLA2 species (m for mouse),
followed by uppercase letters identifying the sPLA2 group (GIIA, GIID, GIIE, GIIF, GV, GX,
2
Ejaculated mammalian sperm must undergo a maturation process, the capacitation, as
they traverse the female reproductive tract and before they can fertilize the egg. Several
acrosome reaction (AR) and fertilization, but the molecular nature of these enzymes and
their specific roles have remained elusive. We demonstrate here that mouse group X
secreted phospholipase A2 (mGX sPLA2) is the major enzyme present in the acrosome
of spermatozoa and that mGX is released in an active form during sperm capacitation
via spontaneous AR. The size of litters from male mGX-deficient mice was slightly
smaller than that of wild-type males. Spermatozoa from mGX-deficient mice exhibited
due to a drop of fertilization potential of sperm and an increase of the rate of aborted
wild-type sperm and reduced IVF outcome. These effects were restored by addition of
All together, our results reveal the presence of group X sPLA2 in sperm acrosome and
highlight a paracrine role of this enzyme during capacitation in which the enzyme
3
Introduction
Spermatogenesis in the testis leads to the production of morphologically mature sperm cells
which are still functionally immature, immotile and incompetent for fertilization. Before
fertilization, these sperm cells should undergo two major series of important morphological,
biochemical and functional modifications, one in the epididymis and the other in the female
reproductive tract after ejaculation. During their transit through the epididymis, sperm cells
acquire progressive motility and prime the signaling pathways that will eventually orchestrate
capacitation. The full fertilization potential of spermatozoa will be reached in vivo only after
Capacitation was discovered by Austin and Chang in the early 1950s and is defined as a
complex set of molecular events that allow ejaculated sperm to fertilize an egg (1).
Fertilization starts with sperm binding on zona pellucida and is followed by the physiological
acrosome reaction (AR), which is essential for sperm-oocyte fusion. Only fully capacitated
spermatozoa can bind to the zona-intact egg and are competent for AR (2). However, during
spontaneous AR (3). This process is currently interpreted as a sperm malfunction and suggests
that a subpopulation of ejaculated sperm does not tolerate the above final maturation process.
The endogenous factors responsible for spontaneous AR and the possible physiological
reasons for this process have not been identified. Indeed, the molecular mechanisms of sperm
capacitation is still poorly understood, even after 50 years of intensive research (4-7). If
capacitation clearly depends on ion fluxes and protein phosphorylations, this process is also
metabolism. Indeed, major lipid remodeling events of sperm including reorganization of the
plasma membrane and formation of membrane subdomains have been observed during
4
capacitation at both chemical and biophysical levels (7-9). During capacitation, the most well-
known modification of the plasma membrane is cholesterol efflux which plays a major role in
sperm maturation both in vivo and in vitro (4;10). Other major changes during capacitation
phospholipids, sphingomyelin and ceramides, all of them likely contributing to the increase in
membrane fluidity by changing lipid packing and thereby providing heterogeneity of the
sperm population (4;11-13). If obviously several families of lipolytic enzymes are involved in
these lipid modifications (14), phospholipases A2 (PLA2) are likely to be important, because
of their large diversity of action from phospholipid remodeling and lipid mediator release to
PLA2 catalyze the hydrolysis of phospholipids at the sn-2 position to generate free fatty acids
and lysophospholipids, which are precursors of different lipid mediators such as eicosanoids
and platelet-activating factor (PAF) (17-21). PLA2 metabolites either leave the cellular
membrane and are involved in different cellular signaling pathways or accumulate in the
leaflet of the membrane and change its biophysical properties. PLA2s constitute one of the
largest families of lipid hydrolyzing enzymes and have been classified into several groups
(15). Based on their respective structure and cellular localization, PLA2s can be divided into
two major sets of proteins: a set of Ca2+-dependent and Ca2+-independent intracellular PLA2s
and another set of Ca2+-dependent secreted PLA2s (sPLA2). The PLA2 family also comprises
a set of intracellular and secreted forms of PAF-acetyl hydrolase. Deciphering the biological
functions of each PLA2 member is challenging. Studies over the last decade have shown that
intracellular PLA2s including group IVA cytosolic PLA2 (cPLA2α) and group VIA Ca2+-
independent PLA2 (iPLA2ß) are mainly involved in the production of various lipid mediators
in different tissues and cell types activated by numerous stimuli (17-22). Production of these
5
conditions. Several sPLA2s, in particular group IIA, V and X also contribute to the production
of lipid mediators in certain conditions and have been involved in diverse physiopathological
conditions including inflammation and associated inflammatory diseases, tissue injury and
Several intracellular and secreted PLA2s have been described in the testis and other male
reproductive organs, but their respective functions in reproduction still remain largely
obscure. Group VIIIB PAF-acetyl hydrolase and iPLA2ß have been found in sperm cells and
the corresponding deficient mice present defects in early spermatogenesis and sperm motility,
respectively (26-28). cPLA2-ε has recently been cloned and found to be expressed in the
testis, but its function is still unknown (29). Previous studies have also shown that several
sPLA2s including group IIA, IIC, IID, IIE, IIF, V and X are present in various genital male
organs such as testis, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles and prostate, but their exact
functions are still speculative (30;31). More particularly, mouse group IIE, V and X sPLA2s
(mGIIE, mGV and mGX, respectively) have been localized in the late spermatids, but their
presence in mature sperm and their specific functions in capacitation or fertilization remain to
be determined.
Irrespective of the above, different studies have shown that one or several uncharacterized
PLA2s play an important role in capacitation, AR and the early steps of fertilization including
sperm binding and sperm-oocyte fusion (32). First, several biochemical studies have
demonstrated the presence of one or several low molecular weight Ca2+-dependent sPLA2-like
proteins in spermatozoa from different species, yet their true molecular nature still remains
has been linked to activation of spontaneous AR, but the enzyme responsible for PAF release
has not been identified (37). Concerning AR, non physiological and physiological stimuli of
AR using Ca2+ ionophore, progesterone and zona pellucida produce the release of arachidonic
6
acid and/or lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), and is prevented by PLA2 inhibitors on sperm
from various species (38-41). However, the identity of the PLA2(s) involved in this exocytotic
event has not yet been revealed and the use of poorly specific PLA2 inhibitors such as Ro 31-
4493, aristolochic acid or ONO RS-82 in these studies cannot provide any clue (38;40;41).
PLA2 activation during AR is also supported by the fact that LPC and fatty acids accelerate or
promote exocytosis (42;43). Finally, LPC improves sperm binding on zona pellucida (44) and
sperm-oocyte fusion (45), supporting the notion that one or several PLA2s including an sPLA2
In this paper, we have used mouse group X deficient mice (mGX-/-), sPLA2 inhibitors and
recombinant mGX protein to identify a novel role of this sPLA2. We demonstrated that mGX
sPLA2 is the major enzyme present in the acrosome of mature spermatozoa and is released as
an active enzyme during AR. mGX controls sperm physiology at two levels, first during
In our companion paper (46), Sato et al have shown that another enzyme, the mouse group III
sPLA2 is highly expressed in the proximal epithelium of epididymis and that mice deficient
for this sPLA2 exhibit male infertility because of profound defects in sperm maturation.
Together, our results show that two catalytically active sPLA2s are expressed in different
locations within the reproductive male organs and exert non redundant functions at two major
steps of maturation of spermatozoa, one during their transit through the epididymis and the
other during capacitation, with important impacts on male fertility in both cases.
7
Results
mGX sPLA2 is specifically expressed in late spermatogenic cells and mature spermatozoa.
Quantitative RT-PCR analysis showed that the mRNA coding for mGX is present at much
higher levels in the testis than epididymis (Figure 1A). In situ hybridization on tissue sections
of the testis from 8-week-old C57BL/6J mice showed that mGX mRNA is present in late
experiments on parallel tissue sections with a specific polyclonal mGX antibody showed the
presence of mGX in spermatocytes and spermatids, but not in spermatogonia (Figure 1C). In
magnified views (Figure 1C inset), scattered signals with crescent and elongated shapes were
evident in spermatocytes and spermatids, suggesting that mGX is localized in the acrosomal
area. To further support this finding, spermatozoa from cauda epididymis were stained with
anti-mGX or control antibodies. A strong immunofluorescent signal for mGX was confined to
To further demonstrate that mGX is an acrosomal protein, we monitored the release of the
protein from mouse mature sperm undergoing in vitro capacitation in conditions known to
induce spontaneous AR of 30 to 40% of the sperm population over the time of incubation.
mGX and other sPLA2s possibly present in the acrosome were seeked using specific and
recently developed for the different mouse sPLA2s (47). During the time-course of
capacitation, the amount of mGX was increased in the supernatant and concomitantly
decreased in the pellet (Figure 2A). Moreover, inducing AR by the Ca2+ ionophore A23187
8
almost doubled the amount of released mGX at 90 min of capacitation. The fact that mGX
redistributed from the sperm pellet to the cell supernatant during capacitation or after
mature sperm. When mGX-/- sperm were used in similar capacitation experiments, no mGX
TR-FIA signal was found, validating the specificity of the results (Figure 2B). We measured
in parallel the release of mGX sPLA2 by a sensitive sPLA2 enzymatic assay using
radiolabeled E. coli membranes as a substrate. In accordance with the TR-FIA results, the
sPLA2 enzymatic activity was increased in the supernatant and decreased in the pellet,
indicating that the mGX sPLA2 released during capacitation is active (Figure 2C). The
measured enzymatic activity was due to mGX since no variation of enzymatic activity was
observed in mGX-/- sperm (not shown). We also examined the presence of mGX and other
sPLA2s including mGIIA, mGIIE and mGV in the sperm of various mouse strains (C57BL/6J,
BALB/c and OF1) and found that mGX sPLA2 was the only detectable protein in all these
strains (not shown). These experiments collectively indicate that mGX is the major sPLA2
present in the acrosome of mature mouse sperm, that the enzyme is released during AR in an
active form, and that it contributes to most of the sPLA2 enzymatic activity released in the
Although no obvious reproductive phenotype has been reported for mGX-/- male mice
(48;49), we re-investigated this question by studying the fertility outcome in natural mating
and in vitro fertilization experiments (IVF) (50). Both male and female mGX-/- mice were
fertile when mated with wild-type (WT) C57BL/6J mice (not shown); however, the average
litter size of mGX-/- male mice crossed with mGX-/- females (5.40 ± 0.76 pups, n=5 p<0.05)
was slightly lower than that of WT littermates (8.16 ± 0.39 pups, n=37) (Figure 3A), possibly
9
indicating a lower fertility of mGX-/- animals. To discriminate between male or female
reproductive deficiency, we performed IVF with mGX-/- sperm and WT oocytes. We scored
the different types of egg/oocytes obtained 24 hours after mixing sperm with oocytes:
unfertilized oocytes, 2-cell embryos (normal stage) and aborted embryos, and we used the 2-
cell embryos values to measure fertility (51), since 2-cell embryos are appropriate for transfer
into the female tract (Figures 3B and C). We controlled that oocytes incubated without sperm
in M16 medium for 24 hours did not present any type of cell division (not shown). In IVF
experiments, the fertilizing potential of mGX-/- sperm was clearly impaired when compared to
WT littermate sperm (Figure 3D). Indeed, the rate of 2-cell embryos was reduced from 67.6 ±
2.2% (n=13) for mGX+/+ sperm to 37.6 ± 3.9% (n=11, p<0.01) for mGX-/- sperm while the
rate of aborted embryos increased from 7.7 ± 1.6% to 11.9 ± 1.9% (n=11, p<0.05) for mGX+/+
and mGX-/- sperm, respectively. The percentage of unfertilized oocytes was also increased by
more than 2-fold for mGX-/- sperm. Interestingly, the impaired fertility of mGX-/- sperm was
rescued by incubating mGX-/- sperm with recombinant mGX protein throughout the
The fact that mGX sPLA2 is released during AR plus the fact that lysophospholipids and fatty
acids, two products of sPLA2 activity can activate AR (42;52) makes possible that the mGX
released during the early time points of capacitation boosts spontaneous AR in a paracrine
sperm from mGX+/+ and mGX-/- mice. The early onset of spontaneous AR was unchanged
between mGX+/+ and mGX-/- sperm. However, the level of spontaneous AR of mGX-/- sperm
occurring during the late phase of capacitation (55-90 min) was markedly lower than that of
mGX+/+ sperm (Figure 4A) and reached a plateau during the late phase of capacitation (55-90
10
min). To confirm the ability of mGX to trigger AR, we evaluated the capacity of exogenous
recombinant mGX to trigger AR during capacitation (Figure 4B, C and D). The mGX
recombinant enzyme was highly effective since concentrations as low as 0.2 nM could induce
AR of about 25% of the sperm population when incubated with sperm for 10 min. mGX
concentrations higher than 200 nM. These results were expressed as total AR minus
spontaneous AR, in order to show the specific sPLA2-induced AR (Figure 4B). Incubation of
uncapacitated sperm for 10 min with 200 nM mGX increased the rate of total AR from 23.7 ±
1.4% to 68.1 ± 2.1% (n=23, p<10-5) (Figure 4C). Finally, a brief incubation of non-
capacitated or capacitated sperm with the enzyme for 10 min before scoring AR indicates that
mGX kept the ability to induce AR throughout capacitation (Figure 4D). Together, our results
demonstrate that spontaneous AR occurring during the late phase of capacitation is controlled
by the secretion and paracrine activity of mGX. Our results also indicate that mGX modifies
the ratio between two sperm subpopulations: the acrosome-reacted and the non-acrosome-
reacted sperm. Importantly, we observed that very high concentrations of recombinant mGX
sPLA2 did not induce AR of the entire sperm population, and that about 30% of the sperm
mGX sPLA2 triggers AR via its catalytic activity and independently of cytosolic Ca2+ rise.
To determine whether the catalytic activity of mGX is required for the induction of AR, we
first tested the catalytically-inactive H48Q mutant of mGX. As for several other sPLA2s with
a mutation at the active site histidine (53;54), the mGX H48Q mutant has less than 0.1% of
WT catalytic activity (not shown). This mutant was unable to trigger AR of uncapacitated
sperm (Figure 5A- □). We then tested the effect of recombinant pro-mGX, the zymogen form
of mGX, which has very low enzymatic activity (55). Pro-mGX was also unable to trigger AR
11
at 200 nM (Figure 5A - Δ). Finally, we tested LY329722, a very specific sPLA2 inhibitor
(compound A in (56)), and found that this inhibitor blocked the sPLA2-induced AR of
capacitated sperm at 1 µM (Figure 5B). Together, these results demonstrate that the catalytic
activity of mGX is essential for inducing AR. We also wondered whether Ca2+ influx was
required for mGX-induced AR. To address this question, sperm were loaded during 30 min in
a non capacitating medium with BAPTA-AM, a cell-permeant and fast chelator of Ca2+.
Sperm were then washed and incubated for another 30 min to allow for a complete de-
esterification of BAPTA-AM. At the end of this procedure, sperm were immobile, indicating
efficient chelation of cytoplasmic Ca2+ by BAPTA. Sperm were then incubated with mGX for
10 min and AR was scored. The effect of mGX was not prevented by BAPTA, indicating that
ultrastructural morphology.
