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117

Tire-reinforced earthfill. Part 3: Environmental

assessment
Vince O’Shaughnessy and Vinod K. Garga

Abstract: A reinforced earthfill was constructed using approximately 10 000 scrap tires. Water samples were collected
from a drainage system installed below the tire-reinforced earthfill and analyzed for chemical quality. Additional tests
on water quality were performed in laboratory test columns in which tire chips were embedded in sand or clay to
provide a conservative estimate of the potential release of toxic compounds. Field monitoring of the effluent indicated
that no significant adverse effects on groundwater quality had occurred over a period of 2 years. Laboratory batch tests
performed on tire chips embedded in sand provided evidence of an increase in solution of certain metal elements
which in some cases exceeds their respective drinking-water standards. This increase was attributed to the exposed steel
reinforcement found in the tire chips. The amount of organic compounds leached from the tire chips decreased with the
number of exposure periods or pore volumes flushed through the soil.

Key words: whole scrap tires, water quality, tire chips, field investigation, laboratory lysimeter tests.

Résumé : L’on a construit un remblai armé en utilisant environ 10 000 pneus usés. Des échantillons d’eau prélevés
dans un système de drainage installé sous le remblai armé avec des pneus ont été analysés du point de vue de la
qualité chimique. Des essais additionnels sur la qualité de l’eau ont été réalisés dans des colonnes d’essai en
laboratoire dans lesquelles des grenailles de pneus ont été enfouies dans le sable ou l’argile pour fournir une évaluation
sécuritaire de la décharge potentielle de composés toxiques. Les mesures dans l’effluent sur le terrain ont indiqué qu’il
n’y a eu aucun effet indésirable sur la qualité de l’eau sur une période de 2 ans. Des essais en laboratoire réalisés sur
des lots de grenailles de pneus enfouies dans le sable ont fourni l’évidence qu’il y a eu accroissement dans la solution
de certains éléments métalliques dont certains ont dépassés leur norme respective pour l’eau potable. Cet accroissement
a été attribué à l’armature exposée des grenailles de pneus. La quantité de composés chimiques lessivés dans les
grenailles de pneus a diminué avec le nombre de périodes d’exposition ou de volumes des pores injectés dans le sol.

Mots clés : pneus usés complets, qualité d’eau, grenailles de pneus, étude sur le terrain, essais lysimétriques en
laboratoire.

[Traduit par la Rédaction] O’Shaughnessy and Garga 131

Introduction test fill (Fig. 1). Complementary laboratory lysimeter testing

on tire chips embedded in a laboratory-grade kaolin and
The disposal of scrap tires has become a major environ- clean silica sand were also conducted.
mental concern. It is estimated that the United States alone
discards approximately 250 million scrap tires annually of One of the major concerns in using shredded or whole
which almost 80% are diverted into three major markets: tires in civil engineering applications is the potential for
tire-derived fuel (TDF), civil engineering applications, and harmful substances to leach from the tires. To date, only a
products made from scrap rubber (Blumenthal 1998). If lay- few reports specifically address this concern. Although data
ers of tires, side by side, are filled with soil and tied together from embankments constructed with tire chips are reported,
to make a reinforcing mat, the resulting structure can be there are no published data on water quality from whole tires
used as a retaining wall or reinforced fill and therefore can or tires with one sidewall removed embedded in soil.
provide a practical alternative for the use of this waste mate- Tires are fabricated with vulcanized rubber that contains
rial. To investigate this potential, a test fill approximately reinforcing textile cords, high strength steel or fabric belts,
57 m × 17 m in plan, using 10 000 whole tires or tires with and a high strength steel wire reinforcing bead. The most
one sidewall removed, embedded in sand and a cohesive commonly used tire rubber is styrene–butadiene copolymer
soil, was constructed (Garga and O’Shaughnessy 2000). Wa- (SBR) containing about 25% styrene. Other tire rubbers used
ter-quality sampling was undertaken on the effluent from the are natural rubber (cis-polyisoprene), synthetic cis-
polyisoprene, and cis-polybutadiene. A typical chemical
Received March 10, 1998. Accepted June 17, 1999. composition for tire rubber is provided in Table 1. Carbon
black is added to strengthen the rubber and increase abrasion
V. O’Shaughnessy1 and V.K. Garga. Department of Civil resistance. The extender oil used in fabrication is a mixture
Engineering, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 6N5, of aromatic hydrocarbons that acts to soften the rubber and
Canada. increase its workability. Sulphur is employed to harden the
1 rubber by cross-linking the polymer chains within the rubber
Present address: Inter-Tech Engineering Inc., 251 Bank St.,
Suite 608, Ottawa, ON K2P 1X3, Canada. which prevents high-temperature deformation. The zinc ox-

Can. Geotech. J. 37: 117–131 (2000) © 2000 NRC Canada

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118 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 37, 2000

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the field effluent collection system and a typical cross section of the test embankment.

Table 1. Typical composition of tire rubber (Williams et al. 1990). States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) while
background samples did not. Reported concentrations of so-
Compound Weight (kg) Weight (%) dium and alkalinity exceeded the Ontario drinking water ob-
Rubber polymer (SBR) 6.09 62.1 jectives (ODWO, Ontario Ministry of the Environment and
Carbon black 3.04 31 Energy 1994). The ODWO are more stringent: elements
Extender oil 0.19 1.9 such as barium, chromium, lead, selenium, copper, and alu-
Zinc oxide 0.19 1.9 minum all have lower acceptable concentrations limits when
Stearic acid 0.12 1.2 compared with U.S. EPA standards (Table 3).
Sulphur 0.11 1.1 Investigations by Humphrey et al. (1997) have revealed no
Accelerator 0.07 0.7 significant adverse effects (after 2.5 years) on the water
Total 9.81 9.99 quality from two tire chips fills placed above the groundwa-
ter table. Results of the chemical analysis indicated that tire
chips did not increase the concentration levels of inorganic
ide, stearic acid, and an organo-sulphur accelerator are used elements having a primary drinking water standard (RALs),
to aid in the vulcanization process and enhance the physical such as barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead
properties of rubber (Williams et al. 1990). Antioxidant and (Pb), and selenium (Se). Some evidence suggested that iron
other additives are also added to prevent deterioration of the (Fe) and manganese (Mn), both having an aesthetic drinking
rubber complex. water standard, may under certain conditions exceed their
respective concentration limits. Any organic compounds
leached from the tire chips were below their detection limits.
Summary of previous investigations
Lerner et al. (1993) investigated the potential use of tire
The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) (Twin chips as a drainage bed for domestic septic tanks. Labora-
City Testing Corp. 1990) conducted laboratory leaching tests tory water quality tests, in which tire chips were soaked in
on tires chips subjected to different environmental condi- different environments (various pH and ionic strengths), in-
tions. These tire chips were not embedded in soil. The study dicated that typical rubber compounds such as zinc and
reported that barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, selenium, benzothiazoles were leached from the tire chips regardless of
and zinc are constituents of concern in acidic environments environmental condition. Water samples taken from a pilot
(pH 3.5 to 5), and certain types of hydrocarbons (polynuclear septic drainage bed revealed fewer contaminants. It was rec-
aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs) may be released under basic ommended to soak the tires in open lagoons for a period of
conditions (pH 8.0). 6–12 months, possibly removing many potential toxic com-
Eldin and Senouci (1992) examined the potential environ- pounds. This would render them more acceptable for envi-
mental impact of a test embankment constructed using tire ronmental uses.
chips in Wisconsin by periodic analysis of water specimens Abernethy (1994) conducted toxicity tests on water sam-
collected from two lysimeters placed beneath the fill. The ples in which an automobile tire had been submerged in
chemical analyses of inorganic compounds only indicated 300 L of water. The “tire water” caused 100% mortality of
that chloride, iron, and manganese were occasionally in ex- rainbow trout fry, usually within 48 h. Lethality was not
cess of the regulatory allowable limits (RALs) of the United observed for three other test species (Daphnia magna,
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O’Shaughnessy and Garga 119

