SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING  Pollen – rich in nutrients – tablets, syrups –

PLANTS good for athletes, race horses

 Pistil – ovary, style, stigma
Diagrams: Fig. 2.1 - L S of Flower, Fig 2.2 (a) - Stamen,  Megasporangium (Ovule)
Fig 2.3 (a) & (b) – Section of anther Funicle – stalk
 Structure of Stamen – Anther & Filament, Fig Hilum – junction of ovule and funicle
2.2 (a) Integuments – 2 protective layers
 Anther – bilobed – 2 lobes Micropyle – opening
 Each lobe – dithecous – 2 theca Chalaza – basal part
 Anther has 4 microsporangia – becomes pollen Nucellus – covers embryo sac
sacs Embryo sac – 8 cells
 Structure of microsporangium/ 3 antipodals
Microsporogenesis 2 polar nuclei
Microsporangium 1 egg
2 synergids
Outer layer Inner layer  Megasporogenesis
Megasporangium
Wall layer Sporogenous layer
Epidermis Mitosis Inner layer Outer layer
Endothecium MMC/ PMC
Middle layer Meiosis Sporogenous layer Wall layer
Tapetum Microspores Only One
MMC (Megaspore mother cell)
Pollen grains Meiosis
 MMC – Microspore Mother Cell 4 megaspores
 PMC – Pollen Mother Cell 3 degenerate
 Diagram 1 functional
 Structure of Pollen grain 3 Mitosis
Outer cell wall – Exine – Sporopollenin 3 antipodals
Pollen grain 2 polar nuclei
Inner cell wall – Intine – Cellulose 1 egg
 Germ pore – exine absent – pollen tube grows 2 synergids
Generative cell – 2 male gametes  8 celled 7 nucleate stage – central cell
 2 cells (3 celled stage)  Diagram Pollen grains
Vegetative cell – tube nucleus  Pollination – Stamen Stigma
 Diagram  Types of pollination
 Pollen grain – preserved as fossils 1. Autogamy – pollen grains – stamen to stigma –
Exine – Sporopollenin between same flower
Not destroyed by 2. Geitonogamy – pollen grains – stamen to
stigma – between 2 flowers of same plant
Enzyme pH temperature 3. Xenogamy – pollen grains – stamen to stigma –
 Pollen causes – allergy, asthma, bronchitis Eg: between 2 flowers of 2 plants
Carrot grass  Xenogamy/ Allogamy/ Cross pollination
 Chasmogamous flower Cleistogamous flower  Pollen robbers – eat pollen, do not do pollination
1. Open 1. Closed  Outbreeding devices
2. Geitonogamy, 2. Autogamy  Devices in plants, supports cross pollination,
Xenogamy discourage self pollination
3. Variation 3. Retain parental  Self pollination – results in inbreeding
(advantage) feature (advantage) depression.
Eg: Viola, Oxalis, Commelina 1. Stigma and anther at different positions
 Agents of Pollination 2. Pollen release and stigma receptive at different
 Wind – anemophily times
 Water – hydrophily 3. Self-incompatibility – prevents self-pollen to
 Insect – entomophily (bees, butterflies, fertilise
wasps, ants, moths) a) Prevent pollen germination
 Birds – ornithophily b) Prevents growth of pollen tube
 Animals – zoophily (lemur, rodents, gecko c) De-orient pollen tube
lizard, garden lizard) 4. Produce unisexual flowers
 Wind pollinated (Anemophilous) flowers a) Dioecious – prevent autogamy and
 Pollen grains – light, non-sticky, large number geitonogamy, favour cross pollination
 Stamens – well exposed, large (Xenogamy). Eg: Papaya
 Stigma – feathery – trap pollen, sticky b) Monoecious – prevent only autogamy not
 Flower – not colourful, no nectar, single ovule, geitonogamy, favour cross pollination
inflorescence. Eg: Corn cob – tassels – stigma Eg: Castor, Maize
and style  Pollen pistil interaction
 Water pollinated (Hydrophilous) flowers  Events from pollen deposition, pollen tube
 Monocots, bryophytes, Pteridophytes growth, tube entering ovule.