We studied by electron microscopy the effect of mGX on sperm head ultrastructure. We first
found that non-acrosome-reacted sperm treated for 10 min with 200 nM mGX presented
sperm (Figure 6B), without any apparent defect in the acrosomal area. We next analyzed the
can be evaluated as normal : i) the outer acrosomal membrane should present vesiculation, ii)
the plasma membrane should fuse with the outer acrosomal membrane and iii) it should
present a characteristic double hairpin shape at the base of the acrosome (57). We compared
A23187-induced and mGX-induced AR. All the sperm which were acrosome-reacted by
A23187 presented a complete AR exhibiting the 3 above morphological criteria (not shown).
The sperm which were acrosome-reacted by mGX were judged as normal on the basis of the
12
same morphological criteria (Figure 6C). We also observed very early stages of AR-like
cavitation of the acrosomal matrix (Figure 6D). Together, our analyses indicate that treatment
of sperm with mGX produces non-acrosome-reacted sperm and acrosome-reacted sperm with
a normal morphology.
The fertility outcome is dependent on the rate of spontaneous AR controlled by mGX sPLA2.
A fraction of the sperm population was found to be fully resistant to recombinant mGX, even
at concentrations as high as 500 nM (Figure 4B). This suggests that recombinant mGX
fertilization. Since endogenous mGX is released during capacitation (Figure 2), a similar
mechanism may be operating physiologically and the role of endogenous mGX would be to
target a specific subpopulation of sperm which may have defective sperm function. To
pretreated with the sPLA2 inhibitor LY329722 throughout capacitation. Again, we used the 2-
cell embryos outcome as an endpoint to measure fertility (51), since the development of 2-cell
embryos is independent of female factor and they are appropriate for transfer into the female
tract. Treating sperm with LY329722 decreased the rate of 2-cell embryos by 23% (n=8,
p<0.023), which was compensated by the increased rate of aborted embryos (Figure 7A).
Importantly, the inhibitor did not alter the fertilizing potential of sperm since the rate of
LY329722 during capacitation (Figure 7B). As expected and in accordance with the results
shown in Figure 4A, the onset of spontaneous AR was not modified by LY329722. However,
the spontaneous AR occurring during the late phase of capacitation (55-90 min) was markedly
reduced by the inhibitor. Similar results were obtained with indoxam, another sPLA2 inhibitor
(55) (not shown). Since inhibitors such as LY329722 have a low membrane permeability
13
(58), the inhibition of spontaneous AR is likely due to inhibition of mGX after its release in
the cell medium, and not to inhibition of mGX still present in the acrosome. The fact that
LY329722 blocks spontaneous AR and reduces fertility suggests that the level of spontaneous
this view, we performed IVF with sperm briefly treated with 200 nM recombinant mGX
during the last 10 min of capacitation (see Figure S1 for the time course of this type of
experiment). In accordance with the results of Figure 4C, this treatment elicited AR of ~70%
of treated sperm, and was blocked by LY329722 (Figure 8A). This treatment led to an
increased rate in 2-cell embryos from 38.09 ± 5.27% for control to 57.50 ± 4.69% for treated
sperm (n=13, p<0.0002) (Figure 8B). As for LY329722 (Figure 7A), mGX treatment did not
change the fertilization potential of sperm since the rate of unfertilized oocytes remained
constant: the increased rate of 2-cell embryos was compensated by the decreased rate of
aborted embryos, from 32.95 ± 5.06% to 19.85 ± 2.96% (n=13, p<0.005). Furthermore, we
found that embryos obtained with mGX-treated sperm developed normally to the blastocyst
stage (Figure 8C) and that re-implanted blastocyst embryos gave rise to normal pups (not
shown). The effect of exogenous mGX on fertility was dependent on its enzymatic activity
since preincubation of mGX with LY329722 for 15 min before the short sperm treatment
blocked the positive effect on IVF (Figure 8D). We then reasoned that mGX may influence
fertility by decreasing the number of sperm able to cross the zona pellucida, and thus by
decreasing the risk of polyspermy. Indeed, the number of sperm in an IVF droplet profusely
exceeded the minimal number necessary to maximize the IVF outcome. To test this
sperm concentration equivalent to the one obtained after mGX treatment. This dilution did not
increase the fertility rate (Figure 8E) and ruled out the hypothesis of a decreased risk of
polyspermy due to mGX treatment. Altogether, the results shown in Figures 7 and 8 clearly
14
indicate that the fertility outcome of our IVF experiments is linked to the level of AR
controlled by mGX.
We have demonstrated above that mGX, which is spontaneously released by sperm during
IVF experiments further support the notion that this subpopulation of sperm is less fertile and
poorly promotes normal embryo development. Moreover, mGX-/- sperm also present a deficit
of fertilization potential, as indicated by the decrease of fertilization rate (Figure 3D); and this
is suggestive of a role for mGX or its catalytic products downstream of capacitation. To test
potent sPLA2 inhibitor (59), washed the sperm by centrifugation to remove the inhibitor, and
then performed IVF experiments in the absence or presence of LPC, a major catalytic product
of mGX (60). Interestingly, treatment with YM26734 alone decreased the rate of fertilization
by 50%, from 58.9 ± 6.8% to 35.6 ± 5.7% (n=3) while addition of LPC could rescue the
(n=3) (Figure 9A). To confirm the effect of LPC, we performed similar experiments in the
presence of a mGX rabbit polyclonal antibody and obtained similar results: the 2-cell rate
decreased from 51.7 ± 5.2% with control sperm to 32.4 ± 2.1% with sperm treated with mGX-
Ab and LPC, introduced after the capacitation of Ab-treated sperm, rescued the 2-cell embryo
rate to 57.1 ± 8.2% (n=3) (Figure 9B). Importantly, we observed that treatment of sperm with
LPC alone had not effect on the rate of fertilization at this concentration (not shown). This
result demonstrates that LPC, a mGX metabolite, is required for normal fertilization and
suggests a second role for mGX, downstream of the control of spontaneous AR. The
15
mGX enzymatic activity and mGX or LPC is likely involved in one of the different steps of
Discussion
This paper shows for the first time that mGX sPLA2 is present in large amounts in the sperm
acrosome and plays an important paracrine role in the control of spontaneous AR during
capacitation, which is associated to a dramatic impact on fertility outcome. Our results also
provide indirect evidence that mGX plays a role during the downstream fertilization step, and
thus likely acts at two major stages of reproduction, capacitation and fertilization. Finally, our
findings may open new possibilities for the improvement of assisted reproduction techniques.
We first unambiguously identified mGX sPLA2 as the major enzyme loaded in the mouse
fluoroimmunoassays using mGX-/- mice as negative control. There have been numerous
biochemical reports in the past 40 years showing the presence of an sPLA2-like protein in
sperm cells, but the identity of this sPLA2 was never clarified (32-36). This enzyme was of
low molecular mass, reported as a proenzyme, resistant to heat and acid extraction, Ca2+-
aristolochic acid, Ro-4493 and Ro-4639. All of these features match those of group X sPLA2
(61-63). The enzyme was detected in sperm of several mammalian species including mouse,
hamster, rabbit, bull, ram and humans. Although several sPLA2s are present in mouse male
reproductive organs (31), we did not detect mGIIA, mGIIE and mGV sPLA2 proteins in
mature mouse sperm cells throughout in vitro capacitation while the expression of mGX was
very high, reaching several ng of mGX protein per million of sperm cells. This value appears
16
very high when compared to the level of expression of mGX protein in various mouse tissues
(64) and fits with the very high expression of mGX mRNA detected in testis by RNA dot blot
analysis (62). Whether group X sPLA2 is also present in the sperm acrosome in other species
human sperm (34), and this would fit with the fact that human group X sPLA2 has a
propeptide sequence (61). Langlais et al then reported the N-terminal sequence of a low
molecular mass PLA2 purified from human sperm (35), but this sequence did not match any
known human sPLA2s including group X. More recently, Riffo et al (45) and Lessig et al (36)
reported the presence and release of an sPLA2 from human sperm, but the two studies were
performed using antibodies with unknown specificity towards the different sPLA2 isoforms,
and were thus inconclusive regarding the identity of the sPLA2. Finally, there are evidence
suggesting that other PLA2s including group VIA iPLA2 and likely a cPLA2 member are
present in sperm cells (28;32). The locations of these intracellular PLA2s and their likely
We then investigated the role of mGX during in vitro capacitation and found that the sPLA2
premature AR, thereby inactivating them for the fertility race. Our experiments with WT
versus mGX-deficient sperm first indicate a delayed paracrine role of endogenous mGX
sPLA2 on the rate of spontaneous AR (Figure 4A). Concerning the delayed action of mGX, it
has been shown that different lipid mediators such as PGE1 and PAF can trigger AR and are
produced early during in vitro capacitation (37;65). It is thus tempting to speculate that such
17
initial AR and thereby releases mGX sPLA2 which in turn amplifies spontaneous AR in a
The use of recombinant mGX sPLA2 shows that subnanomolar concentrations of the enzyme
can promote AR all over the time course of capacitation (Figure 4B, C and D) and thus
demonstrates the high potency of mGX on AR. Interestingly, the action of mGX on AR
reaches a maximal effect, even when using very high concentrations (Figure 4B), and leaves
intact a subpopulation of sperm cells showing a normal morphology (Figure 6) and capable of
fertilizing oocytes (Figure 8). Together, our results indicate that mGX likely contributes as an
role of mGX in sperm cell sorting during capacitation as a mechanism to improve fertility
outcome. Our current view of the in vivo situation is that the heterogeneous population of
ejaculated sperm becomes exposed to mGX sPLA2 (and possibly other sPLA2 activities) after
their mixing with seminal plasma secretions and during their swimming through the female
tract. Indirect evidence supporting this view include the fact that i) various populations of
sperm with a different lipid composition, a damaged plasma membrane and externalization of
plasma and female tract secretion both contain endogenous PLA2 regulators (67-70) iii) a
relationship was found between PLA2 activity in human sperm, semen fluid and male fertility
(71),
The mechanism by which mGX promotes AR clearly depends on its enzymatic activity first
because the catalytically-inactive mutant H48Q and the proenzyme form of mGX are inactive
and second because the specific sPLA2 inhibitor LY329722 prevents mGX-induced AR
18
are reorganized in the sperm head plasma membrane in microdomains during capacitation
(7;72-75). Sphingomyelin may have a role of regulator of mGX activity. Indeed, we and
others have shown that mGX has a potent hydrolytic activity on such phospholipids and that
sperm capacitation and increases spontaneous AR (78). The fact that the two major products
of mGX sPLA2, LPC and free fatty acids are able to trigger AR also supports this mechanism
(42;43;52). This direct mechanism also fits with the fact that mGX-induced AR does not
require intracellular Ca2+ (Figure 5C). Whether mGX may be acting on a particular population
during capacitation, and a defect in this process or its inhibition has a marked negative effect
on the fertility outcome, by increasing the rate of aborted embryos and decreasing the rate of
fertility outcome, and ii) mGX-/- sperm shows simultaneously a lower rate of spontaneous AR
and a higher rate of aborted embryos, when compared to mGX+/+ sperm. In sperm from
CD46-deficient mice, a positive link between the rate of spontaneous AR and fertility has
been mentioned but not demonstrated (3). It is important to note that the effectors used to
modify the rate of spontaneous AR have been applied only during capacitation and then
washed out, and thus these effectors or mGX catalytic products are unlikely to affect the
downstream fertilization events. Our experiments thus support a model where mGX sPLA2
targets a subpopulation of sperm, triggers their premature AR during capacitation, and thereby
19
Our experiments also provide evidence for a second role of mGX during fertilization, after
zona pellucida-induced AR and the release of mGX in the sperm-egg environment. Indeed,
we have shown that mGX-/- sperm presented a fertilization rate lower than that of mGX+/+
sperm, with a mean decrease of 44% to 68% (Figure 3D and 3E). In comparison, blocking
mGX activity during capacitation of mGX+/+ sperm also produced a decrease of the
fertilization rate, but remarkably lower than mGX-/- sperm, with mean decreases of only 24%
(with LY329722, Figure 7A), 39% (with YM26734, Figure 9A) and 37% (with mGX
antibody, Figure 9B). These results clearly support a second role of mGX downstream of
capacitation. Assuming that mGX has two different mechanisms of action, one during
capacitation and another during fertilization, one can expect to see a more robust effect on
fertility when using mGX-/- sperm than when using an sPLA2 inhibitor or an antibody which
were only added during capacitation and that would block only released mGX sPLA2. Indeed,
it is important to note that in the experiments using sPLA2 inhibitor or mGX antibody, the
acrosomal mGX present in non-acrosome reacted sperm should remain fully active since
inhibitors have low permeability (58), antibodies are impermeant, and these compounds were
washed out before gametes mixing. Second, the fact that LPC, which was only added during
the fertilization step, was able to restore the fertilizing potential of sperm capacitated in
conditions where mGX was inhibited, may also supports a role of mGX when secreted during
zona-pellucida-induced AR. Besides, LPC increases both sperm binding to ZP and sperm-
oocyte fusion (44;45). The targets of the mGX metabolites allowing sperm to efficiently
fertilize egg remain however to be determined. In conclusion, we have demonstrated that the
fertility outcome is controlled by mGX, acting at two different stages, and any defects in
We have however observed no defect in fertility when crossing mGX-deficient male mice
with WT females (not shown). This would argue for a non critical role of mGX in sperm
20
function, but given the essential role of sperm in the propagation of life, a redundancy of
systems would not be unexpected. Indeed, there are many examples of knockout mice lacking
important genes in sperm physiology and AR which are apparently fertile because of
transporter (14). The lack of obvious reproductive defect in mGX-/- mice is supported by the
fact that multiple extra or intracellular PLA2 activities have been described in sperm
observed a lower fertility when crossing male and female mGX-deficient mice (Figure 3).
This result suggests that mGX is also present in the female tract and may compensate for the
deficit of mGX in sperm. This view is supported by our preliminary data showing the
presence of mGX sPLA2 in the female reproductive tract, notably in the uterine and
endometrial epithelium (unpublished data). Similar observations have been made for group
VIA phospholipase A2 knockout mice, where crossings between group VIA-deficient males
and females produced almost no offspring while crossings between group VIA-deficient
males and WT females did (28). More generally, this mGX-/- sperm phenotype illustrates a
well-known human infertility situation where the infertility of a couple is due to the
combination of male and female deficits. Such a cause is involved in approximately 20% of
human sperm with pre-apoptotic status (85),(86) and therefore reduces the overall fertility
outcome. Our data support the view that mGX triggers a premature AR of an unfertile sperm
subpopulation which is unable to ensure normal embryo development; and mGX would
21
Therefore, the so-called “spontaneous AR” would correspond in part to the premature AR
triggered by mGX and could represent a physiological mechanism of sperm cell sorting, that
compensates for the unreliable production of sperm. Such mechanisms would be important to
optimize fertility both in vivo and in vitro. We have demonstrated that recombinant mGX
boosts the endogenous effect of mGX on spontaneous AR and improves noticeably the rate of
sperm, presented a normal ultrastructural morphology and fertilized oocytes obtained with
mGX-treated sperm developed normally up to the blastocyst stage in vitro. Besides, a recent
study has shown that removal of a human sperm population with externalized
phosphatidylserine may enhance fertility potential in assisted medical procreation (80) and
group X sPLA2 may be useful to eliminate this population. Thus, mGX is a peculiar sPLA2
that represents a hope for new therapeutic strategies to fight against human male infertility:
mGX could be used as a potent therapeutic agent in assisted reproduction techniques, either to
improve IVF outcome or to select sperm for intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection based on its
acrosomal status .