Ceriodaphnia, and fathead minnows). The contaminated lines are now available to minimize exothermal reactions in
water samples were analyzed for 143 target compounds. tire shred fills (Whetten et al. 1997).
Only zinc was found, and its concentration was well below It should be noted that the University of Ottawa prototype
the lethal level. Gas chromatography – mass spectrometry test fills and retaining walls have been constructed in a
(GC–MS) analyses were performed to identify nontarget markedly different manner from the cases with tire chips
chemicals. Up to 62 organic compounds were detected, but where an exothermic reaction has occurred. The use of
less than half were identified (a known compound). Bench- whole tires, or tires with one sidewall removed buried in a
top treatments, such as aeration, and the additions of acid, mass of compacted cohesive soil or sand, significantly re-
base, an antioxidant, and a metal-chelating agent did not re- duces, if not eliminates, the supply of free oxygen. Impor-
duce the toxicity of the tire water. However, the addition of tantly, no crumb rubber is generated in the slicing process.
activated carbon completely removed the lethal effects. The The prototype embankment has been hydroseeded, with no
chemical cause(s) of the toxicity to trout remained uncon- sign of any exothermic activity.
firmed.
A more recent study by Abernethy et al. (1996) revealed
that tires placed in a tank of flowing water were nonlethal to Testing program
trout so long as the flow rate was greater than 1.5 L/min per Laboratory and field tests were carried out to identify any
600 L of water volume. The rate of chemical release from potential toxic substances leaching from buried tires. The
tires decreased with each subsequent submersion period and purpose of the investigation was to gather information on the
was attributed to a continuous leaching process which de- short-term (with respect to the service life of these struc-
pleted the tires of leachable chemical substances. Chemical tures) chemical leaching trends as a function of exposure
release may also be inhibited by bacterial growth and any time, soil type, and environmental conditions and evaluate in
compositional changes occurring at the surface of the tire. which medium (if any) they are produced, promoted, or re-
The study also revealed that tires collected from an artificial moved.
reef in Lake Erie were less toxic than scrap tires which were
never exposed to an aquatic environment. It is of interest to
Field monitoring
note that the amount of chemical release from the reef tires
The tire-reinforced earthfill was composed of three inde-
was much less than that from recently discarded tires. A re-
pendent 10 m long sections, each employing a gravity retain-
duction in contaminant levels in water surrounding an
ing wall structure and a reinforced slope. A detailed
aquatic tire structure may occur by such environmental pro-
description is provided by Garga and O’Shaughnessy (2000).
cesses as biodegradation, photolysis, and particle binding.
The three sections were as follows: section A comprised cut
tires (one sidewall removed) filled with sand, section B
Reported exothermic reactions in tire shred fills whole tires filled with sand, and section C cut tires filled
One important environmental concern with the use of rub- with a cohesive soil. A 76 mm diameter perforated pipe was
ber products as fills is the potential for exothermic reaction. installed in the sand drainage blanket, under each section, to
An exothermic reaction is one where heat is released as a re- collect leachate samples as rain water percolates down
sult of chemical or biochemical reaction. In 1995, there were through the tire-reinforced fill. The drain pipe was wrapped
three cases of tire chips fills in the United States which were in a geotextile to prevent clogging and was graded to flow
reported to be smouldering after construction (Humphrey towards the retaining-wall section. The effluent was col-
1996). The three projects are SR 100 in Ilwaco, Washington, lected in three separate wells consisting of a vertical PVC
Falling Springs Road fill in Garfield County, Washington, cylindrical container 150 mm in diameter and approximately
and a retaining-wall project alongside Highway I-70 in Col- 1 m in depth. The top of the well was fitted with a protective
orado. Importantly, in all three cases, the fills were con- cap that could be easily removed during sampling (Fig. 1).
structed entirely of tire chips, where a high proportion of Epoxy was used to assemble all pipes and fittings.
steel belt was exposed in a matrix where crumb rubber was Water samples were collected, periodically, using a hand
sometimes encountered. The upper surfaces of these fills pump. After each sampling period, all three wells were
were provided with a course of soil cover. Hot spots have bailed dry, and therefore samples collected in each well were
also been reported in four stockpiles of tire chips in the composed of water accumulated since the previous sampling
United States. period. The water samples were stored in 1 L HDPE bottles
For ignition to occur, it is essential that an initial exother- and refrigerated to minimize degradation. It should be noted
mic reaction occurs which can raise the temperature above that the wells remained dry during the summer months, and
the ignition point. According to Humphrey (1996), the po- therefore most water samples could be collected only during
tential causes of initial exothermic reaction are oxidation of the spring and fall months.
exposed steel belts and wires, oxidation of rubber, microbes
consuming exposed steel wires or generating acidic condi- Laboratory leaching tests
tions, and microbes consuming liquid petroleum products. Laboratory testing of lysimeter columns with whole or
Humphrey found that in all three cases where an exothermic sliced tires is clearly impractical. The use of tire chips in
reaction was observed, appropriate conditions for oxidation lysimeters provides conservative test results compared with
existed. In some cases, it was the lack of adequate cover those for whole tires because of the larger surface area and,
which minimized availability of free oxygen, while in other in particular, the exposed metal reinforcement. Also, the
cases an exothermic reaction occurred in areas exposed to lysimeters permit a controlled testing environment, in
fertilizer-rich soil or where crumb rubber was found. Guide- contrast to field scenarios. Tests can be conducted at vari-
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120 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 37, 2000