 Flowers – no nectar, not colourful  Filiform apparatus guides pollen tube
 Vallisneria – pollen released to water surface,  If pollen is wrong type – pistil rejects
reach stigma of female flower (long stalk), by  If pollen is right type – germinates
water currents.  Artificial hybridization
 Sea grass/ Zostera – long, ribbon like pollen  Emasculation – male part removed from
grains released inside water, reach female bisexual flower, prevent self pollination
flower under water. Mucilaginous covering  Bagging – prevent pollination by unwanted
protect pollen. pollen
 Water hyacinth, Water Lilly – flower above  Tagging – all information on emasculation is
water – insect pollinated. written
 Insect pollinated (Entomophilous) flowers  Double fertilisation
 Colourful flower 1. Syngamy
 Produce nectar Male gamete (n) + egg (n)  zygote (2n) 
 Produce fragrance embryo (2n)
 Pollen as food 2. Triple fusion
 Foul smell to attract beetles. Male gamete (n) + 2 polar nuclei (n+n)  PEN (3n)
 Amorphophallus (Yam) flower – place for laying  Endosperm (3n)
eggs.  Endosperm development
 Moth lays egg in ovary of Yucca flower, Yucca Endosperm – reserved food
gets pollinated.
 1. Free-nuclear type  Conditions for germination – moisture, oxygen,
PEN – nucleus divides – multinucleate cell – temperature, water
later cell walls forms – becomes cellular. Eg:  Pericarp – fruit wall
Coconut water  Type of fruits
2. Cellular type Fleshy fruits – mango, orange, guava
PEN – nucleus and cell divides – becomes Dry fruits – mustard, groundnut
cellular  Types of fruits
 Embryo development True fruit False fruit
Basal cell  Suspensor Develop from ovary Develop from other
Zygote parts, thalamus, not
Terminal cell  Globular embryo  ovary
Heart shaped embryo  Mature Eg: Mango, guava Eg: Cashew, strawberry,
embryo apple
 Parthenocarpic fruits – fruits developed without
fertilisation, seedless, apply growth hormones
Eg: Banana
 Viable seeds
 Lupinus arcticus – from Arctic Tundra – 10,000
years dormancy
 Phoenix dactylifera – King Herod’s palace –
2000 years old viable seed
 Polyembryony
 More than one embryo in a seed
 Due to
More than one embryo sac in one ovule
Cells other than egg forms embryo
 Apomixis
 Asexual reproduction that mimics sexual
reproduction
 Apomict – plant produced by apomixis
 Advantages
1. Maintain heterozygosity
2. Less time
3. Low cost

 Types of seeds HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Albuminous/ Non/ Ex-albuminous or  Male reproductive system
Endospermous Non endospermous  Testes, accessory ducts, glands, external genitalia
1. Endosperm present 1. Endosperm absent  Scrotum – covers testes, maintain low
2. Pea, Groundnut 2. Wheat, Maize temperature in testes, 2 – 2.50C
 Perisperm – persistent nucellus  Testis – testicular lobules – seminiferous tubules
Eg: Beet, black pepper – male germ cells & Sertoli cells
 Seed dormancy – inactive period of seed  Interstitial/ Leydig cells – space between tissues
Reasons – no oxygen, no water, hard seed coat – secrete androgens
  Ducts – rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis,
vas deferens, ejaculatory duct
 Accessory glands in males
1. Seminal vesicle
2. Prostate gland
3. Bulbourethral/ Cowper’s gland
 Secretion – seminal plasma – rich in fructose,
calcium & enzymes, helps in lubrication
 Female reproductive system
 Ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina  Spermiogenesis
external genitalia 1. Formation of head, neck, middle piece & tail
2. Formation of acrosome
3. Elongation of nucleus
4. Loss of organelles not in use
 Hormonal control in males
Hypothalamus
(–) GnRH (–)
Pituitary gland
LH FSH
Leydig cells Testis Sertoli cells
Testosterone
Stimulates spermatogenesis Inhibin

Testosterone
 Sperm

 Layers of uterine wall

Endometrium, myometrium, perimetrium
 Female external genitalia – mons pubis, labia
majora, labia minora, hymen, clitoris
 Mammary glands
Alveoli  mammary tubules  mammary duct 
mammary ampulla  lactiferous duct
 Spermatogenesis
Spermatogonia (2n = 23p)
Growth
Primary spermatocyte (2n =23p)  Semen – Seminal plasma + sperms
Meiosis I  Oogenesis Oogonia (2n = 23p)
Secondary spermatocyte (n = 23) Growth
Meiosis II Primary oocyte (2n = 23p)
Spermatid (n = 23) Meiosis I
Spermiogenesis First polar body Secondary oocyte (n = 23)
Sperms (n = 23) Meiosis II
Second polar body (n = 23) Ovum
  Arrests in oogenesis
1. Primary oocyte at Prophase 1 – baby born
2. Secondary oocyte at Metaphase 2 –
Ovulation

 Types of follicles
 Primary follicle – oocyte surrounded by a layer of
granulosa cells
 Secondary follicle – oocyte surrounded by many
Menarche Menopause
layer of granulosa cells
 Tertiary follicle – follicle with antrum
1. Starting of 1. Ending of
 Graafian follicle – mature follicle
menstrual cycle menstrual cycle
 Menstrual cycle
2. 10 – 12 years of age 2. 50 years of age
1. Menstrual phase – 3 – 5 days  Ovum
a) Ovarian events
 Corpus luteum degenerates
 Progesterone level decreases
b) Uterine events
 If no fertilisation, uterine wall + blood
vessels sheds off
 3 – 5 days
2. Follicular/ proliferative phase – 14 days
a) Ovarian events
 Follicle develops and matures
 Fertilisation
 Estrogen is secreted
 Occur at ampulla-isthmus junction
 LH surge and Ovulation on 14th day
 How is polyspermy prevented?