22
Methods
All animal procedures were run according to the French and Japanese guidelines on the use of
living animals in scientific investigations with the approval of the respective local Ethical
Review Committee.
In situ hybridization . Paraffin embedded blocks and sections of 8-wk-old mouse testis for in
situ hybridization (ISH) were obtained from Genostaff Co., Ltd. The mice were dissected,
fixed with Tissue Fixative (Genostaff Co., Ltd.), and then embedded in paraffin by their
proprietary procedures, and sectioned at 6~8 µm. For in situ hybridization, tissue sections
were de-waxed with xylene, and rehydrate through an ethanol series and PBS. The sections
were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS for 15 min and then washed with PBS. The
sections were treated with 8 µg/ml proteinase K in PBS for 30 min at 37°C, washed with PBS,
re-fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS, again washed with PBS, and placed in 0.2 N HCl
for 10 min. After washing with PBS, the sections were acetylated by incubation in 0.1 M tri-
ethanolamine-HCl, pH 8.0, containing 0.25% acetic anhydride for 10 min. After washing with
PBS, the sections were dehydrated through a series of ethanol. Sense and antisense cRNA
probes for mGX were prepared by random priming with digoxigenin (DIG) RNA Labeling
Mix (Roche). Hybridization was performed with the probes at concentrations of 300 ng/ml in
the Probe Diluent-1 (Genostaff Co., Ltd.) at 60°C for 16 h. After hybridization, the sections
were washed in 5 x HybriWash (Genostaff Co., Ltd.), equal to 5 x SSC, at 50°C for 20 min
and then in 2 x HybriWash containing 50% formamide at 50°C for 20 min, followed by
1mM EDTA for 30 min at 37°C. Then the sections were washed twice with 2 x HybriWash at
50°C for 20 min, twice with 0.2 x HybriWash at 50°C for 20 min, and once with TBST (0.1%
Tween 20 in TBS). After treatment with 0.5% blocking reagent (Roche) in TBST for 30 min,
23
the sections were incubated with anti-DIG alkaline phosphatase conjugate (Roche) diluted
1:1000 with TBST for 2 h at room temperature. The sections were washed twice with TBST
and then incubated in 100 mM Tris-HCl, pH 9.5, containing 100 mM NaCl, 50 mM MgCl2,
and 0.1% Tween 20. Coloring reactions were performed with NBT/BCIP solution (Sigma)
overnight and then washed with PBS. The sections were counterstained with Kernechtrot
In situ hybridization was performed with a probe of mouse group X phospholipase A2 (mGX)
that encompassed the residues 221-576 ([G+C]% = 55.90) of the Accession # NM_011987.
Quantitative RT-PCR. Total RNAs were isolated from testis and epididymis of 8-week-old
male C57BL/6 mice with TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen) and purified using an RNeasy RNA
Purification Kit (Qiagen). First-strand cDNA synthesis was performed using a High Capacity
cDNA Reverse Transcription Kit (Applied Biosystems Japan). For quantitative RT-PCR
analysis, the reaction was carried out on an ABI Prism 7000 Sequence Detection System
(Applied Biosystems) using Power SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (Applied Biosystems) and
the Taqman probe for mGX (Mm00449530_m1). The thermal cycling conditions comprised
an initial denaturation step at 50°C for 2 min and 95°C for 10 min followed by 40 cycles of
amplification at 95°C for 20 s, 55°C for 20 s, and 72°C for 30 s. The expression of 18S
Immunohistochemistry. Mouse testis samples were fixed in 10% formalin and embedded in
paraffin. The tissue sections (4 µm thick) were incubated with Target Retrieva Solution (Dako
Cytomation) as required, and then incubated overnight at 4°C with rabbit anti-mGX antibody
(from M. H. Gelb, University of Washington, Seattle) or normal rabbit IgG at 1:100 dilution
in 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.4) containing 0.15 M NaCl (TBS). The sections were then treated
24
with a CSA (catalyzed signal-amplified) System Staining Kit (Dako Cytomation) with
with PBS and fixed on glass slides with 3% (v/v) paraformaldehyde in TBS for 1 h. After 3
washes with PBS, fixed cells were treated with blocking solution (1% (w/v) bovine serum
albumin and 0.5% (w/v) saponin in TBS) for 1 h, with rabbit anti-mGX or control antibody as
a primary antibody at 1:200 dilution in blocking solution for 2 h, and then with FITC-
conjugated anti-rabbit IgG antibody at 1:200 dilution in blocking solution for 2 h, with 3
washes in each interval. After 6 washes with TBS, immunofluorescent signals were visualized
Acrosome reaction assay. Sperm cells from caudae epididymes were allowed to swim in M2
medium for 10 min. If necessary, sperm were capacitated in M16 medium with 2% fatty acid
free BSA (Bovine Serum Albumin) at 37°C in a 5% CO2 incubator during various periods of
time. For sPLA2 treatment, sperm were incubated with sPLA2 in M16 medium at 37°C for the
last 10 min. Cells were transferred in PBS solution and then fixed with 4% PFA solution for 2
min. Sperm were washed with 100 mM ammonium acetate for 2 min and wet-mounted on
slides and allowed to air dry. Slides were then rinsed with water and stained with Coomassie
blue (0.22%) for 2 min and finally rinsed with water. Slides were counted immediately and
Electron microscopy. Sperm cells were fixed with 2.5% glutaraldehyde in 0.1M cacodylate
buffer pH 7.4 during 2 hours at room temperature. Cells were then washed with buffer and
post fixed with 1% Osmium tetroxyde in the same buffer during 1 hour at 4°C. After
extensive washing with water cells were then stained with 0.5% uranile acetate pH 4
overnight at 4°C. Cells were then dehydrated through graded alcohol (30%-60%-90%-100%-
25
100%-100%) and infiltrate with a mix of 1/1 epon/alcohol 100% during 1 hour before several
baths of fresh epon (Flukka) during 3 hours. Finally, cells were centrifugated and immersed in
fresh Epon and polymerised during 3 days at 60°C. Ultrathin sections of the cell pellet were
cut with an ultramicrotome (Leica). Sections were post-stained with 4% uranile acetate and
Detection of sPLA2 proteins in sperm cells. Sperm cells from 8 caudae epididymes of
different mouse strains (C57BL/6J mGX sPLA2-deficient mice or their WT littermates, OF1
and BalbC) were allowed to swim for 15 min at 37°C in 2.5 ml of M2 medium. Five hundreds
µl aliquotes of sperm cells were then diluted in 4.5 ml of M16 medium containing 2% fatty
acid free BSA and further incubated at 37°C for 10, 45 and 90 min. In some assays, A23187
Ca2+ ionophore (5 µM) was added between 60 and 90 min of incubation. After incubation,
sperm cells were spun down for 8 min at 1,200 rpm, and supernatants and cell pellets were
flash frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at -80°C. sPLA2 protein and enzymatic activity were
analyzed on crude supernatants and cell pellets after resuspension in 500 µl of M16 medium
Biochemicals) and lysis with a Branson 350 Sonifier Cell disrupter. Time-resolved
modifications (64). Briefly, 1 to 5 µl of protein sample were diluted in 100 µl of Delfia assay
buffer (Tris–HCl buffered NaCl solution, pH 7.8, containing NaN3, BSA, bovine gamma
globulins, Tween 40, DTPA and inert red dye, Perkin Elmer Wallac, Turku, Finland) and
added to sPLA2 IgG-coated microtiter wells previously washed twice with TR-FIA washing
solution (10 mM Tris–HCl, pH 7.8, containing 0.9% NaCl, 0.04% NaN3 and 0.02% Tween
20). After incubation at room temperature with constant shaking at 200 cycles/min for 30 min,
wells were washed four times with TR-FIA washing solution, incubated with 100 μl of Eu-
labeled mGX IgG tracer (0.5 μg/ml diluted in Delfia Assay Buffer), and washed again four
26
times as above. After washing, 100 μl of Delfia enhancement solution were added to wells,
incubated at room temperature for 5 min with shaking at 200 cycles/min and thereafter for 10
min without shaking. Time-resolved fluorescence was measured using a Wallac Envision
Perkin Elmer plate reader and optimized optical modules for DELFIA assays. sPLA2
enzymatic activity was measured using radiolabeled E. coli membranes as substrate (63).
Briefly, 5-50 µl of cell lysates or supernatants were incubated for 60 min in 300 µl of sPLA2
activity buffer (0.1 M Tris pH 8.0, 10 mM CaCl2, and 0.1% bovine serum albumin containing
addition of 300 µl of stop buffer (0.1 M EDTA pH 8.0 and 0.5% fatty acid-free bovine serum
Albumin). Mixtures were centrifuged at 10,000 g for 5 min, and supernatants containing
Production of recombinant sPLA2s. Recombinant mouse group IIA, IIE, V and X sPLA2s
were produced as described previously (87). PromGX sPLA2 and the H48Q mutant of mGX
sPLA2 was produced as for mature WT mGX sPLA2 using the pAB3 vector in which the full-
length cDNA coding for PromGX was inserted in frame with the ∆GST protein and the factor
Xa cleavage site, which were removed by using the factor Xa protease (87). The detailed
procedure for the production and full characterization of promGX sPLA2 will be reported
In vitro fertilization. Sperm cells, obtained by manual trituration of caudae epididymes from
male mice (OF1, mGX-/- or WT littermates), were allowed to swim in M2 medium for 10 min.
Eggs were collected from mature OF1 females (6-weeks old) synchronized with 7.5 units of
PMSG (pregnant mare serum gonadotrophin) and 7.5 units of hCG (human chorionic
gonadotrophin) before collection. Per condition, the number of scored oocytes was 43 +/- 19
(mini 20 ; max 109). We carried out IVF using standard protocols (50). Eggs were incubated
with approximately 1.5 to 5 105 sperm cells/ml (37°C, 5% CO2) in M16 medium. Unbound
27
sperms were washed away after 4 hours of incubation. Twenty four hours after fertilization,
successful fertilization and aborted embryos). Schematic course of IVF experiments (Figure
S1): after swimming, sperm were first capacitated for 35 to 60 min in M16-2% BSA (37°C,
5% CO2). When necessary, mGX inhibitors of mGX antibody was included during the full
period of capacitation. For recombinant mGX treatment, sperm cells were incubated after
capacitation for 10 min in M16 medium containing 200 nM mGX, 1µM LY329722 or mGX +
LY329722. After treatment, drugs were removed by centrifugation (1200 rpm, 5 min) and
washed to remove unbound drug, possible lipid metabolites and all acrosomal compounds
released during sPLA2-induced AR. The rationale for this procedure was to avoid a
during AR like PAF (37). After drug washing, the concentration of remaining unboud mGX
was estimated to be 1 nM, from dilution calculation. We checked that 1 nM mGX did not
induce effects on sperm-oocyte fusion (38). For this purpose, we performed IVF experiments
in which sperm and oocytes were incubated with 1 nM mGX throughout the capacitation and
the fertilization: no difference was found between control and treated gametes (data not
shown). Finally, washed sperm were introduced into droplets containing between 20 and 109
oocytes. For LysoPC rescue experiments, LysoPC is introduced in the fertilization droplets in
the same time than sperm. After 4 hours of co-incubation, unbound sperm were washed away
Chemical compounds. M2, M16 medium and BSA (Cohn Fraction V-low fatty acid) were
purchased from Sigma. PMSG is from Ceva santé animal and HCG is from Intervet. LPC (L-
28
Statistical study. Statistical analyses were performed with SigmaPlot. T-test was used to
compare effect of various compounds on AR. For IVF experiment, in order to avoid problem
with the variability of male fertility, the sperm from a unique male was used to compare
control and treated conditions in one experiment. Thus, we used paired t-test to compare the
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by the Région Rhône-Alpes (to C.A.), CNRS (to C.A. and
G.L.), INSERM (M.D.W.), the Association pour la Recherche sur le cancer [grant 3977] and
the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (to G.L.), and by grants-in aid for scientific research
from the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture, Sports and Technology of Japan and
PRESTO from the Japan Science and Technology Agency (to M.M. and S.H.) and the
NOVARTIS Foundation for the Promotion of Science, and the Toray Science Foundation
Genetics Inc. for providing us mGX–deficient mouse and Pr. Michael Gelb for providing
LY329722, indoxam and mGX antibody. We thank H. de Pommier and Latoxan for their
support.
29
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Figure 1
Expression of mGX sPLA2 in mouse spermatogenic cells. (A) Quantitative RT-PCR analysis revealed that
mGX mRNA is expressed in the testis, but only minimally in the epididymis. (B) In situ hybridization. Sections
of the testis from 8-week-old C57BL/6J mice were hybridized with antisense and sense probes for mGX.
Positive signal for mGX was detected in spermatogenic cells (spermatocytes and spermatids, but not
spermatogonia) in the seminiferous tubules. (C) Immunohistochemistry. Sections of the testis from 8-week-old
C57BL/6J mice were stained with anti-mGX antibody or control antibody. Intense staining was found in
spermatocytes and spermatids in the seminiferous tubules, but not in spermatogonia. In magnified views,
scattered signals with crescent and elongated shapes were evident in spermatocytes and spermatids, suggesting
labeling in the acrosomal area. (D) Spermatozoa from cauda epididymis were stained with anti-mGX antibody
or control antibody. Immunofluorescent signal for mGX sPLA2 was confined to the sperm head.
36
Figure 2 Catalytically-active mGX sPLA2 is released from sperm during AR. (A) Total amount of mGX
protein from time-resolved fluoroimmunoassays were measured in parallel in cell pellets and supernatants of WT
sperm during capacitation (up to 90 min) and after AR triggered by addition of the Ca2+ ionophore A23187 (5
µM) between 60 and 90 min. (B) Similar assays using mGX-/- sperm, showing no mGX signal. (C) total sPLA2
enzymatic activity measured using E. coli radiolabeled enzymatic assays in cell pellets and supernatants of WT
sperm during capacitation. Data (A,B,C) correspond to the mean of two separate experiments, with 4 mice each.
37
Figure 3
Lack of mGX in sperm affects male fertility. (A) The litter sizes of mGX-deficient mice are lower than those of littermates
WT mice. (B) Pictures of the different stages obtained after IVF at 24 hours: unfertilized oocytes; 2-cell embryos (normal
development); aborted embryos corresponding to oocytes with either multiple and uncontrolled divisions or presenting a
second polar body (2 PB) but no cell division (arrows). (C) pictures of embryo development at 24 hours after fertilization:
(+/+), WT sperm crossed with WT oocytes; (-/-), mGX-/- sperm crossed with WT oocytes; arrows show unfertilized oocytes
and asterix show aborted embryos (D) IVFs performed with mGX-/- sperm and WT oocytes (black bars) have a lower rate of
2-cell embryos and a higher rate of aborted embryos than IVFs performed with WT littermate sperm and WT oocytes (white
bars, n=11). (E) The low fertilizing potential of mGX-/- sperm is rescued by recombinant mGX. IVF was performed by
mixing WT oocytes with (i) WT control sperm from littermates (black bars, n=4), (ii) mGX-/- sperm (white bars, n=4), or (iii)
mGX-/- sperm briefly treated with 200 nM mGX (treatment for 10 min at the end of the capacitation period (grey bars, n=4)).