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of the laboratory lysimeter column tests.

ous hydraulic and chemical conditions. In particular, the

Fig. 3. Photograph of tire chips placed within the lysimeter lysimeter columns permit the simulation of seepage over
column. long periods of time, especially in clayey soils. Laboratory
testing consisted of 12 large lysimeter columns 150 mm in
diameter and 400 mm long that were filled with various
mixtures of tire chips and soil, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Soil
and tire chip mixtures were divided into two main groups:
sand and tire chips, and pure kaolinitic clay and tire chips.
Twelve tires collected from an automobile parts recycling
site were cut into 50 mm transverse sections with a band
saw and each of these sections was further cut into four sep-
arate pieces. Typical chip size was 50 mm by 50 mm. The
tire chip content varied typically from 25 to 30% by volume
of the lysimeter chamber (Fig. 3). An outline of the testing
program is given in Table 2. The tire chips were randomly
distributed and hand compacted with a tamping rod. The
weights of soil and tire chips used in each lysimeter are indi-
cated in Table 2.

Sand and tire chips

Four lysimeters filled with 100% quartz sand and tire
chips were exposed to three different initial environmental
conditions: acidic, neutral, and basic. These tests represent
cases where relatively stagnant groundwater (ponding of rain
or snowmelt in surface aquitards) is exposed to automobile
tires for long periods of time. The acidic condition was pro-
vided by a 0.1% solution of sulphuric acid (pH ≈ 3.5) to sim-
ulate the effects of acid rain. The neutral and basic conditions
were provided by distilled water (initial pH of 6.5) and a
0.05% solution of sodium hydroxide (pH ≈ 9.5), respec-
tively. Tire chips and sand were initially washed with dis-
tilled water, and then the tire chips and quartz sand were
flushed with the appropriate leaching medium. The water
was continually circulated by chemical feed pumps to assure
proper mixing. Continuous circulation of the effluent is con-
servative, since it represents batch test conditions and does
not represent boundary conditions in tire-reinforced struc-
tures constructed above the groundwater table. Water sam-
ples were collected in 1 L HDPE bottles at the termination
of the test and were refrigerated to minimize degradation of
the sample. The exposure time, referred to as a leaching cy-
cle, was varied from 90 to 180 days. The testing procedure
was repeated for each leaching cycle using the same tire
chips.
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O’Shaughnessy and Garga 121

Table 2. Outline of the lysimeter testing program.

Test Soil mass Leaching medium Tire chips Tire chips Initial leaching
series Lysimeter cell composition (kg) mass (kg) mass (kg) volume (%) medium
1 Sand + tire chips 7.87 1.98 2.44 30 Distilled water,
pH≈6.5
2 Sand + tire chips (sidewalls only) 8.43 2.12 1.87 25 Acidic, pH≈3.5
(H2SO4)
3 Sand + tire chips 7.86 1.97 2.47 30 Basic, pH≈9.5
(NaOH)
4 Sand + tire chips 7.87 1.98 2.43 30 Acidic, pH≈3.5
(H2SO4)
5 Kaolinite (w = 38.5%, control sample) 9.37 3.53 0.00 0 Distilled water,
pH≈6.5
6 Kaolinite + tire chips (w = 37%) 7.50 2.82 1.64 20 Distilled water,
pH≈6.5
7 Kaolinite (w = 38.5%, control sample) 9.37 3.53 0.00 0 Acidic, pH≈3.5
(H2SO4)
8 Kaolinite + tire chips (w = 37.8%) 7.02 2.65 2.01 25 Acidic, pH≈3.5
(H2SO4)
9 Kaolinite + tire chips (w = 37.8%) 7.03 2.63 2.05 25 Acidic, pH≈3.5
(H2SO4)
10 Kaolinite (w = 37.5%, control sample) 9.12 3.44 0.00 0 Basic, pH≈9.5
(NaOH)
11 Kaolinite + tire chips (w = 37.5%) 6.38 2.41 2.41 30 Basic, pH≈9.5
(NaOH)
12 Kaolinite + tire chips (w = 37.5%) 6.84 2.58 2.00 25 Basic, pH≈9.5
(NaOH)

Clay and tire chips sessments on tire chip fills, particular attention was given to
The eight remaining lysimeters are divided into three iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and zinc (Zn). The inorganic
groups (Table 2). Each group was composed of a standard samples were acidified and filtered. Cation concentrations
test with no tire chips and one or two columns filled with were measured using a Thermo Jarwell Ash Atomic Scan in-
clay and tire chips. Again, each group was subjected to the ductively coupled plasma – atomic emission spectrometer
different leaching mediums (acidic, neutral, basic). The tire (ICP–AES). Anion concentrations were measured using a
chips at known weight per volume of soil were randomly Waters 880 high-pressure liquid chromatograph with con-
placed within the lysimeter cylinder with a mixture of pure ductivity detector. The organic chemical compounds leached
kaolin clay (obtained from Fisher Company Ltd., Colorado). from scrap tires can be classified as arylamines or phenols
The kaolin sample was fabricated by mixing dry clay with and alylated forms. Organic analysis of tire water performed
distilled water. Flushing of the pore water (in the pore space by Abernethy (1994) identified four compounds which were
between the clay particles and tire chips which is occupied found in all samples: aniline, 4-(1-methyl-1-phenylethyl)-
by water) was achieved by placing a source reservoir over phenol, benzothiazole, and 4-(2-benzothiazolythio)-morpholine.
the top of the soil – tire chip column and applying a pneu- The most prevalent compounds were reported to be 2(3H)-
matic pressure of 200 kPa. The source reservoirs were filled benzothiazolone and benzothiazole, which are the probable
with the appropriate initial environmental solution and were stable end products of mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT)
as follows: two (numbers in each group include the stan- formed by methylation, photolysis, and oxidation (Brownlee
dard) with distilled water; three with a 0.1% solution of et al. 1992), and 4-(2-benzothiazolythio)-morpholine, which
sulphuric solution; and three with a 0.05% solution of so- is a common compound used as a delayed-action accelerator
dium hydroxide. The flushed pore water was collected into in rubber processing (Taylor and Son 1982). Therefore,
1 L graduated cylinders at the base of the lysimeter cell. these constituents were selected as target compounds to es-
Samples were analyzed after passing of one pore volume tablish any chemical leaching trends in this investigation. A
(total volume of voids in the soil – tire chip sample). If pos- list of the chemical compounds and parameters of interest
sible, a maximum of five pore volumes for each environmen- for both field and laboratory tests is given in Table 3.
tal cell were tested (five tire water samples were collected
from each environmental cell).
Results
Chemical compounds of interest Field monitoring
Water samples from the field and those collected from Regrettably, no independent control structure was built
lysimeters were analyzed for selected inorganic elements to due to the financial constraints. Hence continuous monitor-
compare them with the requirements of the Ontario drinking ing of background concentration levels of the targeted ele-
water objectives. Based upon published environmental as- ments could not be performed. However, samples of backfill
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122 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 37, 2000