b) Uterine events
 One sperm  Acrosome  Sperm lysins 
 Uterine wall thickens
digest ovum outer layers
3. Luteal/ secretory phase – 14 days
 Corona reaction and Zona reaction
a) Ovarian events
 Sperm nucleus fertilise with ovum nucleus
 Corpus luteum is formed
 Other sperms – rejected.
 Estrogen and Progesterone are secreted
 When is meiosis completed in oogenesis?
b) Uterine events
 When fertilisation occurs, APC is activated
 Uterine wall thickens
 Meiosis 2 continues
 First 3 – 5 days – common for Menstrual and
 Secondary oocyte  ovum + 2nd polar body
Follicular phase
 Embryo development in Humans REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
 Zygote – cleavage – blastomeres increase in  Family planning – social goal – total reproductive
number health
 8 – 16 cells – Morula – morulation  RCH – Reproductive and Child Healthcare
 32 – 64 cells – Blastula/ Blastocyst – blastulation Programme
 Blastocyst – implantation  Adolescent age to lead a healthy life require
1) Information about reproductive organs
2) Adolescent related changes
3) Safe sexual practices
4) Information on STDs
 To have socially conscious healthy families –
educate on
 Placenta develops – chorionic villi + uterine 1) Available birth control options
tissue 2) Care of pregnant mothers
 Gastrula – ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm 3) Care of mother and child, after birth
 Organs develop – fetus 4) Importance of breast feeding
 Parturition – after 9 months 5) Male child = female child
 Functions of placenta  Amniocentesis
1) Supply of oxygen to embryo  Done to know genetic disorders like Down’s
2) Supply of nutrients to embryo syndrome, Sickle cell anemia, Hemophilia
3) Supply of antibodies to embryo  Sex determination of fetus also done
4) Remove waste from embryo  Banned – female feticide
5) Remove CO2 from embryo  CDRI – Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow
6) Act as endocrine gland  Improved reproductive health of the society is
 Hormones from Placenta indicated by
a) hCG – human Chorionic Gonadotropin 1) Awareness about sex related matters
b) hPL – human Placental Lactogen 2) Increased delivery with medical assistance
c) Estrogen 3) Decreased maternal mortality
d) Progesterone 4) Decreased infant mortality
 Relaxin – secreted by Ovary 5) Increased small families
 Cortisol, Prolactin, Thyroxine – increase during 6) Detection and cure of STDs
pregnancy  MMR – Maternal mortality rate
 Parturition – Delivery of the baby  IMR – Infant mortality rate
Fetal ejection reflex  Feature of ideal contraceptive
 Fully grown fetus & placenta – mild uterine 1) User friendly
contraction 2) Easily available
 Triggers pituitary – release oxytocin 3) Effective
 Stronger uterine contractions 4) Reversible
 More secretion of oxytocin 5) No side effects
 Stronger & stronger uterine contractions  Natural contraceptives
 Baby comes out 1. Periodic abstinence
 Colostrum  Ovulation expected from 10th – 17th day of
 First milk produced by mother menstrual cycle
 Rich in antibodies
  So couple avoid mating at this time  MTP done – when pregnancy is harmful/ fatal to
2. Withdrawal/ Coitus interruptus mother/ fetus
 Male remove penis from vagina just before  STI – Sexually Transmitted Infections
ejaculation of sperms  VD – Venereal Diseases
3. Lactational amenorrhea  RTI – Reproductive Tract Infections
 Ovulation absent during lactation period  Eg: of STI/ VD/ RTI – Gonorrhoea, Syphilis,
 No conception Chlamydiasis, Genital warts, Genital herpes,
 Artificial contraceptives Hepatitis B, AIDS, Trichomoniasis
1. Barrier method  Symptoms – itching, fluid discharge, swelling,
 Prevent meeting of sperm and ovum pain in genital area
 Condoms, diaphragms, cervical caps, vaults  If untreated – lead to PID (Pelvic Inflammatory
 Reusable except condoms Diseases), abortion, still births, tubular
 Spermicidal creams and jellies increase pregnancies, cancer
efficiency  Infertility
2. IUD – Intra Uterine Devices  Unable to produce children
 Devices inserted in uterus  Reasons – physical, congenital, diseases, drugs,