The development of eggs was evaluated after 24 hours by counting the different stages: unfertilized oocytes, 2-cell embryos
and aborted embryos. *** statiscally significant, p as indicated.
38
Figure 4
Endogenous mGX regulates spontaneous AR during capacitation. (A) Spontaneous AR of mGX-/- sperm
does not progress beyond 55 min of in vitro capacitation. Spontaneous AR was quantified during capacitation at
10, 55 and 90 min in mGX+/+ littermate sperm (white bars, n=5) and in mGX-/- sperm (black bars, n=6). (B)
Recombinant mGX sPLA2 is a potent inducer of AR. Dose-response curves for AR of non-capacitated sperm
triggered by mGX (●, n=3 to 8). Results are expressed as total AR minus spontaneous AR to underline specific
sPLA2-induced AR. (C) Recombinant mGX at 200 nM induced AR of non-capacitated sperm, n=23. Here,
results correspond to total AR (D) Recombinant mGX sPLA2 is a potent inducer of AR throughout in vitro
capacitation (n=3). AR triggered by sPLA2 was compared to spontaneous AR at 10 and 90 min of capacitation.
Sperm were capacitated at 37°C in M16 with 2% BSA in a 5% CO2 chamber. *** statistically significant, p as
indicated.
39
Figure 5
mGX triggered AR via its catalytic activity and independently of cytosolic Ca2+ rise. (A) Dose-response
curves for AR of non-capacitated sperm triggered by mGX (●, n=3 to 8), mGX-H48Q ( , n=3) and pro-mGX
(Δ, n=3). Results are expressed as sPLA2-specific AR, i.e. total AR minus spontaneous AR. (B) The specific
sPLA2 inhibitor LY329722 (1 µM) blocked the ability of 200 nM mGX to trigger AR of sperm capacitated
during 45 min (n=3). Results correspond to total AR (C) Loading sperm with 10 µM BAPTA did not modify
spontaneous AR (two left columns, n=3) and mGX-induced AR (two right columns, t-test N.S., n=3) of sperm
incubated in a non capacitating medium (no BSA). In the presence of BAPTA, the level of AR between non-
treated sperm and mGX treated sperm is statistically significant, p as indicated.
40
Figure 6
Ultrastructure of the head of mGX-sPLA2 treated sperm (A) Electron micrographs of non acrosome-reacted
sperm treated by 200 nM mGX (non capacitated sperm). (B) Electron micrographs of non acrosome-reacted
control (untreated) sperm (non capacitated sperm). (C) Acrosome-reacted sperm (non capacitated sperm) in the
presence of 200 nM mGX presented a normal morphological feature of sperm undergoing AR: fusion between
the plasma and acrosomal membrane produced vesiculation (left picture) and the outer acrosomal membrane was
fused with the plasma membrane and presented a typical double hair pin shape at the base of the acrosome (right
picture) or (D) presented early stages of AR, i.e. cavitation.
41
Figure 7
Blocking endogenous mGX with the specific inhibitor LY329722 impacts both fertility outcome and
spontaneous AR. (A) Endogenous mGX, secreted during spontaneous AR, controls the yield of viable embryos,
without changing the rate of fertilization. IVF experiments were performed either with control sperm (white
bars) or with the same sperm treated throughout capacitation with 1 µM LY329722 (black bars, n=8 males) and
unfertilized oocytes, 2-cell embryos and aborted embryos were scored: inhibiting mGX decreases 2-cell embryos
and increases aborted embryos. The design of the experiments clearly indicates that LY329722 controls the yield
of viable embryos by inhibiting endogenous mGX secreted during spontaneous AR. (B) The sPLA2 inhibitor
LY329722 blocked the late phase of spontaneous AR. Spontaneous AR was quantified during capacitation at 10,
55 and 90 min in the absence (white bars) or presence of 1 µM LY329722, (black bars, n=5). *** statistically
significant, p as indicated (paired t-test).
42
Figure 8
Exogenous mGX reinforces the effect of endogenous mGX on spontaneous AR and improves the fertility outcome. (A)
Sperm used for IVF and briefly pretreated with exogenous mGX present a higher rate of spontaneous AR. WT sperm were
allowed to capacitate for 45 min and incubated during the last 10 min of capacitation with mGX alone (200 nM), LY329722
alone (1 µM), or mGX preincubated with LY329722. Only the mGX treatment triggered significant AR over the untreated
condition (n=6). (B) Recombinant mGX controls the yield of viable embryos, without changing the rate of fertilization. IVF
was performed either with control sperm (untreated, white bars) or with the same sperm treated briefly 10 min before the end
of the capacitation period with 200 nM mGX (black bars, n=13 males, p<0.01) and unfertilized oocytes, 2-cell embryos and
aborted embryos were scored: recombinant mGX increases 2-cell embryos and decreases aborted embryos. (C) 2-cell
embryos obtained with mGX -treated sperm developed normally to the blastocyst stage in comparison to control embryos.
(D) The specific mGX inhibitor LY329722 blocks the mGX-dependent increase in fertility. IVF was performed either with
control sperm (untreated, white bars) or with the same sperm treated briefly for 10 min before the end of the capacitation
period with 200 nM mGX (black bars, n=6 males, p=0.02) or with the same sperm treated briefly with 200 nM mGX but
preincubated with 1 µM LY329722 (grey bars, n=6, p=0.02) and unfertilized oocytes, 2-cell embryos and aborted embryos
were scored (E) The number of sperm incubated with oocytes does not impact the fertility outcome. IVF were performed at
two different concentrations of WT sperm. The number of non-acrosome-reacted sperm measured at the low concentration of
sperm (70% of 1.5 x 105 cells – obtained from Figure 8A) was similar to the number of non-acrosome-reacted sperm
measured at the high concentration when treated by 200 nM mGX (35% of 3 x 105 cells - obtained from Figure 8A), (n=4,
p=0.21). Thus, changing sperm concentration does not change the 2-cell embryos and aborted embryos outcomes. ***
statistically significant, p as indicated (paired t-test).
43
Figure 9
Addition of LPC during fertilization rescues the fertilization potential of sperm treated with sPLA2
inhibitor or anti-mGX antibody during capacitation. (A) IVF experiments were performed with sperm
treated or not with the sPLA2 inhibitor YM26734 only during the capacitation period. LPC (1 µg/ml) was added
only during gamete mixing. The ~50% reduction of the IVF rate measured with YM26734-treated sperm (grey
bar n=3, p<0.05) was restored by supplementation with LPC (black bar). (B) A similar reduction and recovery of
IVF were observed when sperm were treated with anti-mGX antibody during capacitation and LPC added back
during gamete mixing (n=3, p<0.05), respectively.
44
Figure S1
Schematic drawing of typical IVF experiments. Sperm were first capacitated for 35 min in M16-2% BSA and
then incubated for the last 10 min with M16 medium containing the different effectors as specified in Figure
legends, i.e. mGX recombinant protein, sPLA2 inhibitors or a combination of both. After treatment, sperm were
washed by centrifugation to remove unbound effectors, putative mGX catalytic products and all acrosomal
compounds released during sPLA2-induced AR. Finally, washed sperm were introduced into droplets containing
oocytes (20-109 oocytes per experiment). After 4 hours of gamete mixing, unbound sperm were washed away
and IVF outcomes were scored at 24 h.
45
Commentaires des rewiever pour l’article: Group X
phospholipase A2 is secreted during sperm acrosome reaction
and controls fertility outcome
We hope that you will find the reviewers' comments helpful as you revise your manuscript.
Following receipt of a revised manuscript, your paper will be re-evaluated and assigned a new
priority ranking. Please be aware that current editorial policy permits only one revision of this
manuscript and that we can offer no assurances that the work will ultimately be accepted.
Also bear in mind that we will be reluctant to approach the original referees again in the
absence of appropriate changes to address their concerns.
This manuscript provides novel information on the role of mGX sPLA2 in male fertility. The
clinical relevance of the study would be enhanced if the authors could demonstrate the
presence of GX sPLA2 in human sperm.
Specific comments:
Abstract: The statement “The size of litters from male mGX-deficient mice was slightly
smaller than that of wild-type males” is somewhat misleading.
Methods: The authors should describe how the GX sPLA2-/- mice were generated (or provide
reference).
Figure 1D: If the authors want to conclude that GX sPLA2 is “confined” to the sperm head,
they should provide more convincing data. Fluorescent microsopic images (rather than
Nomarsky(?)) showing multiple cells would be appropriate. For the example shown, there
seems to be green staining along the length of the tail region.
There are aspects of the data presented in Fig. 2 that don’t appear to “add up”. For example,
it is notable that the Ca2+ ionophore triggers a ~2-fold increase in GX sPLA2 release at 90
min, yet the amount of GX sPLA2 in the pellet does not change. Also, the kinetics of the loss
of GX sPLA2 mass in cells does not correspond to loss in activity (e.g., 45 min. time point).
No error bars are indicated on the histograms; how many times was this experiment
performed, and with how many replicates?
For enzymatic assays of cell pellets (Fig. 2C), how does the assay distinguish between sPLA2,
cPLA2 and iPLA2? The authors provide data for mGX sPLA2 mass in WT and KO mice
(Fig. 2B), but no data for sPLA2 activity. What does “the measured enzymatic activity was
due to mGX since no variation of enzymatic activity was observed in mGX-/- sperm” mean
(p. 9, line 10)?
The authors should include activity data for WT and KO mice to make clear the contribution
of GX sPLA2.The text describing Fig. 4 is confusing, and this is confounded by the fact that
the data is presented as “% of spontaneous AR”, “% of mGX-induced AR” and “% of total
AR.” The authors state “mGX caused a dose-dependent activation of AR with a maximal
increase of ~50%...” (p. 11 line 5); what is being compared? Is the effect of GX sPLA2
deficiency on spontaneous AR statistically significant (Fig. 4A)? What is the dose of mGX
used in Fig. 4D ?
How is the experiment depicted in Fig. 4C different from Fig.4D, 10 min timepoint? Results
presented in Fig. 4A and Fig. 7B give the impression that the sPLA2 inhibitor has a greater
effect on the late phase of spontaneous AR than deficiency in GX sPLA2, suggesting the
possible involvement of another sPLA2 in this process or non-target effects of the inhibitor.
Discussion: The authors suggest that GX sPLA2 improves fertility by triggering spontaneous
AR in a subpopulation of damaged cells, perhaps by targeting phospholipid-damaged sperm.
This would imply that hydrolysis per se, and not the generation of lipolytic products, is
important in this paracrine effect of GX sPLA2. To complement the studies in Fig. 9, the
authors should determine whether addition of LPC rescues the decrease in spontaneous AR
produced by LY329722 treatment.
Reviewer B:
This manuscript by Escoffier et al describes the invalidation of mGX sPLA2 a member of the
secreted Phospholipase A2 family and its impact on mouse fertility. This manuscript is
presented as an accompanying paper with another manuscript from a Japanese group (Sato et
al., MS 40493) reporting the KO of another testis- and epididymis-expressed sPLA2.
Specifically dealing now with the Escoffier's story, the manuscript is correctly written but
unecessarilly too long especially in the Discussion section. Although at a lower extent, the
Introduction and the results sections could be more concise. The number of references is also
large and should be kept to the most relevant articles. The story is of particular interest to
specialists in male reproductive issues however it is relatively not that important in terms of
clinical relevance. Although the invalidation of mGX PLA2 has an impact on fertility
outcome when crosses were conducted with both males and females deficient for mGX PLA2,
the fact that there is no fertility problem when KO-males were crossed with WT females
argues for a non critical role of this enzyme in sperm function.
PLA2 activity thus compensates for the sperm defects.It should also be noted that the impacts
recorded by the authors in terms of spontaneous AR with the male deficient gametes are quite
small (10% difference).The same observation can be made regarding the impact of blocking
mGX activity on the percentage of oocytes reaching the 2 cell stage or/and on the percentage
of aborted embryos. These figures are not in agreement with the "marked negative effect" on
fertility outcome claimed by the authors.It is not clearly indicated at which age (both for
males andfemales) were carried out the different crosses to evaluate the fertility impact? May
be more serious impact on fertility could be observed with aging KO males?The obseravation
that mGX sPLA2 is the major mouse sperm sPLA2 and that it contributes to most of the
sPLA2 enzymatic activity should be illustrated at least as supplemental data.The fact that
even high concentrations of recombinant mGX never induce AR in at least 30% of the sperm
should be tentatively explained. One could eventually consider that this fraction of sperm
cells are not responsive because they are damaged.
Minor points:
The title should be changed since the mGX sPLA2 is not "secreted" but released during AR.In
the Introduction it is stated that capacitation depends on ion fluxes and protein
phosphorylations. This is correct however according to Gagnon and Aitken it should be also
stated that capacitation and AR are dependent on ROS signalling events that are as important
as ions fluxes to trigger tyrosine phosphorylation events.
Figure 1D "upper panel" is not convincing at all. The selected spermatozoa appears quite
abnormal.
Figure 2A: It is surprising to note that if you add the amount of protein found in the pellet to
that present in the supernatant at 0 min it is largely less (by 25%) that the amount of protein
present when you add the pellet and supernatant fractions at 90min + A23187 ? This might
reflect that n=2 is probably not sufficient to be confident with the data.
Figure 3A. As said above, it would be more appropriate and correct to indicate here that
males-/- mated with WT females present no change in fertility (as far as litter size is
concerned).If the numbers are correct YM26734 treatment of sperm decrease the rate of
fertilization by 40% and not by 50%.
4. Discussion
Comme je l’ai précisé dans la partie introduction, plusieurs études ont suggéré un rôle pour
une ou plusieurs phospholipases A2 secrétées au niveau de la capacitation, la réaction
acrosomique (AR) et la fécondation, mais la nature moléculaire de ces enzymes et leurs rôles
spécifiques restent à l’heure actuelle encore inconnus. Le spermatozoïde mature exprime les
sPLA2 des groupes IID, IIC, V, X et IIF (Masuda, Murakami et al. 2004). Nous avons regardé
dans ces deux manuscrits l’effet de différents sPLA2 de mammifères sur deux étapes clés de la
physiologie spermatique : la mobilité flagellaire (cf Article 2) et la réaction acrosomique (cf
Aticle 3).
Seule la sPLA2 mGX module la motilité des spermatozoïdes, contrairement aux autres sPLA2s
de mammifères. mGX diminue les paramètres de la mobilité spermatique de 30 % pour la
VCL et de 17 % pour l’ALH. La modulation de la mobilité spermatique par mGX est
93
Résultats
effectuée via son activité enzymatique, car deux isoformes de mGX inactif, H48Q-mGX et
pro-mGX, ont été incapables de moduler la mobilité des spermatozoïdes.