Table 3. A list of the chemical compounds of interest and drinking water regulations.
ODWO concentration U.S. EPA regulatory
Compound ODWO typea limits (mg/L) allowable limits (mg/L)
Inorganic
Alkalinity (as CaCO3) OG 500 na
Aluminum (Al) OG 0.1 0.2
Barium (Ba) MAC 1 2
Cadmium (Cd) MAC 0.005 0.005
Calcium (Ca) na na
Chromium (Cr) MAC 0.05 0.1
Chloride (C1) AO 250 250
Conductivity (as µS) na na
Copper (Cu) AO 1 1.3
Fluoride (F) MAC 1.5 4
Iron (Fe) AO 0.3 0.3
Lead (Pb) MAC 0.01 0.015
Magnesium (Mg) na na
Manganese (Mn) AO 0.05 0.05
pH AO 6.5–8.5 (no units)
Potassium (K) na na
Selenium (Se) MAC 0.01 0.05
Sodium (Na) AO 200 na
Sulphate (SO4) AO 500 250
Zinc (Zn) AO 5 5
Organic
Benzothiazole nl nl
(1,1-dimethylethyl)-2-methoxyphenol nl nl
2,5-dibutylthiophene nl nl
4-(2,2,4-trimethylpentyl)phenol nl nl
2(3H)-Benzothiazolone nl nl
4-(2-benzothiazolythio)morpholine nl nl
Note: na, not applicable; nl, parameter not listed.
a
MAC, maximum acceptable concentration; AO, aesthetic objective; OG, operational guidelines.

material were tested in the laboratory to measure the back- hesive soil section C was dry most of the time. Indeed, all
ground concentrations which could potentially be leached. wells remained dry during the summer months. Also, the
The results are presented in Table 4. Several samples of both presence of a final 2 m surcharge of clay fill on the tire-
soil types were taken from their respective stockpiles at vari- reinforced earthfill acts as a hydraulic barrier and therefore
ous times during the construction of the prototype embank- limits infiltration into the structure. The amount of seepage
ment, and 100 mL of distilled water was added to 50 g of through the test fill was not monitored. It was not the intent
dry soil. The mixture was vigorously stirred for a period of of this investigation to monitor any seepage due to rainfall
24 h. The supernatant was filtered and analyzed for the ap- on a continuous basis. Rather, testing was carried out to as-
propriate chemical compounds. There are certain limitations certain if any toxic compounds were leached out. The results
to this procedure: it cannot duplicate field environmental indicate that barium (Ba), chromium (Cr), selenium (Se),
conditions such as temperature and biological activity, and and fluoride (F) elements, having maximum acceptable con-
dilution may result in certain compounds being below their centration (MAC2) limits, were present in trace amounts or
detection limits. Furthermore, the procedure does not moni- were below their detection limits. The results were similar to
tor the progressive leaching of constituents with time and those reported in the background analysis (Table 4). The de-
(or) dilution by infiltration. Nonetheless, results do indicate tection limits of lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), and cadmium
that selenium, with concentrations ranging between 0.012 (Cd) in section A of the test fill and lead and chromium in
and 0.014 mg/L, was the only compound of interest which section B were above their respective drinking water con-
exceeded the ODWO. All others were either below detection centration limits for the water samples collected 3 months
limits or below their respective allowable concentration lim- after completion of the test embankment. Due to the lack of
its. a control structure, it is difficult to ascertain if this single
Results of the chemical analysis performed on water sam- peak event originated from compounds having been leached
ples collected from each well at the test fill site are given in from the tires or from the fill, or from the construction site
Tables 5–7. The well located to collect effluent from the co- itself, or if it is simply a testing error. However, the high
2
Concentrations above this level have been known to, or are suspected to, produce adverse health effects.

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O’Shaughnessy and Garga 123

Table 4. Background concentrations of the pore water for both sand and cohesive soil.
Inorganic elements and organic Detection limits Sand Cohesive soil
compounds (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
Barium (Ba) 0.001 0.021 0.009
Cadmium (Cd) 0.0005 <0.0005 <0.0005
Chromium (Cr) 0.004 <0.004 <0.004
Lead (Pb) 0.004 <0.004 <0.004
Selenium (Se) 0.01 0.012 0.014
Fluoride (F) 0.5 <0.5 <0.5
Manganese (Mn) 0.004 0.054 0.014
Iron (Fe) 0.003 <0.003 <0.003
Zinc (Zn) 0.04 <0.4 <0.4
Copper (Cu) 0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Sodium (Na) 0.02 10.5 13.6
Chloride (CI) 1.5 2.1
Sulphate (SO4) 14.3 18.8
pH (no units) nd nd
Aluminum (Al) 0.002 0.064 0.049
Calcium (Ca) 0.005 18.7 31.8
Magnesium (Mg) 0.002 3.2 15.7
Potassium (K) 0.02 3.3 4.1
Alkalinity (as CaCO3) nd nd
Conductivity (as µS) nd nd
Benzothiazole 0.001 zd zd
(1,1-dimethylethyl)-2-methoxyphenol 0.001 zd zd
2,5-dibutylthiophene 0.001 zd zd
4-(2,2,4-trimethylpentyl)phenol 0.001 zd zd
2(3H)-Benzothiazolone 0.001 zd zd
4-(2-benzothiazolythio)morpholine 0.001 zd zd
Note: nd, not determined; zd, zero detected.