a) Non medicated IUDs immunological, psychological
 Lippes loop – phagocytosis of sperms  ART – Assisted Reproductive Technologies
b) Cu releasing IUDs  Techniques for infertile couples to have children
 CuT, Cu7, Multiload 375 – release Cu 1. IVF & ET/ Test Tube Baby Programme
 Suppress sperm motility, fertilizing  IVF – in vitro fertilisation
capacity of sperms  Done when both male & female has problems
c) Hormone releasing IUDs  Fertilisation in a container
 Progestasert, LNG 20 – prevent  Condition similar to fallopian tube/ oviduct
implantation & cervical hostile of  ET – Embryo Transfer
sperms  ZIFT – Zygote intra fallopian tube transfer
3. Chemical method – embryo < 8 blastomeres
 Pills/ Implants – progesterone-estrogen – transferred to fallopian tube
combination  IUT – Intra uterine transfer
 Inhibit ovulation, implantation, prevent – embryo > 8 blastomeres
entry of sperms – transferred to uterus
 Pills – one menstrual cycle 2. GIFT – Gamete intra fallopian tube transfer
 Implants – 3 – 4 years  Done when female can’t produce quality
 Saheli – non-steroidal, once in a week pill, ovum
no side effects, high contraceptive value  Ovum from donor  recipient  fertilisation
4. Surgical method & development
 Vasectomy – cut vas deferens in males 3. ICSI – Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection
 Tubectomy – cut fallopian tube in females  Both male and female has problems
 No reversibility  Sperm nucleus injected into ovum
 Ill effects of contraceptives 4. AI – Artificial Insemination/ IUI – Intra uterine
Nausea, abdominal pain, breakthrough bleeding, insemination
irregular menstrual cycle, breast cancer  Male has low sperm count
 MTP- Medical Termination of Pregnancy  Sperms artificially inseminated to uterus
PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION  Dihybrid cross
 Genetics – study of genes
 Inheritance – process of transfer of genes, parents
 young ones
 Variation – changes among individuals
 Gregor Johann Mendel – Father of genetics
 Pisum sativum (Garden Pea) – Mendel’s
experimental organism
 Reasons for Mendel’s success/ Method of
working of Mendel
1. Pisum sativum – shows contrasting traits
2. Mathematical logic & statistical analysis in
Biology experiments
3. Large sampling size- all variations expressed
4. F3 & F4 confirmed rules of inheritance
5. Parents from pure line
6. Studied failure of other scientists
7. Studied one character at a time
 Features that Mendel studied  Terms
1. Dominant allele – expressed in heterozygous
condition
2. Recessive allele – don’t express in heterozygous
condition
3. Alleles/ allelomorphs – genes in same locus of
homologous chromosome – same character
4. Heterozygous condition – different alleles. Eg: T, t
5. Homozygous condition – same alleles. Eg: T, T
6. Monohybrid cross – cross – one character studied
7. Dihybrid cross – cross – two characters studied
 Monohybrid cross 8. Punnett square – graph – probability of possible
genotypes studied – in a cross
 Laws of Inheritance
1. Law of Dominance
 2 organisms – opposite traits – crossed  in
F1 – dominant express, recessive don’t express

2. Law of Segregation
 Heterozygote – gametes – genes separate
 3. Law of independent assortment  Co dominance
 One pair of gene – sort independently – of  Both dominant & recessive genes are
other pair of gene expressed equally
Eg: ABO blood grouping

 Test cross
 Cross to find out the genotype

 ABO Blood grouping

 Gene I determines blood group
 3 types of alleles - IA, IB, i
 4 phenotypes, 6 genotypes
 Blood group A – IAIA, IAi
 Blood group B – IBIB, IBi
 Incomplete dominance
 Blood group AB – IAIB
 Both dominant & recessive genes are
expressed partially  Blood group O – ii
 Eg: Snapdragon  Multiple allelism
 Presence of more than 2 types of alleles
 At same locus of homologous chromosome
 Arise due to mutation
 Eg: ABO Blood Grouping
 3 types of alleles - IA, IB, i
 Pleiotropism
 One genes control many features
 Pleiotropic gene
 Eg: Phenylketonuria
 Due to mutation of enzyme’s gene – phenyl
alanine hydroxylase