La sPLA2 mGX est une enzyme qui hydrolyse la liaison ester des phospholipides
membranaires en position sn-2, produisant ainsi des lysophospholipides et des acides gras
libres. Nous avons voulu voir si le mécanisme d’action de mGX sur la mobilité spermatique
n’était pas lié à un changement lipidique de la membrane. Pour ce faire, nous avons utilisé un
marqueur spécifique des phosphatidylsérines (PS) l’Anexine V-Cy3. Nous avons pu observer
une externalisation des PS au niveau du feuillet externe de la membrane plasmique des
spermatozoïdes après l’application de mGX. Nous pouvons en conclure que mGX va moduler
la mobilité des spermatozoïdes par un changement de la composition phospholipidique de la
membrane plasmique.
Nous avons ici, montrée pour la première fois par hybridation in situ, imunohistochimie et
technique TR-FIA (Time Resolved fluoroimunoassays) que mGX est la principale sPLA2
présente dans l'acrosome des spermatozoïdes de souris. Les résultats de TR-FIA et de réaction
acrosomique in vitro nous ont permis de montrer qu’elle était libérée au cours de la réaction
acrosomique sous sa forme active, et qu’elle contribue à l’établissement d’une activité
enzymatique sPLA2 dans le milieu extérieur où sont situé les spermatozoïdes pendant la
capacitation.
Nous avons évalué le rôle paracrine de mGX sur les spermatozoïdes voisins durant la
capacitation, pour ce faire nous avons quantifié le taux de réaction acrosomique spontanée des
spermatozoïdes mGX-/-, des spermatozoïdes traités avec un inhibiteur de sPLA2 et des
spermatozoïdes traités avec des protéines recombinantes inactive de mGX et des
spermatozoïdes traités avec mGX.
L'utilisation des formes recombinantes de mGX, des souris mGX-/- et de l’inhibiteur de sPLA2
nous a permis de mettre en évidence :
- que la phospholipase A2 mGX augmente le taux de réaction acrosomique spontanée
des spermatozoïdes en cours de capacitation (de 30 à 40%) et ce à des concentrations
inférieures au nanomolaire.
94
Résultats
- que l’augmentation du taux de réaction acrosomique spontanée par mGX est effectuée
via son activité enzymatique, car les deux isoformes de mGX inactif, H48Q-mGX et
pro-mGX ont été incapables de déclencher la RA et que l’inhibiteur de sPLA2 diminue
le taux de RA spontanées des souris contrôles.
- que mGX induit la RA d’une sous-population de spermatozoïdes.
De ces résultats, nous avons pu en conclure que mGX contrôle la physiologie spermatique au
cours de la capacitation, par le déclenchement de réaction acrosomique spontanée d'une sous-
population spécifique de spermatozoïdes.
Nous avons ensuite effectué des fécondations in vitro avec des spermatozoïdes mGX-/-, des
spermatozoïdes traités avec un inhibiteur de sPLA2, des spermatozoïdes traités avec mGX des
et spermatozoïdes mGX-/- traités avec mGX. Ces fécondations in vitro nous a permis de
montrer que mGX améliore le pouvoir fécondant des spermatozoïdes, en augmentant le taux
d’embryons au stade 2 cellules et en diminuant le taux d’embryons avortés.
Tous ces résultats nous suggèrent que le rôle de mGX dans la physiologie spermatique est
d’induire des réactions acrosomiques à une sous-population de spermatozoïdes dite sous-
fertile afin de trier les spermatozoïdes pour améliorer le taux de fécondation.
95
Résultats
5. Introduction
Comme je l’ai déjà précisé dans la partie introduction, la réaction acrosomique exige
l’activation successive de trois types différents de canaux : le premier à s’activer est le canal
calcique dépendant du voltage de type T (CCVD-bas seuil), puis c’est le tour du récepteur à
l’IP3 (Walensky and Snyder 1995; O'Toole, Arnoult et al. 2000) et le dernier à s’ouvrir est le
canal de type SOC (appelé TRPC2).
L’ouverture des canaux calciques dépendants du voltage produit un courant transitoire
calcique, environ 1 seconde après l’application de ZP3 (Arnoult, Kazam et al. 1999), ce
transitoire va contrôler l’activation du récepteur à l’IP3 et in fine l’activation de TRPC2.
Différents types d’inhibiteurs comme les dihydropyridines, bloquent les canaux calciques
dépendants du voltage.
L’utilisation de ces inhibiteurs sur les spermatozoïdes va bloquer le courant calcique
transitoire (correspondant à l’ouverture des canaux calciques dépendants du voltage de type
T) et le courant calcique soutenu (correspondant à l’ouverture des canaux IP3 R et TRPC2). Ils
vont ainsi bloquer la réaction acrosomique (Arnoult, Cardullo et al. 1996). La caractérisation
moléculaire et le rôle physiologique des canaux calciques dépendants du voltage dans les
spermatozoïdes sont très étudiés et sont le sujet de beaucoup de discordes. (Arnoult, Cardullo
et al. 1996; Santi, Darszon et al. 1996; Goodwin, Leeds et al. 1997; Goodwin, Leeds et al.
1998; Arnoult, Kazam et al. 1999; Serrano, Trevino et al. 1999; Westenbroek and Babcock
1999; Jagannathan, Punt et al. 2002; Stamboulian, Kim et al. 2004). Comme il est impossible
d’enregistrer des courants calciques dépendants du voltage par Patch Clamp dans les
spermatozoïdes matures, beaucoup d’équipes travaillent sur la caractérisation moléculaire de
ces canaux dans les cellules spermatogéniques (Arnoult, Cardullo et al. 1996; Lievano, Santi
et al. 1996; Espinosa, Lopez-Gonzalez et al. 1999; Sakata, Saegusa et al. 2001; Jagannathan,
Punt et al. 2002; Stamboulian, Kim et al. 2004). Les cellules spermatogéniques représentent
un bon modèle d’étude des courants calciques dépendants du voltage des spermatozoïdes
matures. Dans ces cellules, seuls les courants calciques de type T ont été enregistrés par Patch
Clamp. Bien que des études de RT-PCR ont révélé la présence des transcrits de Cav3.1 et
97
Résultats
Cav3.2 dans les cellules spermatogéniques, les résultats de la caractérisation moléculaire des
souris Cav3.1-/- suggèrent que Cav3.2 est le principal canal calcique dépendant du voltage de
type T dans les cellules spermatogéniques (Stamboulian, Kim et al. 2004).
Si la plupart des études montrent le rôle central des canaux LVA dans la réaction
acrosomique, quelques autres études suggèrent que les canaux HVA joueraient un rôle
important dans la physiologie du spermatozoïde (Goodwin, Leeds et al. 1998; Goodwin,
Leeds et al. 1999). Ainsi, plusieurs auteurs ont tenté de démontrer qu’une partie des courants
calciques dépendants du voltage de type T était dû à l’activation de canaux HVA, tels que
Cav1.2 (Goodwin, Leeds et al. 1999) ou Cav2.2 et Cav2.3 (Wennemuth, Westenbroek et al.
2000) ; Westenbroek and Babcock 1999)
La conclusion concernant le rôle central des canaux LVA dans la réaction acrosomique, a
été essentiellement obtenue à partir d’outils pharmacologiques spécifiques conçus contre des
canaux LVA (Arnoult, Villaz et al. 1998). Cependant la spécificité des bloqueurs des canaux
LVA n'est jamais totale et une concentration bloquant la plupart des canaux LVA, bloque
également une petite proportion de canaux HVA.
Le développement des souris Cav 3.1-/- et Cav3.2-/- nous donne l’opportunité aujourd’hui
dans cette étude d’évaluer la contribution des canaux Cav 3.1 et Cav3.2 dans la physiologie
des spermatozoïdes comme la réaction acrosomique et la fertilité.
98
Résultats
Jessica Escoffier, Sylvie Boisseau, Catherine Serres, Chien-Chang Chen, Daesoo Kim,
Séverine Stamboulian, Hee-Sup Shin, Kevin P. Campbell, Michel De Waard, And
Christophe Arnoult1
99
ORIGINAL ARTICLE 753
In spermatozoa, voltage-dependent calcium channels (VDCC) have been involved in different cellular functions like acrosome reaction
(AR) and sperm motility. Multiple types of VDCC are present and their relative contribution is still a matter of debate. Based mostly on
pharmacological studies, Low-Voltage-Activated Calcium Channels (LVA-CC), responsible of the inward current in spermatocytes, were
described as essential for AR in sperm. The development of CaV3.1 or CaV3.2 null mice provided the opportunity to evaluate the
involvement of such LVA-CC in AR and sperm motility, independently of pharmacological tools. The inward current was fully abolished in
spermatogenic cells from CaV3.2 deficient mice. This current is thus only due to CaV3.2 channels. We showed that CaV3.2 channels were
maintained in sperm by Western-blot and immunohistochemistry experiments. Calcium imaging experiments revealed that calcium influx
in response to KCl was reduced in CaV3.2 null sperm in comparison to control cells, demonstrating that CaV3.2 channels were functional.
On the other hand, no difference was noticed in calcium signaling induced by zona pellucida. Moreover, neither biochemical nor functional
experiments, suggested the presence of CaV3.1 channels in sperm. Despite the CaV3.2 channels contribution in KCl-induced calcium
influx, the reproduction parameters remained intact in CaV3.2 deficient mice. These data demonstrate that in sperm, besides CaV3.2
channels, other types of VDCC are activated during the voltage-dependent calcium influx of AR, these channels likely belonging to high-
voltage activated Ca2þ channels family. The conclusion is that voltage-dependent calcium influx during AR is due to the opening of
redundant families of calcium channels.
J. Cell. Physiol. 212: 753–763, 2007. ß 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
The acrosome reaction (AR), the first step of fertilization, is an phase, the opening of VDCCs elicits a very short transient
exocytotic event, allowing sperm to cross the zona pellucida calcium rise, of about 100 msec duration (Arnoult et al., 1999),
(ZP) and to become competent for fusion with the oocyte, by ii) a second phase, corresponding to the activations of the InsP3
unmasking the izumo protein (Inoue et al., 2005). ZP3, one of receptor and subsequently TRPC store-operated calcium
the three glycoproteins present in the zona pellucida, channels, is characterized by a slow calcium increase (between
represents the main physiological agonist of the AR in rodent. few second to few minutes, dependent of reports), followed by
The fusion of the outer acrosomal membrane with the plasma a long lasting calcium entry. Different types of VDCC blockers
membrane is dependent of a cytoplasmic calcium rise. The like amiloride, PN200-110 (a dihydropyridine) or pimozide (a
calcium signaling requires the successive opening of at least diphenylbutylpiperidine) inhibit both the calcium transient and
three different types of calcium channels. Voltage-dependent the subsequent slow calcium increase and calcium plateau
calcium channels (VDCC), localized in the plasma membrane,
are the first to be activated. Subsequently, an Inositol-1,4,5-
triphosphate (InsP3) receptor, localized in the outer membrane
of the acrosome, is activated (Walensky and Snyder, 1995;
O’Toole et al., 2000) and leads to the calcium depletion of the *Correspondence to: Christophe Arnoult, CEA/Grenoble, iRTSV,
acrosome, an operational calcium store (De Blas et al., 2002; Laboratoire ‘‘Canaux Calciques Fonctions et Pathologies,’’ Unité
Herrick et al., 2004). The depletion of this store finally leads to INSERM U836 Equipe 3, 17 rue des martyrs, F-38054 Grenoble
Cedex 9- France. E-mail: [email protected]
the activation of store-operated calcium channels like TRPC2
(Jungnickel et al., 2001). Received 7 September 2006; Accepted 6 February 2007
The successive activation of these channels determines two DOI: 10.1002/jcp.21075
phases in the sperm acrosome calcium signaling: i) during a first
ß 2 0 0 7 W I L E Y - L I S S , I N C .
754 ESCOFFIER ET AL.
(Arnoult et al., 1996; Arnoult et al., 1999). In consequence, the electrophysiological data. Moreover, the calcium signaling
calcium influx through VDCC is currently understood as the induced by high Kþ is not affected in CaV3.1 deficient mice.
key triggering element for the second phase of calcium signaling These data, taken together, strongly suggest that CaV3.1
in sperm cells. channels do not play a physiological role in sperm.
Voltage-dependent calcium channels are subdivided in Despite the presence of CaV3.2 channels and their
high-voltage (HVA) and low-voltage-activated (LVA) calcium contribution in Kþ-induced calcium influx, the reproduction
channels, represented by L, N, P/Q, R and by T-type calcium parameters (sperm concentration per epididymis, pups
channels, respectively. At the molecular level, 10 different genes number, delay between mating and delivery), and the cellular
encode for VDCC a1 subunits, the pore subunit. The molecular functions (AR and sperm motility) of CaV3.2 deficient mice
characterization of VDCC present in sperm cells and their remain intact. These data demonstrate that in sperm,
respective role in the sperm physiology is a hotly debated and besides CaV3.2 channels, other types of VDCC are activated
studied question (Arnoult et al., 1996; Santi et al., 1996; during the voltage-dependent calcium influx of AR. The absence
Goodwin et al., 1997; Goodwin et al., 1998; Arnoult et al., 1999; of reproduction phenotype at the animal or cellular levels,
Serrano et al., 1999; Westenbroek and Babcock, 1999; indicates that the expression of different types of VDCC are
Jagannathan et al., 2002; Stamboulian et al., 2004; Zhang et al., redundant.
2006). Finally, we show in this paper that the motility parameters of
Owing to the high difficulties to record voltage-dependent sperm from CaV3.1 or CaV3.2 deficient animals are not
calcium currents in mature sperm cells, many groups have statistically different to those obtained from sperm of wild-type
worked on the molecular characterization of voltage- animals, suggesting that neither CaV3.1 nor CaV3.2 are involved
dependent channels in spermatogenic cells (Arnoult et al., 1996; in sperm motility.
Lievano et al., 1996; Espinosa et al., 1999; Sakata et al., 2001;
Jagannathan et al., 2002; Stamboulian et al., 2004). In these cells,
only T-type calcium currents are recorded during patch-clamp Materials and Methods
experiments. Although mRNA encoding for both CaV3.1 Biological preparations
(Sakata et al., 2001) and CaV3.2 (Jagannathan et al., 2002) have
been found in spermatogenic cells, results from CaV3.1 Knock-out mice. CaV3.1 (Kim et al., 2001b) and CaV3.2 (Chen
deficient mice suggested that CaV3.2 is the main calcium channel et al., 2003) deficient mice have been described previously. Control
in spermatogenic cells (Stamboulian et al., 2004). On the other mice corresponded to C57BL/6 males if non specified (Charles River-
France). The genetic backgrounds of both knockout mice are different.
hand, several authors have claimed that part of the T-type The genetic background of CaV3.1 deficient mice is a cross between
current in spermatogenic cells could be due to activation of C57Bl/6 strain and SVJ129 strain. On the other hand, the genetic
HVA channels, CaV1.2 (Goodwin et al., 1999) or CaV2.2 background of CaV3.2 deficient mice is a C57Bl/6 strain.
and CaV2.3 (Wennemuth et al., 2000). The development of Spermatogenic cells preparation. Seminiferous tubules were
transgenic mice deficient in CaV3.2 channels provides the isolated from the testes of mice (8–16 weeks old) and incubated at
opportunity to evaluate the actual contribution of CaV3.2 378C for 30 min in 3 ml of a solution containing (mM): NaCl (150), KCl
channels in the inward calcium current of spermatogenic cells. (5), CaCl2 (2), MgCl2 (1), NaH2PO4 (1), NaHCO3 (12),
In this manuscript, we compare for the first time the inward D-glucose (11), pH 7.3 and collagenase type IA (1 mg/ml - Sigma).
calcium current density from wild-type spermatogenic cells Tubules were rinsed twice in collagenase-free medium and cut into
2 mm sections. Spermatogenic cells were obtained by manual
with those of spermatogenic cells isolated from CaV3.1 trituration and attached to culture dishes coated with Cell-Tak
or CaV3.2 deficient mice. The inward current elicited by (Beckton Dickinson France). Pachytene spermatocytes and round
depolarization is fully abolished in spermatogenic cells obtained spermatids are the prominent cell types obtained from the diploid
from CaV3.2 deficient mice. This result ends a long-term meiotic and the haploid post-meiotic stages of spermatogenesis,
controversy over the molecular identity of the LVA inward respectively. These cells are readily distinguished based on cellular
current in spermatogenic cells: this current is due only to and nuclear morphology (Romrell et al., 1976). These stages were
activation of CaV3.2 channels. In mature sperm cells, Western routinely used for electrophysiological recordings. However, similar
blotting experiments demonstrate for the first time the results were obtained with both stages and data were pooled for
presence of CaV3.2 channel protein. By immunohistochemistry, presentation.