concentrations of lead, cadmium, and chromium suggest that whole or cut tires would severely limit the amount of
these are anomalous results and are believed to be caused by exposed steel reinforcement. Also, the tire rubber would
testing inaccuracies, since lead, chromium, and cadmium protect the mild steel reinforcement from corroding (AB-
were below their detection limits in all the other samples Malek and Stevenson 1986). This is evident by the low con-
tested. Also, investigations by Eldin and Senouci (1992) and centration levels of metals (with the exception of observa-
Humphrey et al. (1997) on the water quality from tire chip tion in one collection period) which were similar to or below
fills placed above the groundwater table indicated that none the measured background levels for both sand and cohesive
of the contaminants having a MAC designation exceeded fills. It is interesting to note that higher levels of manganese
their regulatory limits. The concentrations of these elements and aluminum concentrations were released from both back-
in solution were generally found to be below their respective fill soils used in the field experiment prior to being exposed
detection limits. to tires (Table 4). Thus, for future investigations, it may be
Inorganic elements having an aesthetic objective (AO), in- critical to establish control wells to distinguish background
cluding iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), levels from those obtained from leachate from buried tire
sodium (Na), chloride (Cl), and sulphate (SO4), were all be- structures. Evidence collected so far indicates that the
low the applicable limits except for iron, manganese, and amount of inorganic elements capable of being leached out
aluminum concentrations for one sampling period 3 months of engineered soil structures using whole or cut tires will be
after the beginning of field monitoring in both sand sections. insignificant.
These peak concentration levels are possibly due to testing The concentration levels of the targeted organic compounds
inaccuracies, as stated earlier. None of the elements sur- from all field monitoring wells were below the test method
passed the ODWO in the limited number of samples ob- detection limits with the exception of one compound, 4-(2-
tained from the cohesive fill section. benzothiazolythio)morpholine, which was detected twice in
Previous research shows that tire chips in road embank- the well located in section B (whole tires in sand). However,
ments can account for the increase in iron, manganese, and these concentrations were significantly below levels mea-
aluminum concentrations, exceeding the ODWO limits in sured in the laboratory lysimeter tests. The presence of 4-(2-
the surrounding groundwater (Eldin and Senouci 1992; benzothiazolythio)morpholine indicates that leaching of
Humphrey et al. 1997). The increase of such metals is attrib- some organic compounds from tires placed above the water
uted to the large amounts of exposed steel reinforcements as table may occur. The presence of this compound could have
a result of tire shredding. In contrast, engineered fills using resulted from the exposed tire face of the retaining wall

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Table 5. Water-quality results of the effluent collected from section A.

Detection Regulatory Sampling date

Inorganic elements and organic limits limits, ODWO 1994– 1994– 1995– 1995– 1995– 1996– 1996– 1996–
compounds (mg/L) (mg/L) 09–16 11–20 06–08 10–03 11–06 05–04 06–17 08–14
Barium (Ba) 0.001 1 0.041 0.086 0.028 0.055 0.037 0.018 0.015 0.035
Cadmium (Cd) 0.0005 0.005 <0.0005 0.02 <0.0005 <0.0005 <0.0005 <0.0005 <0.0005 <0.0005
Chromium (Cr) 0.004 0.05 nd 0.13 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004
Lead (Pb) 0.004 0.01 <0.004 1.3 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004
Selenium (Se) 0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 0.01
Fluoride (F) 0.5 1.5 0.177 nd 0.287 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5
Manganese (Mn) 0.004 0.04 <0.004 0.18 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004
Iron (Fe) 0.003 0.3 <0.003 0.93 <0.003 <0.003 <0.003 0.05 0.044 0.067
Zinc (Zn) 0.04 5 0.013 0.44 0.002 0.086 <0.04 0.13 0.14 0.14
Copper (Cu) 0.001 1 0.003 0.34 0.007 0.11 0.052 0.003 <0.001 <0.001
Sodium (Na) 0.02 200 13 24 8.4 7.8 6.6 5 1.4 <0.02
Chloride (Cl) 250 3.1 nd 1.8 nr nr 9.3 1.9 3.3
Sulphate (SO4) 500 60.9 nd 16.3 nr nr 4.8 4.5 11.2
pH (no units) 6.5–8.5 7.1 6.7 6.3 6.8 7.1 7.4 7.2 7.2
Aluminum (Al) 0.002 0.1 0.007 0.76 0.002 0.021 0.03 0.005 0.063 0.025
Calcium (Ca) 0.005 na 87 82 53 81 62 53 53 63
Magnesium (Mg) 0.002 na 18 16 18 20 15 10 9 11
Potassium (K) 0.02 na 2.4 2.7 1.9 2.9 1.1 7 7.2 8.9
Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 500 246 323 246 340 262 154 354 92
Conductivity (as µS) na 460 600 480 626 340 258 340 390
Benzothiazole 0.001 nl zd zd zd zd zd zd zd zd
(1,1-dimethylethyl)-2-methoxyphenol 0.001 nl zd zd zd zd zd zd zd zd
2,5-dibutylthiophene 0.001 nl zd zd zd zd zd zd zd zd
4-(2,2,4-trimethylpentyl)phenol 0.001 nl zd zd zd zd zd zd zd zd
2(3H)-Benzothiazolone 0.001 nl zd zd zd zd zd zd zd zd
4-(2-benzothiazolythio)morpholine 0.001 nl zd zd zd zd zd zd zd zd

Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 37, 2000

Note: Concentrations are in mg/L unless stated otherwise. na, not applicable; nd, not determined; nl, parameter not listed; nr, not reported; zd, zero detected.
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Table 6. Water-quality results of the effluent collected from section B.