 Mental retardation, less hair, less skin colour
 Polygenic inheritance
 Many genes control one feature
 Eg: Human skin colour, Height in human
  Each allele effect is additive  Second cross – wild type with white miniature
 Human skin colour – three genes A, B, C fruit fly
 Dark skin colour alleles – A, B, C  62.8% parental, 37.2% non-parental combination
 Light skin colour alleles – a, b, c  More linkage in first cross
 Darkest skin colour – AABBCC  More recombination in second cross
 Lightest skin colour – aabbcc  Linkage α 1/Recombination
 Intermediate skin colour – 3 dominant  Linkage α 1/Distance
alleles. Eg: AaBbCc
 Recombination α Distance
 Mendel’s laws remain unrecognized
1. Use of Statistics and Mathematical logic in  Sex determination mechanisms
Biology experiments not approved by scientists  Henking identified X body, 50% of sperms
2. Not able to give proof for existence of genes received this.
3. Could not widely publicise his findings  Sex chromosome determine sex of the individual
4. Cannot answer variations in human  Autosome – same in male and female
 Rediscovery of Mendel’s laws 1. XX – XY type
 By de Vries, Correns and Tschermak Eg: Human, Drosophila
 Chromosomal theory of inheritance Male – heterogamety, Female – homogamety
 By Sutton and Boveri
 Features of chromosomes and genes are
same
 Both occur as pairs
 Both follow law of segregation
 Both follow law of independent assortment
 Both regain pairing after fertilisation 2. XX – XO type
 Genes are present in chromosome Eg: Grasshopper
 Chromosome follow law of segregation and Male – heterogamety, Female – homogamety
law of independent assortment
 Advantages of Drosophila
1. Short life span
2. Can easily identify male and female
3. Large number of progeny
4. Can see features with a simple lens
5. Can grow in any synthetic medium
 Linkage and Recombination 3. ZZ – ZW type
 By T H Morgan Eg: Birds
 Did experiments on Drosophila melanogaster Male – homogamety, Female – heterogamety
 Linkage – close association of genes
 Tendency of genes to enter the same gamete
 Recombination – new combination of linked
genes
 First cross – wild type with yellow white fruit fly
 98.7% parental, 1.3% non-parental combination
 4. Haplo-dipoidy - Mating between relatives
Eg: Human, Drosophila - Affected individual
Male – heterogamety, Female – homogamety  Mendelian disorders
 Genetic disorder
 Change or mutation in a gene
 Eg: Haemophilia, Cystic fibrosis, Sickle cell
anaemia, Colour blindness, Phenylketonuria,
Thalassemia
1. Colour blindness
 Sex linked recessive disorder
 Mutation of genes in X chromosome
 Mutation  Red – green colour blindness
 Sudden inheritable change in chromosome
structure, chromosome number or gene
sequence
 3 types – (1) Change in chromosome structure
(2) Change in chromosome number (3) Change
in gene sequence
(1) Change in chromosome structure
 Addition, Duplication, Deletion, Inversion
(2) Change in chromosome number
a) Euploidy – change in complete set
 Haploid, Triploid, Tetraploid
b) Aneuploidy – change in one or two
i. Trisomy – 2n+1 2. Haemophilia
ii. Tetrasomy – 2n+2  Sex linked recessive disorder
iii. Monosomy – 2n-1  No blood clotting
iv. Nullisomy – 2n-2  One of the protein for blood clotting is not
(3) Change in gene sequence made
I. Point mutation – occurring at a point
a) Substitution mutation
b) Frame shift deletion and addition
mutation
II. Gross mutation – occurring at many places
 Pedigree analysis
 Controlled crosses are not possible in human
 So the family history of the individual with the
feature is studied
 Symbols used
- female
- male
- married couple
- Couple with son
  Female to be haemophilic is rare – carrier  2 types – α thalassemia and β thalassemia
mother & father to be haemophilic – not  α thalassemia – less production of α chain,
available in later life Chromosome 16 – HBA1 & HBA2 genes
 Male is always haemophilic – only one X mutation or deletion.
chromosome  β thalassemia – less production of β chain,
3. Sickle cell anaemia Chromosome 11 – HBB gene mutation or
 Autosome linked recessive disorder deletion.