Sperm membrane preparation. Sperm cells, obtained by manual
we illustrate that CaV3.2 is localized in a specific patch of the trituration of caudae epididymes from CaV3.1, CaV3.2 deficient mice or
plasma membrane located at the base of the acrosome, an area control C57Bl/6 mice (16 weeks old, Charles River), were pelleted
known to be the starting point of the calcium signaling during (500 g, 10 min) and re-suspended in RIPA buffer containing in (mM) Tris
the acrosome reaction. Moreover, this area of the plasma (50), NaCl (150), 0,1% SDS, 1% NP-40, 0,5% DOC) complemented
membrane that contains the CaV3.2 channels overlays the with a cocktail of protease inhibitors (Complete Mini, EDTA-free,
external acrosomal membrane involved in exocytosis during Roche). Sperm cells were then sonicated (Sonicator Ultrasonic
acrosome reaction, since the CaV3.2 immunoreactivity is lost Processor XL, Misonix, Farmingdale, NY) for 1 sec on ice, repeated 30
on acrosome reacted spermatozoa. Because of the presence times, with 7 sec intervals. Cell debris were pelleted (500 g, 15 min) and
of CaV3.2 channels in mature sperm cells, it was important to the supernatant used for Western blotting. To obtain a head-plasma
membrane enriched fraction, sperm were capacitated in M16
evaluate the contribution of CaV3.2 channels in sperm calcium (Sigma-Aldrich France) supplemented with 2% BSA (fraction V, Sigma-
signaling. First, we evaluated the contribution of CaV3.2 Aldrich France) pH 7.4 for 1 hour at 378C. Sperm were pelleted (500 g,
channels in voltage-dependent calcium influx, induced by high 10 min) and treated with 10 mM A23187 during 30 min at 378C in the
external Kþ. The depolarization-induced calcium signaling is presence of a cocktail of protease inhibitors. Sperm were then
biphasic: a calcium rise followed by a calcium plateau. In CaV3.2 centrifuged 5 min at 1000 g. The supernatant was collected and
deficient mice, both calcium rise and calcium plateau are subsequently ultra-centrifuged at 100 000 g for 1 hour at 48C. The
reduced, demonstrating the functional state of CaV3.2 channels pellet was re-suspended in RIPA buffer.
in mature sperm cell. Second, we evaluated the importance of Cell culture and transfection. HEK-293 cells were grown in
such channels in calcium signaling induced by solubilized ZP. Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle’s Medium (DMEM, Invitrogen)
supplemented with 10% FBS (Invitrogen) and 1% penicillin/
In CaV3.2/ sperm, the calcium signaling induced by ZP was streptomycin and transiently transfected with a plasmid
identical to the one measured in wild-type sperm. containing CaV3.1 cDNA (generous gift of Dr Anne Feltz) or CaV3.2
Concerning CaV3.1 channels, we were unable to find any cDNA (generous gift of Dr Emmanuel Bourinet), using JetPEI from
specific staining with an antibody designed specifically Qbiogene according to the instructions of the manufacturer. Two
against CaV3.1 channels, in agreement with the days after transfection, transfected and control cells were collected
and re-suspended in RIPA buffer complemented with a cocktail of (10 mg/ml in PBS) for 15 min at room temperature, in the dark before
protease inhibitors (Complete Mini, EDTA-free, Roche). starting the immunostaining protocol for calcium channels detection.
Slides were analyzed on a confocal laser scanning microscope (Leica
Electrophysiological recordings TCS-SP2, Mannheim, Germany).
Ca2þ currents were recorded in the whole-cell configuration of the
patch-clamp technique. Pipettes were pulled from Corning #7052 glass Calcium imaging
(Gardner Glass Co., CA) and fire polished. Pipette resistance was
1–3 MV. Currents were obtained with an Axopatch 200B amplifier Sperm cells were obtained from C57Bl/6 mice (12 weeks old, Charles
(Axon Instruments). All traces were corrected for leak currents, Rivers, France), CaV3.1 and CaV3.2 deficient mice from caudae
filtered at 2 kHz, and digitized at 20 kHz. epididymides by manual trituration. The fraction of motile sperm was
The pipette solution was designed to eliminate all Kþ currents and determined by visual inspection within 10 mi, and preparations with
consisted of the following components (mM): Cs-glutamate (130), <75% motile cells were discarded. Sperm were loaded with 5 mM of
D-glucose (5), HEPES (10), MgCl2 (2.5), Mg2ATP (4), EGTA-Cs (10) the calcium indicator Oregon green BAPTA 1-AM (Molecular probes)
pH 7.2 (adjusted with 1 N CsOH). For experiments, the bath solution by a 40 min incubation (378C) in a solution A containing (in mM): NaCl
was changed to a recording solution containing (mM): NaCl (100), KCl (109), KCl (4.8), MgCl2 (1.2), CaCl2 (1.7), KH2PO4 (1.2), NaHCO3
(5), CaCl2 (10), MgCl2 (1), TEA-Cl (26), Na-lactate (6), HEPES (10), (10), HEPES (25), sodium lactate (25), sodium pyruvate (1), D-glucose
D-glucose (3.3) and pH 7.4 (adjusted with 1 N NaOH). All experiments (5.6) and BSA 0.1%.
were done at room temperature (258C). Sperm were then centrifuged (5 min, 1200 rpm) and re-suspended
in the solution A containing 2% BSA in order to promote in vitro
Primary antibodies capacitation for a period of 80 min incubation (378C).
Sperm were then centrifuged and re-suspended in the solution A
In the absence of specific commercial antibodies designed for without BSA and kept at 378C until imaging experiment. 100 ml
immuno-histochemistry, we designed two antipeptide antibodies aliquots of capacitated sperm cells (6 106 /ml) were transferred to
against the II-III loop of the CaV3.2 channels, a region presenting no an imaging chamber, in which the lower surface was a glass coverslip
homology with other VDCC. The peptides have been chosen in the treated with Cell-Tak (Beckton-Dickinson, France). The chamber
II-III loop of the alpha1 subunit and correspond to the amino acids was then connected to the perfusion apparatus and at least 10 ml of
1025-1034 (Ab-1025) and 1169-1180 (Ab-1169) of the swissprot locus fresh medium was washed through. All experiments were carried out
CAC1H_MOUSE, accession O88427. Antibodies against CaV3.1 were at 378C in a continuous flow of medium. Solubilized zona pellucida,
from Alomone Labs - Israel. For Western blotting: antibodies prepared as precisely described (Rockwell and Storey, 2000), was
against CaV3.2 were Ab-1025 or Ab-1169 or a commercial Ab introduced in the recording medium by adding 10 mL of a solution
(sc-16261 from Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc. CA); antibody containing 20 solubilized ZP by mL (final volume 100 mL). Thus, the
against CaV3.1 was a commercial Ab (ACC-021 from Alomone, final solubilized ZP concentration is 2 ZP/mL. Only sperm presenting
Israel). a motile flagellum were studied. Cells were imaged on an inverted
Nikon TE200U microscope, fitted with an X-cite 120 EXFO source.
Western blot analysis Images were acquired with an IXON ANDOR TE885KCS-VP camera
and the frame acquisition frequencies are 4 Hz for KCl and 1 Hz
Proteins of sperm enriched plasma membrane preparation were for ZP.
separated on 10% polyacrylamide denaturing gels and Data were processed offline using ANDOR IQ 1.5 software.
elecrotransferred for 90 min at 350 mA to Immobilon P transfer Fluorescence was measured in the whole head of the sperm.
membrane (Millipore). The membranes were then blocked 60 min with
4% non-fat dry milk (Biorad) in PBS Tween 0.1%. The primary antibody
was added and incubated overnight at 48C. After washing in PBS Tween Acrosome reaction assay
0.1%, the secondary antibody was added at 1:10,000 during 3 hours at Sperm cells from the caudae epididymes were allowed to swim in M2
room temperature. Brain and testis proteins were separated on 7% medium for 10 min. Then sperm cells were capacitated for 45 min at
polyacrylamide denaturing gels and elecrotransferred over night at 378C in M16 medium containing 20 mg/ml BSA. The AR was triggered
22 V to Immobilon P transfer membrane (Millipore). The membranes by lacto-N-fucopentaose III-BSA (LNFP III-BSA). The compounds were
were then blocked over night with 5% non-fat dry milk (Biorad) in PBS injected in the capacitation medium and sperm were incubated for an
Tween 0.1%. The primary antibody was added and incubated for additional period of 80 min. Sperm cells were then fixed in 4% PFA and
2h00 at room temperature. After washing with 5% non-fat dry milk stained with coomassie blue, as previously described (Arnoult et al.,
(Biorad) in PBS Tween 0.1%, the secondary antibody was added at 1996).
1:10,000 during 30 min at room temperature. The reactive proteins M2 and M16 medium were purchased from Sigma and LNFP
were detected using chemiluminescence assay followed by exposure to III-BSA from Dextra laboratories (Reading, UK). 1 mg of LNFP
Biomax film (Kodak). III-BSA was diluted in 500 ml of solution A, corresponding to a
Immunohistochemistry and indirect immunofluorescence concentration of 23.6 mM. LNFP III-BSA was used at a final
concentration of 5 mM.
Sperm cells were harvested from the caudae epididymes, washed in
PBS and fixed in 4% PFA for 30 min on ice. Fixed spermmatozoa were Computer-assisted motility analysis
allowed to air-dry on poly-L-Lysine coated slides. The slides were
washed in PBS (3 5 min), 50 mM NH4Cl (2 15 min), PBS Five hundred ml of sperm suspension in M2 medium were mixed with
(3 5 min), 0.1% triton X-100 in PBS (15 min) and PBS (3 5 min). the same volume of M2 medium containing 4% BSA (Fraction V Sigma)
Slides were blocked with 1% BSA and 2% normal goat serum during to initiate the capacitation. After incubation for 1 hour at 378C, 10 ml of
60 min at room temperature. Antibodies against CaV3.1 or CaV3.2 the sperm suspension was immediately placed onto analysis chamber
alpha1 subunit, as described above were diluted in blocking solution at (2X-CEL Slides, 80 mm depth, Leja Products B.V., Netherlands) kept to
1/100 and slides were incubated overnight at 48C. Slides were then 378C for microscopic quantitative study of sperm movement.
incubated 60 min with secondary alexa fluor546-conjugated antibodies Sperm motility parameters were measured at 378C using a sperm
(Molecular probes), diluted at 1/1000 and washed in PBS (3 5 min). analyzer (Hamilton Thorn Research, Beverley). The settings employed
For a double stain of the acrosomal status and CaV3.2 channels, lectin for analysis were as followed: acquisition rate: 60 Hz; number of frames:
from Pisum sativum conjugated to fluorescein isothiocyanate (PSA- 30; minimum contrast: 30; minimum cell size: 4; low-size gate: 0.13;
FITC, Sigma Aldrich, France) was used to label the acrosomal matrix, high-size gate: 2.43; low-intensity gate: 0.10; high-intensity gate: 1.52;
allowing to identify the PSA-FITC negative cells as acrosome reacted minimum elongation gate: 5; maximum elongation gate: 100;
cells. For the double staining experiments, sperm cells were first magnification factor: 0.81.
treated with 10 mM A23187 for 30 min after a 60 min capacitation The motility parameters measured were: straight line velocity (VSL);
period in a solution (M2, Sigma-A.) containing 2% BSA, to obtain curvilinear velocity (VCL); averaged path velocity (VAP); amplitude of
acrosome reacted sperm. Staining with PSA-FITC was used to evidence lateral head displacement (ALH); beat cross frequency (BCF); linearity
acrosome reacted sperm. Fixed sperm were washed in PBS for (LIN); straightness (STR). A minimum of 100 motile spermatozoa by
3 5 min and incubated with PSA-FITC sample was analysed.
have been mixed: in these conditions, only one band is elicited staining was strongly diminished or lost during acrosome
around 250 kDa (Fig. 2A, lane 5). Moreover, these bands are reaction since CaV3.2 immunostaining was very strongly
absent on sperm microsomes from CaV3.2/ sperm reduced in acrosome reacted spermatozoa. From the western
(Fig. 2A, lanes 1 and 3 respectively). The CaV3.2 deficient mice blot of Figure 2A and the immuno-histochemistry of Figure 3
guaranty the specificity against CaV3.2 channels of the results, we can conclude that at least, part of the CaV3.2
immunostaining. The CaV3.2 channels are thus present in channels are localized in the plasma membrane that merged
mature sperm cells. with the acrosome membrane during acrosome reaction.
By immuno-histochemistry, the antibody Ab-1169 evidenced
a head staining, localized at the base of the acrosome, whereas Calcium signaling in CaV3.1 and CaV3.2 deficient mice
no staining was observed in the sperm head of CaV3.2 deficient
sperm, attesting again the specificity of this reactivity (Fig. 2B). The localization of CaV3.2 channels at the base of the sperm
The same antibody gave unspecific staining in the flagellum, acrosome, is of potential interest since it has been
making impossible to conclude whether the CaV3.2 channel was demonstrated that calcium signaling induced by agonists as
present in the tail (data not shown). progesterone or ZP3 starts precisely in the same subcellular
It is well known that membrane reorganization occurs during area (Shirakawa and Miyazaki, 1999; Kirkman-Brown et al.,
capacitation. We followed the CaV3.2 staining during 2000; Fukami et al., 2003). We therefore studied the
capacitation and we observed that it was not modified during voltage-dependent calcium signaling in sperm from CaV3.2
this step (Fig. 3A). deficient mice, to further analyze the impact of the loss
From studies in neurons, we know that calcium channels of CaV3.2 channels. We also studied for the first time the impact
involved in neurotransmission are localized in close vicinity to of the loss of CaV3.1 channels on voltage-dependent calcium
the secretion vesicles (Kim and Catterall, 1997). In order to signaling, using sperm from CaV3.1 mice. Control capacitated
further study the specific localization of CaV3.2 channels, we sperm cells, loaded with the calcium dye Oregon green,
investigated if CaV3.2 channels are positioned in the pool of the presented a large calcium increase in the head sperm, when the
plasma membrane merging with the outer acrosomal plasma membrane was suddenly depolarized with a high
membrane during acrosome reaction. After capacitation, concentration of external potassium (Fig. 4). For CaV3.1
sperm cells were incubated 30 min in the presence of the Ca2þ deficient sperm cells, the amplitude and kinetics of
ionophore A23187, and a double staining was performed using high-Kþ-induced calcium signaling were similar to those
PSA-FITC to assess the status of the acrosome and Ab-1169 to recorded for control sperm cells. By contrast, for CaV3.2
localize the CaV3.2 channels. Acrosome reacted sperm were deficient sperm cells, both amplitude and kinetics of
evidenced by the loss of the specific acrosomal matrix staining high-Kþ-induced calcium signaling were modified: the mean
(negative PSA staining). Figure 3B shows clearly that the CaV3.2 amplitude was decreased by 30% and the calcium signal was
more transient (Fig. 4). By comparing the integrated calcium
signal from control and CaV3.2 deficient sperm cells, a decrease
of 68% was observed in the latter.