Detection Regulatory Sampling date

Inorganic elements and organic limits limits, ODWO 1994– 1995– 1995– 1995– 1995– 1996– 1996– 1996–
compounds (mg/L) (mg/L) 09–16 11–20 06–08 10–03 11–06 05–04 06–17a 08–14
Barium (Ba) 0.001 1 0.019 0.057 0.022 0.032 0.023 0.017 0.021
Cadmium (Cd) 0.0005 0.005 <0.0005 <0.0005 <0.0005 <0.0005 <0.0005 <0.0005 <0.0005
Chromium (Cr) 0.004 0.05 nd 0.012 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004
Lead (Pb) 0.004 0.01 <0.004 0.022 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004
Selenium (Se) 0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.019
Fluoride (F) 0.5 1.5 0.84 nd 0.287 <0.5 <0.5 0.57 <0.5
Manganese (Mn) 0.004 0.05 0.004 0.078 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004
Iron (Fe) 0.003 0.3 <0.003 2.7 <0.003 <0.003 <0.003 <0.003 0.037
Zinc (Zn) 0.04 5 0.008 0.15 <0.04 <0.04 <0.04 0.036 0.19
Copper (Cu) 0.001 1 0.003 0.11 0.005 0.012 0.023 0.014 0.038
Sodium (Na) 0.02 200 17 32 26 23 17 15 13
Chloride (Cl) 250 3.2 nd 2.5 nr nr 5.5 3.1
Sulphate (SO4) 500 100 nd 94.5 nr nr 22.1 13.9
pH (no units) 6.5–8.5 6.8 7.4 6.8 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.4
Aluminum (Al) 0.002 0.1 0.019 1.6 0.002 0.017 0.026 0.013 0.015
Calcium (Ca) 0.005 na 63 75 52 79 60 79 81
Magnesium (Mg) 0.002 na 24 36 45 35 28 34 34
Potassium (K) 0.02 na 1.9 3.7 2.2 2.9 1.3 7 7
Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 500 184 308 354 400 08 262 400
Conductivity (as µS) na 450 740 775 711 498 758 588
Benzothiazole 0.001 nl zd zd zd zd zd zd zd
(1,1-dimethylethyl)-2-methoxyphenol 0.001 nl zd zd zd zd zd zd zd
2,5-dibutylthiophene 0.001 nl zd zd zd zd zd zd zd
4-(2,2,4-trimethylpentyl)phenol 0.001 nl zd zd zd zd zd zd zd
2(3H)-Benzothiazolone 0.001 nl zd zd zd zd zd zd zd
4-(2-benzothiazolythio)morpholine 0.001 nl zd zd zd 0.017 zd 0.002 zd
Note: Concentrations are in mg/L unless stated otherwise. Abbreviations as in Table 5.
a
Dry well.
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Table 7. Water-quality results of the effluent collected from section C.
Sampling date
Detection Regulatory
Inorganic elements and organic limits limits, ODWO 1994– 1994– 1995– 1995– 1995– 1996–05– 1996– 1996–
compounds (mg/L) (mg/L) 09–16 11–20a 06–08 10–03a 11–06a 04 06–17a 08–14a
Barium (Ba) 0.001 1 0.031 0.086 0.024
Cadmium (Cd) 0.0005 0.005 <0.0005 <0.0005 <0.0005
Chromium (Cr) 0.004 0.05 nd <0.004 <0.004
Lead (Pb) 0.004 0.01 <0.004 <0.004 <0.004
Selenium (Se) 0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Fluoride (F) 0.5 1.5 0.64 nd 0.59
Manganese (Mn) 0.004 0.05 >0.2 0.036 <0.004
Iron (Fe) 0.003 0.3 <0.003 <0.003 <0.003
Zinc (Zn) 0.04 5 0.038 <0.04 0.045
Copper (Cu) 0.001 1 0.004 0.005 0.016
Sodium (Na) 0.02 200 33 32 31
Chloride (Cl) 250 22.6 nd 8.4
Sulphate (SO4) 500 106 nd 47
pH (no units) 6.5–8.5 6.6 6 7.6
Aluminum (Al) 0.002 0.1 0.007 0.002 0.002
Calcium (Ca) 0.005 na 78 71 80
Magnesium (Mg) 0.002 na 24 36 35
Potassium (K) 0.02 na 2.3 6.3 7
Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 500 292 231 310
Conductivity (as µS) na 550 220 540
Benzothiazole 0.001 nl zd zd zd
(1,1-dimethylethyl)-2-methoxyphenol 0.001 nl zd zd zd
2,5-dibutylthiophene 0.001 nl zd zd zd
4-(2,2,4-trimethylpentyl)phenol 0.001 nl zd zd zd
2(3H)-Benzothiazolone 0.001 nl zd zd zd
4-(2-benzothiazolythio)morpholine 0.001 nl zd zd zd

Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 37, 2000

Note: Concentrations are in mg/L unless stated otherwise. Abbreviations as in Table 5.
a
Dry well.
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O’Shaughnessy and Garga 127

Table 8. Chemical composition of Unimin sand. Fig. 5. The variation in aluminum (Al) concentration as a func-
tion of the leaching cycle and environment: quartz sand series.
Chemical compound Mean percent by weight OG, operational guideline (Ontario drinking water objectives).
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 99.710
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.050
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 0.072
Calcium oxide (CaO) 0.010
Titanium oxide (TiO2) 0.006
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 0.019
Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.030
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.006
Loss on ignition 0.096

Fig. 4. The variation in iron (Fe) concentration as a function of

the leaching cycle and environment: quartz sand series.

exposure time represents a single leaching cycle) for the

four different simulated environments and testing conditions
is shown in Fig. 4. The iron concentration generally ex-
ceeded the drinking standard limits. However, Fe levels fell
below the designated AO limit for all test environments after
a cumulated exposure time of 400 days. The decrease in sol-
uble iron concentration levels is associated with the forma-
tion of rust (Fe2O3) which precipitated out of solution. The
acidic environment promoted the oxidation of the exposed
steel elements, thus decreasing the available iron for each
subsequent leaching cycle. This may explain why soluble
iron was only found in the basic environment after the sec-
ond leaching cycle (130 days). It should be noted that in
which was subject to ultraviolet breakdown. The placement each consecutive leaching cycle the leaching medium was
of a protective facing, such as shotcrete or panel facing, totally replaced, thereby removing all soluble elements in
could eliminate this potential problem. No organic com- that test. In addition, cutting of a whole tire by a band saw
pounds were detected in the other two wells. However, it is instead of a shredder produced tire chips having a smaller
possible that the measured levels of 4-(2-benzothiazoly- number of exposed steel reinforcement wires. A large
thio)morpholine may also have originated from contami- amount of rust aggregate, a mixture of rust and sand parti-
nated hydrocarbons at the construction site. The test cles, was observed to have been formed around the exposed
embankment was built on land currently being used for auto- steel reinforcing elements in the tire chips and seems to have
mobile parts recycling. Humphrey et al. (1997) also reported slowed the leaching process. This rust aggregate was re-
that no measurable levels of organic compounds were found moved after the second leaching cycle and may explain the
in tire chip fills placed above the groundwater table. These increase in measurable Fe after the end of the third leaching
fills were monitored for a period of over 2 years. The impact cycle.
of leachable organics from buried tires on the environmental A trend similar to that for iron concentration was also ob-
is still unknown. served for aluminum levels (Fig. 5). After the second leach-
ing cycle (an exposure time of 130 days), the tire chips were
Laboratory tests on tire chips embedded in sand cleaned using distilled water and the rust aggregates were re-
The tire chips were embedded in a Unimin No. 2075 sand moved. This cleaning process exposed fresh steel reinforce-
manufactured by Unimin Canada Inc. This sand is composed ments which may have produced the increase in Al
of 99.71% quartz (SiO2), which is considered inert (except concentrations in the neutral and acidic conditions for the
when exposed to hydrofluoric acid). Results of chemical final batch test of 180 days. Manganese concentration levels
analysis on this sand are shown in Table 8. In view of these were generally above the acceptable concentration limits
results, the determination of leachate characteristics from except for tire chips placed in the basic environment
sand alone was not deemed to be necessary. Thus, the only (Fig. 6), indicating that manganese is more readily leached
source of the targeted compounds is the tire chips them- from the steel reinforcement under neutral or acidic condi-
selves. All targeted elements having a MAC designation (Ba, tions. Unlike iron, manganese being more soluble did not
Cd, Cr, F, Pb, Se) were below their respective detection lim- form a visible precipitate. The concentration levels of zinc in
its or their concentration levels were insignificant. The varia- all environments were below the AO designated limit. Zinc
tion in iron concentration with exposure time (note that each was easier to leach out of the tire chips under a basic condition
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128 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 37, 2000