 Qualitative disorder  Chromosomal disorders
 HbA – Normal gene 1. Down’s syndrome
 HbS – Disordered gene  Trisomy of 21st chromosome
 HbA HbA – Normal  Described by Langdon Down
 HbA HbS – Carrier  Physical retardation, mental retardation, small
 HbS HbS – Sickle cell anaemic round head, furrowed tongue, partially opened
 In β globin chain – 6th codon changes from GAG mouth, increased palm crease, less
to GUG psychomotor development
 6th amino acid changes from Glutamic acid to 2. Klinefelter’s syndrome
Valine  Trisomy of sex chromosome
 RBC – Sickle shaped  47 chromosomes, XXY
 Male with female characters, sterile
 Gynaecomastia – breast development
3. Turner’s syndrome
 Monosomy of sex chromosome
 45 chromosomes, XO
 Female with underdeveloped characters
 False ovaries, no secondary sexual characters,
sterile.

4. Phenylketonuria
 Autosome linked recessive disorder
 No enzyme that converts phenylalanine to
tyrosine
 Phenylalanine  Phenyl pyruvic acid and
others
 Accumulate in brain
 Mental retardation, physical retardation, poor
absorption by kidney
5. Thalassemia
 Autosome linked recessive disorder
 Mutation or deletion of genes of α or β globin
chains
 Quantitative disorder
 α or β chains have reduced synthesis
 MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE  Infection  Blending  Centrifugation
 Characteristics of an organism  Result
1. Bacteriophage φ X 174 – 5386 nucleotides Radioactive S Radioactive P
2. Bacteriophage λ – 48502 bp Viral coat Radioactive Not radioactive
3. E. coli – 4.6 X 106 bp Bacteria Not radioactive Radioactive
4. Haploid content of human – 3.3 X 109 bp
 Chargaff’s rule
 Number of purines = number of pyrimidines
 A/T = G/C
 Transforming principle
 By Frederick Griffith
 Experiments with Streptococcus pneumoniae
 2 types of bacteria
1. R strain – doesn’t cause pneumonia
2. S strain – causes pneumonia
 S strain + mice  mice died of pneumonia
 R strain + mice  mice survived
 Heat killed S strain + mice  mice survived
 Heat killed S strain + R strain + mice  mice died
of pneumonia  DNA structure
 Got R strain, S strain and heat killed S strain from  4 scientists – Watson, Crick, Wilkins, Franklin
dead mice  Friedrich Meischer – named DNA as Nuclein
 R strain changed to S strain by receiving genetic 1. 2 polynucleotide chains – sugar & phosphate
material through medium are backbone, bases project inside.
 Transformation – genetic material passes from  N-bases – Purines (A & T), Pyrimidines (G & C)
one bacteria to another through medium  Nucleoside = Sugar + N-base (N-glycosidic bond)
 Biochemical characterisation of Transforming  Types of nucleosides – deoxyadenosine,
principle deoxyguanosine, deoxycytidine, deoxythymidine
 By Avery, MacLeod and McCarty  Nucleotide = Nucleoside + P (Phospho-ester
 Heat killed S strain + R strain + RNAase + mice  bond)