Because Kþ-induced calcium increase was modified
in CaV3.2 deficient sperm cells, we wondered if the calcium
signaling induced by solubilized ZP, the physiological agonist,
would be also altered. Indeed, voltage-dependent calcium
channel antagonists were described to inhibit both the
amplitude of the short calcium transient (Arnoult et al., 1999)
and the rate of calcium increase which follows the short calcium
transient (Arnoult et al., 1996). Solubilized ZP elicited a fast
calcium increase, followed by a calcium plateau, returning
slowly to zero, in both wild-type and CaV3.2 deficient sperm
cells (Fig. 5A). In order to characterize calcium signaling, we
calculated for each sperm cell responding to ZP, the time to
peak, the normalized maximum amplitude and the time
necessary to decrease the calcium peak by two (t1/2). In our
experimental conditions, peaks were reached in 14.5 6.9 sec
and in 11.4 3.9 sec in wild-type (n ¼ 9) and in CaV3.2/
sperms (n ¼ 7), respectively (Fig. 5B), showing no statistical
difference. These values fall in the range of previously described
ZP-induced kinetics. Indeed, a wide range of ZP-induced
calcium increase kinetics have been reported in the past and
peaks were reached from few seconds (Shirakawa and Miyazaki,
1999; Rockwell and Storey, 2000; Fukami et al., 2003) to
minutes (Arnoult et al., 1996; Fukami et al., 2003). This range is
likely due to experimental differences between groups, like ZP
concentration, capacitation time or medium composition. No
difference was also noticed for normalized peak amplitude
and t1/2 (Fig. 5B). In our experimental conditions, normalized
Fig. 3. CaV3.2 channels localization after capacitation and acrosome peak amplitudes were 1.45 0.1 and in 1.47 0.3 and the
reaction. Double-staining with anti-CaV3.2 antibody and with lectins
from Pisum sativum conjugated to FITC (green), localized CaV3.2 time necessary to decrease the calcium peak by two were
channels and the acrosome matrix, respectively. A: Capacitation does 66 35 sec and in 62 52 sec, in wild-type (n ¼ 9) and
not modify CaV3.2 staining (images of the left column): capacitated in CaV3.2/ sperms (n ¼ 7), respectively.
sperm cells displayed a staining at the base of the acrosome, identical to The facts that we still recorded voltage-dependent calcium
that observed on non capacitated sperm. B: Acrosome reacted sperm
loose the CaV3.2 channel staining (images of the two right columns). influx in CaV3.2 deficient sperm and that CaV3.1 deficient
AR is evidenced by the absence of PSA staining sperm did not present calcium signaling defect, strongly
suggests that the remaining voltage-dependent calcium influx
Fig. 4. Comparison of high-KR-induced calcium signaling in sperm from wild-type, CaV3.1 or CaV3.2 deficient animals. KCl-induced
depolarization elicits a large calcium signaling in control sperm (*, n U 7) and a similar calcium signaling in sperm from CaV3.1 deficient animals (*,
n U 10). On the other hand, calcium signaling is reduced in sperm from CaV3.2 deficient animals (&, n U 13). Results are expressed as normalized
mean intensities W s.d.
observed in CaV3.2 deficient sperm is due to the opening of functions. Again, the development of transgenic mice deficient
different type of VDCC. High-voltage-activated calcium in CaV3.1 or CaV3.2 channels provided a unique opportunity
channels or CaV3.3 channels, present in sperm cells, could be to test the physiological importance of such channels in sperm
responsible of the remaining calcium influx in CaV3.2 deficient functions. We compared the number of acrosome reacted
spermatozoa. sperm induced by the lacto-N-fucopentaose III-BSA
(LNFP III-BSA), a synthetic molecule designed to replace the
signaling sugars of ZP3 (Hanna et al., 2004), after a capacitation
Reproduction parameters of CaV3.1 and CaV3.2 of 120 min in 2% BSA (Fig. 8A). In these peculiar conditions, we
deficient mice did not observe a lower rate of acrosome reacted sperm
in CaV3.2 deficient mice, when compared to control mice,
We showed that CaV3.2 channels are present in mature sperm suggesting that the remaining voltage-dependent calcium
cell and that CaV3.2 deficient sperm cells present an altered influx in CaV3.2 deficient mice is sufficient to promote a
Kþ-induced calcium signaling profile, with lower amplitude and complete acrosome reaction. From experiments using
a more transient calcium signals. These changes in calcium pharmacological tools, it has been suggested that LVA calcium
signaling induced by the loss of CaV3.2 channels may decrease channels could be involved in sperm motility (Trevino et al.,
the fertility of CaV3.2 deficient males. We studied two 2004). Using a sperm movement analyzer, the different
macroscopic reproduction parameters, the interval between parameters characterizing sperm movement were studied
mating and birth and the litter size. No difference in these for CaV3.1 and CaV3.2 null mice or control capacitated sperm
two parameters was noticed (Fig. 6A, B) when males of (Fig. 8B). No statistical difference was observed between the
C57Bl/6, CaV3.1 and CaV3.2 deficient strains were interbred mean values of the different parameters measured for the
with OF1 females. three populations of sperm.
The absence of a specific macroscopic reproductive
phenotype defect does not exclude i) an alteration of Presence and immunolocalization of CaV3.1
spermatogenesis leading to a reduction of sperm number or ii) channels in sperm
a lowering of some sperm functions at the cellular level.
Although membrane potential of spermatogenic cells does not The absence of inward calcium currents in spermatogenic cells
allow T-type calcium activation, the fact that inward calcium from CaV3.2 deficient mice, the specific staining of CaV3.2
current was totally absent in CaV3.2 deficient spermatogenic channels in sperm head and the decrease of depolarization-
cells indeed raises the question of a role of CaV3.2 channels in induced calcium influx in sperm from CaV3.2 deficient animals,
sperm production. We measured the sperm concentration in clearly demonstrate that CaV3.2 channels are present and
cauda epididymis and no difference was noticed between functional in sperm. On the other hand, the presence of CaV3.1
wild-type and in CaV3.2/ sperms (Fig. 7), both having a channels in sperm is still controversy since i) CaV3.1 deficient
standard sperm concentration of around 5 millions of sperm spermatogenic cells present no alteration of the inward current
per milliliters. and ii) CaV3.1 deficient sperm exhibit a similar depolarization-
Because voltage-dependent calcium channels are supposed induced calcium to control sperm cells. The presence of CaV3.1
to play a role in both sperm acrosome reaction and sperm channels in rodent sperm is only supported by RT-PCR
motility, we focused our studies on these two cellular experiments, which clearly shows specific products
Fig. 5. Comparison of calcium signaling induced by solubilized ZP in single sperm from wild-type or CaV3.2 deficient animals. A. Solubilized
ZP (2 ZP/mL) elicits a fast calcium increase, followed by a calcium plateau in both control sperm (*) and sperm from CaV3.2 deficient animals
(*). Acquisition rate, 1 Hz. B. Characteristics of calcium signaling induced by solubilized ZP. Histograms showing the time to peak, the
normalized maximum amplitude, and the time necessary to decrease the calcium peak by two (t1/2) for wild-type (black bars, n U 9) and for
CaV3.2S/S sperms (white bars, n U 7). In our experimental conditions, peaks were reached in 14.5 W 6.9 sec and in 11.4 W 3.9 sec, normalized
peak amplitudes were 1.45 W 0.1 and in 1.47 W 0.3 and the time necessary to decrease the calcium peak by two were 66 W 35 sec and in 62 W 52 sec in
wild-type and in CaV3.2S/S sperms, respectively. Results are expressed as mean W s.d.
amplification (Trevino et al., 2004). In order to better (25 mg) than control HEK cells extract (14 mg) was loaded in
understand this apparent discrepancy between functional and the gel.
molecular data, we did important efforts to attempt to
evidence CaV3.1 channels by immunohistochemistry and
Western blotting. For immunohistochemistry experiments, we Discussion
tested a commercial antibody (Alomone, anti CaV3.1). In our In spermatogenic cells, inward current is only due
experimental conditions, this antibody did not evidence a to CaV3.2 channels
specific staining by immunochemistry in sperm (Fig. 9A). The
flagellum is stained by the antibody but the CaV3.1 deficient The molecular identity of voltage-dependent inward calcium
sperm present an identical staining. In Western blotting, the current in spermatogenic cells has been a debated question. If
same antibody specifically recognized a band of approximately the pharmacological and biophysical properties of this current
at 240 kDa in HEK-293 cells transfected with CaV3.1 clone. This are close to those expected for CaV3.2 channels, some doubts
band corresponds to CaV3.1 channels since in non transfected were still present because the spermatogenic calcium current
HEK-293 cells, no band is evidenced in the same area of present some specific biophysical (Stamboulian et al., 2004) and
molecular weight. In the whole sperm plasma membrane pharmacological (Arnoult et al., 1998; Wennemuth et al., 2000)
preparations, no signal was detected by the Alomone antibody properties in comparison to those obtained by re-expression of
(Fig. 9B), even if, to compensate an eventual low level of CaV3.1 cloned channels. The fact that no inward current is present
channels expression in sperm, 1.7 times more of sperm protein in CaV3.2 deficient spermatogenic cells, represent a conclusive
other voltage-dependent calcium channels are present and or CaV2.3 (Sakata et al., 2001) deficient mice, which do not
functional in sperm head, as well. Because calcium signaling is present any fertility trouble, as well. The likely conclusion is that
not affected in CaV3.1 deficient sperm, it is unlikely that the voltage-dependent calcium influx during acrosome reaction is
remaining voltage-dependent calcium increase in CaV3.2 due to the opening of redundant families of calcium channels.
deficient sperm is due to CaV3.1 channels opening. Finally, the redundancy of VDCC seems to be a general feature.
Different publications pointed out the presence of several Indeed, there is a large discrepancy between the high number of
other VDCC in spermatogenic or mature sperm cells. cellular types where VDCC are expressed and the low number
High-voltage-activated (HVA) calcium channels, but of physiological anomalies generated by the lack of only one
also CaV3.3, the last member of the LVA calcium channel family, VDCC in the different knock-out mice (Jun et al., 1999; Saegusa
have been described to be present. CaV3.3 RNA have been et al., 2000; Kim et al., 2001a; Kim et al., 2001b; Chen et al.,
amplified in spermatogenic cells. In mature sperm cells, two 2003).
groups have showed by immunohistochemistry realized with
two different antibodies that the channels is restricted to
Acknowledgments
the flagellum and is absent of the head (Trevino et al., 2004;
Zhang et al., 2006) and then, CaV3.3 unlikely contributes to We are thankful to Florence Appaix (INSERM U836-Grenoble-
the remaining calcium influx in sperm head from CaV3.2 F) and Emmanuel Bourinet (IGH/CNRS-Montpellier-F) for
deficient mice. Westernblotting expertise and to Isabelle Marty for her skills in
HVA channels, CaV1.2, CaV2.2 and CaV2.3, are present in the antibody design (INSERM U836-Grenoble-F).
sperm head (Goodwin et al., 1999; Westenbroek and Babcock,
1999; Wennemuth et al., 2000). These HVA channels are likely
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6. Discussion
Le développement des souris Cav3.1-/- et Cav3.2-/- nous a donné l’opportunité aujourd’hui
d’évaluer la contribution des canaux Cav3.1 et Cav3.2 dans une étape de la physiologie des
spermatozoïdes : la réaction acrosomique.
Dans ce manuscrit, nous avons tout d’abord caractérisé pour la première fois les courants
calciques dépendants du voltage de type T dans les cellules germinales. Nous avons ensuite
statué sur la présence et le rôle physiologique des canaux Cav3.1 et Cav3.2 dans les
spermatozoïdes matures, grâce à des expériences d’immunofluorescence, de Western Blot, de
mobilité spermatique, de fécondation, d’imagerie calcique et de réaction acrosomique in vitro.
Les canaux Cav3.2 ne sont pas les seuls canaux calciques impliqués dans
la signalisation de la RA
Lors des RA in vitro nous observons que le taux de RA réalisés par les spermatozoïdes Cav3.2
-/-
est identique au contrôle. Ces résultats nous suggèrent donc que l’influx calcique dépendant
du voltage restant est suffisant pour déclencher la RA et que les canaux Cav3.2 contribuent
seulement à la bonne mise en place de la réaction acrosomique.
Toutes ces données démontrent clairement que l'influx de calcium nécessaire lors de la
réaction acrosomique est contrôlé en premier lieu par les deux familles de VDCC, les canaux
dépendants du voltage à bas seuil d’activation (LVA) et les canaux dépendants du voltage à
haut seuil d’activation (HVA).
102
Résultats
Afin de poursuivre cette étude sur les mécanismes d’activation de la réaction acrosomique, il
faudrait évaluer le rôle des canaux HVA dans le contrôle de la RA. Certains auteurs ont
montré par des techniques immuno-histochimiques qu'il existait une grande variété de canaux
calciques dépendants du voltage, à haut seuil d’activation (CCDV-HS), dans le
spermatozoïde mature (Wennemuth, Westenbroek et al. 2000). L’expression ou la traduction
des canaux calciques à haut seuil d’activation doivent se réaliser dans les étapes ultimes de la
spermatogenèse, stades auxquels nous n’avons pas accès par les techniques
d’électrophysiologie. Puisque dans les spermatocytes, il n’existe qu'un seul type de courant
calcique dépendant du voltage, dit de type T.
103
Conclusion générale
et perspectives
Conclusion générale et perspectives
Les spermatozoïdes sont exposés à mGX (et éventuellement à d'autres activités sPLA2) lors
de leur mélange avec le liquide séminal (Masuda, Murakami et al. 2004) mais aussi lors de
leur ascension dans les voies féminines (capacitation) (Valentin, Ghomashchi et al. 1999).