Fig. 6. The variation in manganese (Mn) concentration as a func- Fig. 8. The variation in benzothiazole concentration as a function
tion of the leaching cycle and environment: quartz sand series. of the leaching cycle and environment: quartz sand series.

Fig. 7. The variation in zinc (Zn) concentration as a function of Fig. 9. The variation in 2(3H)-benzothiazolone concentration as a
the leaching cycle and environment: quartz sand series. function of the leaching cycle and environment: quartz sand series.

(Fig. 7). The long-term potential for zinc in leaching out of Also, the investigations carried out in the present research
the tire rubber is a concern, since zinc oxide is used in the indicate that the rubber tended to neutralize the leaching me-
vulcanization process to produce tire rubber and is responsi- dium. The pH measurements after the completion of a leach-
ble for approximately 2% of the total weight of the tire (Ta- ing cycle in the lysimeters indicated that both the initial
ble 1). Lysimeter test results indicate that it may be acidic medium and the basic medium were neutralized.
beneficial to mix the tire chips and the soil together to form Benzothiazole concentration decreased with the number
a composite material. The presence of a soil within the tire of washes and exposure time except for test series 2 in
chip matrix may reduce leaching of inorganic elements. which chips obtained from tire sidewalls only were placed in
The tire chips used in earth fills, under appropriate condi- an acidic environment (Fig. 8). Minimum leaching of benzo-
tions, would increase the concentration of iron, aluminum, thiazole occurred in the neutral environment. The basic envi-
zinc, and manganese in the surrounding groundwater. This ronment promoted the release of this organic compound;
finding is consistent with studies of water-quality monitoring however, there was a marked decrease in concentration after
of tire chip embankments placed above the groundwater ta- the second leaching cycle. The 2(3H)-benzothiazolone and
ble (Eldin and Senouci 1992; Humphrey et al. 1997). As in- phenol compounds disappeared after the second leaching cy-
dicated in the reported field study, this increase is generally cle, as shown in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively. Again, the
associated with the high number of exposed steel reinforce- release of the phenol compound was promoted under basic
ment wires. However, engineered soil structures using whole conditions. The 2(3H)-benzothiazolone was not leached for
tires would have a lower impact on the water quality, since the tire chips subjected to a neutral environment. 4-(2-Ben-
the steel reinforcement is not exposed and the rubber layer zothiazolythio)morpholine was the only target compound to
would protect the mild steel reinforcement from corroding show a steady increase in concentration levels, in all four
(AB-Malek and Stevenson 1986). This analogy is consistent test series, with increasing exposure time (Fig. 11). This
with results obtained from the field monitoring program. trend may indicate that 4-(2-benzothiazolythio)morpholine is
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O’Shaughnessy and Garga 129

Fig. 10. The variation in (1,1-diethylethyl)-2-methoxyphenol con- Fig. 12. The variation in Al and Mn concentrations as a function
centration as a function of the leaching cycle and environment: of leaching environments and pore-volume flushes: kaolin clay
quartz sand series. series.

Fig. 11. The variation in 4-(2-benzothiazolythio)-morpholine con- merged in 24 m of seawater for a period of 42 years. The
centration as a function of the leaching cycle and environment: amount of water absorbed into the tire rubber was minimal,
quartz sand series. only 4.7%. The limited amount of water adsorption was at-
tributed to the formation of a thin surface layer (0.05 mm) of
an iron base material. This thin layer may inhibit the release
of organic compounds. Also, the growth of bacteria on the
surface of submerged tires may also reduce the amount of
chemicals released (Arbernethy et al. 1996). Alternatively,
the chemical composition at the tire surface can be altered
over time which can modify the chemical release of organic
compounds.

Laboratory tests on tire chips embedded in clay

The chemical composition of the kaolin clay is given in
Table 9. All test series demonstrated that the inorganic target
elements were either below their respective concentration
limits or below the concentration levels found in the control
samples. For example, variations in Al concentrations,
leached under acidic conditions, and Mn concentrations,
leached under basic conditions, are provided in Fig. 12. The
variation in the organic compound concentrations for tire
a more stable end byproduct of the leaching process. This chips embedded in the kaolin clay subject to a neutral envi-
may also explain why it was the only organic compound to ronment is shown in Fig. 12. The release of benzothiazole
be detected during field monitoring. and 2(3H)-benzothiazolone was minimal and fell to zero af-
The total amount of chemicals released from the tire ter two pore volumes of flushing. The 4-(2-
chips, independent of the leaching environment, decreased benzothiazolythio)morpholine had the highest peak concen-
with the number of leaching cycles and increased exposure tration after two pore volumes but disappeared after three
time, with the possible exception of 4-(2-benzothiazoly- pore volumes. The phenol compound showed an increase in
thio)morpholine compound. Abernethy et al. (1996) also re- concentration with an increase in the number of pore vol-
ported that the rate of chemical release decreased during umes of flushing. However, the low concentrations of tar-
each tire submersion period. The decrease in the rate of geted compounds make it difficult to determine if the
chemical release could be attributed to several factors. There variation in concentrations with each pore volume passed is
is only a limited amount of leachable material found at the a true leaching pattern or an artifact of testing variability.
surface of the tire rubber. Leaching of the contaminants is The amount of chemical release was much less than that
probably limited to the tire surface, since water (the leaching associated with tire chips embedded in sand. The chemical-
medium) is essentially unable to penetrate the impervious release trends for tire chips embedded in clay under neutral,
tire rubber, and therefore depletion of the available com- acidic, and basic conditions are presented in Figs. 13, 14,
pounds would occur only at the initial stages and over a and 15, respectively. In all tests, a consistent chemical trend
short time period. AB-Malek and Stevenson (1986) studied was observed. The concentration of the target compound
the physical condition of vulcanized natural rubber sub- would reach a maximum level and then would begin to