mice died of pneumonia  2 nucleotides – Phosphodiester bond
2. Anti-parallel polarity, one 3l  5l, other 5l  3l
 Heat killed S strain + R strain + protease + mice
3. A = T, G ≡ C and vice versa
 mice died of pneumonia
4. Right handed fashion, one turn – 10 bp & 3.4
 Heat killed S strain + R strain + DNAase + mice 
nm
mice survived
5. One bp stacks over the other – stability.
 DNA is the genetic material
 Central dogma of molecular biology
 RNA and protein are not the genetic material
 Hershey and Chase experiment
 Gave unequivocal proof that DNA is the genetic
material
 Grew bacteriophages in 2 cultures – radioactive
P and radioactive S
 Nucleosome  Binds to 3l end of parent strand
 Enzyme – DNA dependent RNA pol
4. Making od new DNA strands
 5l  3l of new strand
 Enzyme – DNA dependent DNA pol
 2 type of new strands – Leading/ continuous
strand, Lagging/ discontinuous strand
 Okazaki fragments on discontinuous strand
5. Removal of RNA primer
 Histone protein – lysine & arginine – (+) vely  Exonuclease activity of DNA pol
charged 6. Joining of Okazaki fragments
 Histone octamer – 8 proteins  By DNA ligase
 DNA is (-) ve, histone is (+) ve 7. Proof reading
 One nucleosome – 200 bp  By DNA pol & DNA ligase
 NHC proteins – Non Histone Chromosomal
proteins – for highly coiling
Sl no Euchromatin Heterochromatin
1 Loosely packed Tightly packed
2 Takes less stain Takes more stain
3 Transcriptionally Transcriptionally
active inactive
 Properties of genetic material
 DNA is better genetic material than RNA and
protein
1. Able to make replica
 Experimental proof of semi-conservative method
 DNA & RNA can, Protein can’t
of DNA replication
2. Chemically and structurally stable
 By Meselson and Stahl
 DNA is stable – 2lOH is absent, Thymine is
 Grew E. coli in 15N medium – made heavy DNA
present, Griffith’s experiment
 CsCl density gradient centrifugation
 RNA less stable – 2lOH is present, Uracil is
present  Got heavy band
3. Scope for slow changes for evolution  Transferred E. coli to 14N medium – 20 minutes
 DNA – more stable – slow changes – hybrid band
 RNA – less stable – fast changes  One more generation in 14N medium – 20
4. Express in the form of Mendelian character minutes – hybrid band & light band
 Both DNA & RNA can do
 Replication process
1. Binding of initiator protein
 Binds to Ori
2. Binding of unwinding protein
 Unwinds DNA strands – helicase
 Forms replication fork
3. Attachment of RNA primer
  Another proof – Taylor & colleagues – done  In eukaryotes, translation occur only after
on faba beans using radioactive thymidine. complete transcription as there is separation of
 Why both DNA strands are not transcribed? nucleus and cytoplasm.
1. 2 proteins are made – complicate gene  Cistron – fragment of DNA that codes for a
expression polypeptide chain
2. RNA strands made – complementary to each  Split genes – In human introns are present
other – binds and forms dsRNA. between exons.
 Transcription unit  Complexities in eukaryotes
 Promoter – upstream, terminator – down stream 1. 3 RNA polymerases
 Template strand opposite to both mRNA and  RNA pol I – makes rRNA (28S, 18S, 5.8S
Coding strand  RNA pol II – makes hnRNA (heterogeneous
 mRNA and Coding strand is same except U & T nuclear RNA)
 RNA pol III – makes tRNA, 5srRNA, snRNA
(small nuclear RNA)
2. hnRNA becomes mature RNA by 3 processes
1. Splicing – removal of introns and joining of
exons in definite order
2. Capping – methyl guanosine triphosphate
 Process of transcription attaches to 5l end
3. Tailing – 200 – 300 adenylates bind to 3l end
 Genetic code
 Triplet – 3 nucleotides code for one amino acid
 First suggested by George Gamov
 Proof
1. Har Gobind Khorana – made RNA from
defined combinations
2. Marshall Nirenberg – cell free system for
protein synthesis
3. Severo Ochoa enzyme – made RNA from
defined sequences in a template
Sl no Monocistronic Polycistronic independent manner
1 One cistron in one Many cistrons in one  Salient features of genetic code
gene gene 1. 61 codons – codes for amino acids, 3 codons –
2 In eukaryotes In prokaryotes
stop codons – UAA, UAG, UGA
2. Code is degenerate – some amino acids coded
Sl no Exon Intron
by more than one codon
1 Expressed sequences Non-expressed
3. Code has no punctuations – read in a
sequences
contiguous fashion
2 Present in mature Absent in mature
mRNA mRNA 4. Code is universal
 In prokaryotes, transcription and translation 5. AUG has dual function – codes for methionine,
occur simultaneously as there is no nucleus start codon
6. Codon is specific – one codon codes for one
amino acid
 tRNA structure
 Clover leaf model
 By Francis Crick
 Also known as
1. Adaptor molecule – connects mRNA & amino
acid
2. Bispecific molecule – specific at anticodon
loop & amino acid binding site
3. Soluble RNA – seen in soluble state in
cytoplasm
 UTR
 Un translated Region
 Before start codon & after stop codon
 Required for efficient translation
 Regulation of gene expression
 4 levels
1. Transcriptional level
2. Processing level (splicing)
3. Transportation level
 Translation process 4. Translational level
1. Activation of amino acids  Lac operon
 Amino acid binds with ATP – aminoacyl  Operon – close association of Regulator gene,