Nos données appuient l'idée que mGX induit des réactions acrosomiques prématurées et
réduit la mobilité spermatique d’une sous-population de spermatozoïdes dite sous-fertile afin
d’écarter les spermatozoïdes qui sont incapables d'assurer le développement normal de
107
Conclusion générale et perspectives
l'embryon du processus de fécondation. Et ce, lors de leur mélange avec le liquide séminal et
lors de leur ascension dans les voies féminines (capacitation). Par conséquent, la réaction
acrosomique qu’on appelle « réaction acrosomique spontanée » correspondrait en partie à la
réaction acrosomique déclenchée par mGX et pourrait représenter un mécanisme
physiologique de tri des spermatozoïdes dans les organes génitaux mâles et femelles, qui
compense le manque de fiabilité de la production des spermatozoïdes (Figure 40).
Ces données renforcent l’hypothèse selon laquelle la sPLA2 mGX sécrétés lors de la réaction
acrosomique induite par la zone pellucide serait impliquée dans le mécanisme d’interaction
gamétique via ses métabolites lipidiques. Notamment l’addition des métabolites des sPLA2
(lysoPC) au moment de la fécondation, ont permis de rétablir le pouvoir fécondant des
spermatozoïdes mGX-/-.
Une étude récente montre que l'élimination de la population des spermatozoïdes qui présente
une externalisation des phosphatidylsérines permettait d’améliorer le taux de fécondation lors
de procréation médicale assistée (Upreti, Hall et al. 1999). mGX pourrait être utile pour
éliminer cette population in vitro. Ainsi, mGX est une sPLA2 particulière qui représente un
espoir pour de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques de lutte contre l'infertilité masculine. Elle
pourrait être utilisée dans les techniques de reproduction assistée, pour améliorer les résultats
des FIV ou pour sélectionner les spermatozoïdes pour les ICSI (Intra-Cytoplasmic Sperm
Injection) sur leur statut acrosomique.
108
Avant capacitation Capacitation
mGX
mGX , Hyaluronidase
mGX
Population
hétérogène
Fertilité
0 1
Spermatozoïdes
Figure 40: Modèle de la régulation de la physiologie spermatique par la phospholipase A2 secrétée mGX.
Les spermatozoïdes vont être exposés à mGX lors de leur ascension dans les voies féminines (capacitation).
mGX va induire des réactions acrosomiques spontanées et réduire la mobilité spermatique de la sous-population de spermatozoïdes
dite sous-fertile afin de les écarter du processus de fécondation.
Les réactions acrosomique spontanées et les réactions acrosomique induites par la zone pellucide vont permettre la libération du
contenu acrosomique et augmenter la concentration extracellulaire de mGX et de hyaluronidase. L’augmentation de la
concentration extracellulaire de mGX et de hyaluronidase va favoriser l’interaction gamétique et permettre la fécondation.
Conclusion générale et perspectives
109
Conclusion générale et perspectives
En conclusion, nous avons montré pour la première fois que la phospholipase A2 secrétée
mGX régule différentes étapes clefs de la fécondation : la mobilité spermatique, la réaction
acrosomique et l’interaction gamétique. Afin de poursuivre cette étude, il faudrait s’attacher à
comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires à la base de ces différentes régulations
physiologiques spermatiques.
L’identification des cibles phospholipidiques et des métabolites produits par la sPLA2 mGX
pourra s’effectuer selon deux méthodes. La première consistera par une analyse des
phospholipides membranaires par TLC-FID (flame-ionization detection). La deuxième
consistera en une analyse lipidomique par HPLC couplée à la spectrométrie de masse afin
d’identifier les métabolites produits. Ces analyses sont très sensibles, elles permettent une
analyse complète de la composition lipidique des membranes (Guiraud, de Lorgeril et al.
2008) ainsi qu’une analyse globale de l’ensemble des lipides produits sur une cellule donnée
(Bollinger, Ii et al. 2009). Nous traiterons les spermatozoïdes purifiés avec la sPLA2 mGX et
identifierons les cibles phospholipidiques spermatiques de mGX ainsi que les différents types
d’acides gras, d’éicosanoïdes et de lysophospholipides produits. L’identification et la
purification de ces métabolites nous permettront par la suite d’établir leurs cibles moléculaires
et leurs mécanismes d’action.
Comme je l’ai expliqué dans la partie introduction, les canaux ioniques sont importants dans
la physiologie du spermatozoïde et contrôlent chaque étape clé : les canaux potassiques, la
capacitation et les canaux calciques, la RA et le battement flagellaire. Ainsi, nous pouvons
envisager que la phospholipase A2 mGX régule la mobilité spermatique via une modification
de la signalisation calcique spermatique par ses métabolites lipidiques.
110
Conclusion générale et perspectives
Bien que le mécanisme de la motilité des spermatozoïdes soit peu connu, il a été montré que
la modification de la balance du calcium par différents mécanismes était très importante. Les
canaux CatSper sont à l’heure actuelle, les acteurs principaux de la signalisation calcique qui
régule la mobilité spermatique. En effet, l’invalidation d’un des 4 gènes de CatSper (CatSper
1, 2, 3 ou 4) chez la souris mâle induit une immobilité flagellaire et une infertilité (Ren,
Navarro et al. 2001; Avidan, Tamary et al. 2003; Carlson, Westenbroek et al. 2003; Lobley,
Pierron et al. 2003; Carlson, Quill et al. 2005; Qi, Moran et al. 2007; Navarro, Kirichok et al.
2008; Carlson, Burnett et al. 2009).
La caractérisation de l’action des métabolites lipidiques de mGX sur le flux calcique Catsper
dépendant est difficile. En effet, les canaux CatSper, bien que clonés, ne permettent pas des
études pharmacologiques par des techniques de réexpression dans des systèmes hétérologues.
De ce fait, il semblerait que des sous-unités essentielles de régulation seraient manquantes
pour que leur expression membranaire soit possible. Seule la technique d’imagerie calcique
sur des spermatozoïdes matures nous permettra de visualiser les vagues calciques induites par
l’activation de ce type de canaux (Ren, Navarro et al. 2001). Ainsi, dans cette optique nous
envisageons de prétraiter les spermatozoïdes matures avec les métabolites lipidiques purifiés
de la sPLA2 mGX et regarder leurs effets sur la vague calcique de CatSper induit par de
l’AMPc (Ren, Navarro et al. 2001).
Cependant, malgré le rôle principal de Catsper dans la mobilité spermatique, on peut aussi
envisager que ces métabolites réguleraient d’autres canaux calciques. Des études
d’immunolocalisations situent les canaux TRPC1, 3, 4 et 6 dans le flagelle du spermatozoïde
(Castellano, Trevino et al. 2003) et l’utilisation d’antagonistes des canaux TRPCs montre que
ces protéines pourraient jouer un rôle dans le contrôle du mouvement flagellaire humain.
Ainsi, il serait intéressant de caractériser l’effet des métabolites lipidiques de mGX sur les
courants calciques des canaux TRPC par la technique de patch clamp et d’imagerie calcique.
L’utilisation de l’imagerie calcique est plus difficile, car on mesure la variation de calcium sur
les spermatozoïdes entiers. Ainsi, nous prétraiterons les spermatozoïdes matures avec les
métabolites lipidiques purifiés de la sPLA2 mGX et regarderons leurs effets sur la vague
calcique de TRPC activée par un outil pharmacologique qui entraîne une vidange des stocks
calciques : la thapsigargine. La thapsigargine, alcaloïde de plante, est un inhibiteur des
pompes Ca2+-ATPases de type SERCA. Ce type de pompe se localise au niveau de la
membrane du réticulum. Le blocage de ces pompes entraîne une fuite passive de calcium hors
du réticulum (le stock calcique est poreux) et aboutit in fine à l’activation des canaux
calciques sensibles à la vidange des stocks (TRPC). Cette activation se traduit par un influx de
calcium dans la cellule. La thapsigargine est appliquée en absence de calcium externe, afin de
mesurer dans un premier temps l’augmentation de calcium cytoplasmique induite par la
vidange du stock. Lorsque la vidange est terminée et que le calcium est retourné à son niveau
basal dans la cellule, le calcium est réintroduit dans le milieu externe. Le signal d’ouverture
des canaux TRPC étant toujours présent (stocks calciques vides), l’influx de calcium est alors
enregistré.
La réaction acrosomique est un processus très régulé, composée de plusieurs étapes. Les
protéines SNAREs y jouent un rôle primordial, elles constituent des étiquettes qui permettent
la reconnaissance mutuelle et le déclenchement de la fusion entre la vésicule acrosomique et
la membrane plasmique du spermatozoïde (Tomes, Michaut et al. 2002; Tomes 2007).
Certaines études ont montré que l’exocytose des vésicules synaptiques pouvait être induite par
l’ajout d’acide gras (De Blas, Michaut et al. 2002; De Blas, Roggero et al. 2005; Darios,
Connell et al. 2007; Davletov, Connell et al. 2007). Ces acides gras permettraient la régulation
d’une protéine SNARE : la syntaxine.
Il existe différentes isoformes de la syntaxine. Une isoforme : la syntaxine 1, est présente dans
les complexes SNAREs spermatiques qui sont impliqués dans la mise en place de la réaction
acrosomique (Tomes, Michaut et al. 2002; Tomes 2007). Nous pouvons, envisager
112
Conclusion générale et perspectives
que les métabolites lipidiques spermatiques produits par la sPLA2 mGX régulent la réaction
acrosomique par une modulation de l’activité des protéines SNAREs spermatiques.
L’étude des voies moléculaires de régulation de l’interaction gamétique par la sPLA2 mGX est
plus difficile à mettre en place. En effet, cette interaction fait intervenir deux cellules
distinctes. De plus, les mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans l’interaction gamétique sont
peu connus. Les connaissances actuelles permettent de savoir qu’ils existent différents
partenaires protéiques tels que : la famille des protéines ADAM, l’intégrine α6β1, la protéine
CD9 et la protéine Izumo.
Pour caractériser les voies moléculaires de régulation de l’interaction gamétique par la sPLA2
mGX, nous envisageons dans un premier temps de confirmer son implication par des
expériences in vitro en évaluant le pourcentage de spermatozoïdes accrochés à la zone
pellucide de l’ovocyte après pré-traitement avec la sPLA2 mGX ou ses métabolites lipidiques.
Et dans un deuxième temps, de regarder si la sPLA2 mGX ou ses métabolites sont capables ou
non de réguler l’interaction gamétique par une interaction directe avec un des partenaires
protéiques, par exemple Izumo par la technique de Pull-Down.
temps de mesurer l’activité des onze sPLA2 présentes, soit au niveau des spermatozoïdes (au
niveau de l’épididyme), soit dans le liquide séminal (avant éjaculation), par une technique
particulièrement sensible d’immuno-essai qu’est la technique TRFIA (Time-Resolved
Fluorescence Immunoassay). Et dans un deuxième temps de tester les sPLA2 les plus
représentatives sur les étapes clés de la physiologie spermatique : La mobilité, la réaction
acrosomique et la fécondation in vitro.
Si les rôles joués par les autres sPLA2 présentes dans le liquide séminal dans la physiologie
spermatique s’avèrent indispensables, une étude du polymorphisme de leur gène au niveau de
patients recrutés dans les laboratoires médicaux de procréation assistée, permettra de mieux
comprendre les causes de l’infertilité masculine et peut-être de pouvoir les traiter.
Nos données démontrent clairement que l'influx de calcium nécessaire lors de la réaction
acrosomique est contrôlé en premier lieu par les deux familles de VDCC, les canaux
dépendants du voltage à bas seuil d’activation Cav3.2 et les canaux dépendants du voltage à
haut seuil d’activation (HVA).
Afin de poursuivre cette étude sur les mécanismes d’activation de la réaction acrosomique, il
faudrait évaluer le rôle des canaux HVA dans le contrôle de la RA. Certains auteurs ont
montré par des techniques immuno-histochimiques qu'il existait une grande variété de canaux
calciques dépendants du voltage, à haut seuil d’activation (CCDV-HS), dans le
spermatozoïde mature, (Wennemuth, Westenbroek et al. 2000). Ainsi, on retrouve au niveau
de la tête du spermatozoïde les canaux Cav1.2, Cav2.1, 2.2 et 2.3. Ces résultats, obtenus par
immuno-histochimie, ne sont pas supportés par l’enregistrement de ces types de canaux
calciques par électrophysiologie. En effet, l’étude des canaux ioniques du spermatozoïde est
rendue complexe par le fait que la technique du patch-clamp n’est pas possible sur les
spermatozoïdes à l’heure actuelle. Une technique alternative consiste à enregistrer les
courants dans les cellules spermatogéniques des testicules. Cette expérience n’a révélé la
114
Conclusion générale et perspectives
Dans l’optique de déterminer l’implication des canaux HVA dans la physiologie spermatique,
des souris ko de Cav1.2 ; Cav2.1, 2.2 et 2.3 ont été élaborées (Jun, Piedras-Renteria et al.
1999; Kim, Jun et al. 2001; Sakata, Saegusa et al. 2001). Ces souris ont permis de mettre en
évidence que les canaux Cav2.1, 2.2 et 2.3 n’étaient pas impliqués dans les mécanismes de
régulation de la physiologie spermatique (Jun, Piedras-Renteria et al. 1999; Kim, Jun et al.
2001; Sakata, Saegusa et al. 2001). Aucune donnée sur l’implication de Cav1.2 dans la
physiologie spermatique n’a pu être obtenue, car le KO Cav1.2 est létal.
Cependant, le rôle putatif de ce canal est renforcé par les résultats qui montrent l’existence
d’une délétion dans les transcrits pour les canaux calciques de type Cav1.x dans les testicules
d’homme infertile avec varicocèles (Benoff, Goodwin et al. 2005).
Il serait souhaitable de mieux appréhender le rôle de ce canal calcique HVA Cav1.2 dans la
physiologie spermatique. Pour cela, nous envisageons une stratégie originale qui consiste à
invalider le gène Cav1.2 dans le temps et dans l’espace avec un système de recombinaison
Cre/Lox P (Barrionuevo, Bagheri-Fam et al. 2006).
Dans un premier temps, on élaborera des souris transgéniques où deux sites lox P seront
insérés de part et d’autre de l’exon du gène de Cav1.2. Dans un second temps, des souris
transgéniques où la Cre recombinase sera placée sous la dépendance d’un promoteur testicule
spécifique de la protamine. Le croisement des souris transgéniques Lox P/ Cav1.2 et
Cre/protamine nous permettra de crée des souris saines où les canaux Cav1.2 seront invalidés
seulement dans les testicules. Ces souris nous permettront d’évaluer l’implication des canaux
Cav1.2 dans le mécanisme de spermatogénèse et la physiologie spermatique.
115
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Résumé
The fall of the world male fertility these last decades became alarming. Thus, a man on
fifteen is subfertile. If the causes of the fall of fertility seem to be mainly related on the
environment and the lifestyle, it is essential to understand all the mechanisms which control
the fertilizing ability of spermatozoon in order to optimize the techniques of procreation
medically assisted. The development of new research orientations, experimental and
theoretical, to identify the subjacent mechanisms of male infertility is essential. In this
context, development of new experimental strategies that is situated this work of thesis.
The strategy that I employed here is research new pharmacological tools starting from
venom of animals by tests of biological activities. This research allowed us to discover a
new regulatory pathway of sperm physiology involving secreted phospholipases A2. Thus,
we showed for the first time that secreted phospholipases A2 regulate four key events of
sperm physiology: Capacitation Acrosome reaction, sperm motility and gamete interaction.