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130 Can. Geotech. J. Vol. 37, 2000

Table 9. Fisher kaolinite components. Fig. 14. The variation in organic compound concentrations
leached from tire chips embedded in a kaolin clay subjected to
Element (ppm) an acidic environment: test series 9.
Ba 49
Ce 92
Co 4
Cr 183
La 62
Nb 28
Nd 48
Ni 20
Pb 30
Rb 12
Sr 59
Th 28
V 158
Y 16
Zn 788
Zr 110
Compound (wt.%)
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 44.92 Fig. 15. The variation in organic compound concentrations
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 38.25 leached from tire chips embedded in a kaolin clay subjected to a
Titanium oxide (TiO2) 1.71 basic environment: test series 11.
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.54
Phosphorous oxide (P2O5) 0.29
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.25
Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.06
Calcium oxide (CaO) 0.01

Fig. 13. The variation in organic compound concentrations

leached from tire chips embedded in a kaolin clay subjected to a
neutral environment: test series 6.

Conclusions
Field monitoring of the prototype test embankment con-
structed with tires above the water table indicates that insig-
nificant adverse effects on groundwater quality had occurred
over a period of 2 years. Targeted inorganic elements having
an MAC designation, including barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd),
chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), selenium (Se), and fluoride (F),
were all well below their respective concentration limits.
decrease with increasing number of pore volumes, or would The analyses for elements having a designated AO, includ-
disappear altogether. The amount of chemicals leached from ing manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn),
tire chips embedded in clay was generally less than that as- sodium (Na), chloride (Cl), and sulphate (SO4), were also
sociated with tire chips embedded in sand. This leaching well below their respective concentration limits. In this
trend could be the result of the clay soil covering the tire investigation, only one target organic compound, namely 4-
chip surface which would limit the amount of surface area (2-benzothiazolythio)morpholine, was detected in one of
exposed to the leaching medium. Also, these chemical com- three test sections and in two of seven sampling events.
pounds could be absorbed by the clay particles, restricting Laboratory lysimeter tests performed on tire chips embedded
their movement. The release of organic compounds from a in inert Unimin quartz sand provided evidence of an increase
saturated clay medium will be strongly time dependent. in aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and manganese (Mn)

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O’Shaughnessy and Garga 131

concentrations which, with the exception of zinc, exceed Branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Energy, To-
their respective drinking water standards. The increase in ronto.
aluminum, iron, and manganese was attributed to the ex- AB-Malek, K., and Stevenson, A. 1986. The effects of 42 years
posed steel reinforcements in the tire chips. The use of tire immersion in sea water on natural rubber. Journal of Material
chips provides a conservative estimate for fills reinforced Sciences, 21: 147–154.
with whole tires, since the latter case provides limited expo- Blumenthal, M. 1998. Scrap tire market development: the impact
sure of steel reinforcement and affords additional protection of state programs. Resource Recycling, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 15–
by the rubberized cover. All inorganic target elements were 19.
Brownlee, B.G., Carey, J.H., MacInnis, G.A., and Pellizzari, I.T.
below detection limits or background levels for tire chips
1992. Aquatic environmental chemistry of 2-(thiocyano-
embedded in a commercially processed kaolin clay.
methylthio) benzothiazole and related benzothiazoles. Environ-
The amount of organic compounds leached from the tire mental Toxicology and Chemistry, 11: 1153–1168.
chips decreased with the number of exposure periods or pore Eldin, N.N., and Senouci, A.B. 1992. Use of scrap tires in road
volumes flushed through the soil, with the exception of one construction. Journal of Construction Engineering and Manage-
compound in one test performed on leachate collected from ment, ASCE, 118(3): 561–576.
tire chips embedded in sand. Consequently, the probability Garga, V.K., and O’Shaughnessy, V. 2000. Tire-reinforced earthfill.
of release of any toxicant is higher when using newly dis- Part 1: Construction of a test fill, performance, and retaining
carded tires. Tire-reinforced earth structures should be built wall design. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 37: 75–96.
using scrap tires which have been stockpiled or have been Humphrey, D.N. 1996. Investigation of exothermic reaction in the
used for some time and should ideally be placed above the shred fill located on SR 100 in Ilwaco, Washington. Federal
permanent groundwater table. Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation,
Environmental considerations would indicate that the use Washington, D.C.
of whole tires or tires with one sidewall removed embedded Humphrey, D.N., Katz, E.L., and Blumenthal, M. 1997. Water
in soil may be preferable to the use of tire chips because the quality effects of tire chips fills placed above the groundwater
release of metals is inhibited by the protective rubber cover. table. In Testing soil mixed with waste or recycled materials.
Edited by M.A. Wasemiller and K.B. Hoddinott. American Soci-
There is no evidence of an exothermal reaction having taken
ety for Testing and Materials, Special Technical Report 1275,
place in the prototype tire-reinforced embankment.
pp. 299–313.
Lerner, A., Naugle, A., LaForest, J., and Loomis, W. 1993. Study
of waste tire leachability in potential disposal and usage envi-
Acknowledgements ronments. Amended volume 1: final report. Department of Envi-
ronmental Engineering Sciences, College of Engineering,
The authors acknowledge the Waste Reduction Branch, University of Florida, Gainesville.
Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Energy, for finan- Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Energy. 1994. Ontario
cial support through a research agreement with the second drinking water objectives. Revised edition. Ontario Ministry of
author to study the use of scrap tires in embankments and re- the Environment and Energy, Report ISBN 0-7743-8985-0.
taining walls. Taylor, R., and Son, P.N. 1982. Rubber chemicals. In Kirk-Othmer
encyclopedia of environmental chemistry. Vol. 20. 3rd ed.. John
Wiley and Sons Inc., Toronto, pp. 337–364.
Twin City Testing Corp. 1990. Environmental study of the use of
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the Groundwater and Solid Waste Division, Minnesota Pollution
Abernethy, S. 1994. The acute lethality to rainbow trout of water Control Agency by Twin City Testing Corp., St. Paul, Minn.
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0, Aquatic Toxicology Section, Standards Development Branch, Rubber meets the road in Maine. Civil Engineering, 67(9): 60–
Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Energy, Toronto. 63.
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