adenylates Promoter gene, Operator gene and Structural
2. Attachment of amino acid with tRNA gene, work together to perform one function.
 Amino acid and tRNA binds – aminoacyl tRNA  Lac i gene- - makes repressor protein
3. Initiation  Lac p gene – RNA pol binds here
a) Smaller ribosome attaches to 5l end of mRNA  Lac O – repressor protein binds here
b) Initiator tRNA with amino acid binds to  Lac z – makes β-galactosidase – break down
initiator codon lactose
c) Larger ribosome binds to mRNA  Lac y – makes permease – makes permeability
d) It has 2 sites – P site & A site  Lac a – makes transacetylase – activates β-
e) P site – occupied by initiator tRNA galactosidase
4. Elongation  Switch off – repressor protein made – binds to o
a) New tRNA with amino acid binds to A site gene – prevent transcription
b) Peptide bond is formed between amino acids
on P site and A site
c) Ribosome complex moves towards 5l  3l
d) tRNA in P site leaves
e) tRNA in A site is in P site
f) New tRNA with amino acid binds to A site
 Switch on – lactose/ allo-lactose binds to
g) This continues until it reaches stop codon
repressor – it can’t bind to o gene – transcription
5. Termination
occurs
a) Release factors bind to stop codon
 Repetitive DNA – repeating DNA sequences
DNA polymorphism – Inheritable mutation with
high frequency in a population
 DNA fingerprinting
 By Alec Jeffreys
 Basic principle – VNTR – Variable Number of
 HGP – goals Tandem Repeats – size 0.1 to 20 kb.
1. Identify all genes  Steps
2. Identify all sequences 1. Isolation of DNA
3. Store the information in databases 2. Digestion of DNA by restriction endonucleases
4. Improve tools for data analysis 3. Separation of DNA fragments by gel
5. Transfer technologies to other sectors electrophoresis
6. Address ELSI (Ethical, Legal, Social Issues) 4. Transferring DNA fragments to nitrocellulose/
 HGP – methodologies/ approaches nylon sheets
1. EST – Expressed sequence tags – to identify 5. Hybridise using labelled VNTR probe
expressed sequences 6. Detection of DNA fragments using
2. SA – Sequence Annotation – to identify both autoradiography
expressed and non-expressed sequences  Applications
Vectors used – BAC (Bacterial Artificial 1. Forensic departments – to find out criminals
Chromosome), YAC (Yeast Artificial 2. To find out biological parents
Chromosome) 3. Determine genetic diversities
 Main challenge of HGP 4. Determine population diversities
 To find out physical maps
 They overcome by making mini-satellites and EVOLUTION
micro-satellites  Evolution – Branch of science that deals with
 HGP – salient features origin of life and species.
1. 3164.7 million bp in human genome  Big bang theory
2. Average 3000 bases in one gene. Largest gene –  Huge explosion, H and He formed
dystrophin – 2.4 million bases
 Water vapour, CH4, CO2 & NH3 released
3. 30,000 genes in human genome
 UV rays broke H2O to H2 & O2.
4. Functions of 50% genes are not known
 O2 combined with NH3 & CH4
5. 2% codes for proteins
 Ozone layer was formed
6. Repeated sequences makes large portion of
 Rain filled depressions to form ocean
genome
 Panspermia
7. Repeated sequences needed for chromosome
 Theory of extraterrestrial origin – outer space
structure, evolution
8. Most genes in Chromosome I – 2968 genes,  Life came in the form of spores
Fewest genes in Chromosome Y – 231 genes  Theory of spontaneous generation
9. 1.4 million locations have SNPs – Single  Life originated from non-living matter like mud,
nucleotide polymorphism straw etc.
 Satellite DNA and Repetitive DNA  Theory of biogenesis
Satellite DNA – small peaks of DNA formed during  By Louis Pasteur
centrifugation  Life originates from pre-existing life
  2 pre-sterilised flasks – life didn’t come from  Industrial melanism/ Anthropogenic evolution
killed yeast  In England, lichens covered trees in the forest
 It came in other flask open to air.  Dark coloured moths – eaten by birds
 Chemical theory of evolution  White coloured moths hide in light background
 By Oparin and Haldane  Population of dark coloured moths – less, white
 Life came from organic molecules coloured moths more.
 Supported by Miller’s experiment  Industries came, lichen disappeared
 Miller’s experiment  Dark coloured moths hide in dark background
 Made spark using 2 electrodes  White coloured moths – eaten by birds
 Combined CH4, NH3, H2O & H2  Population of dark coloured moths – more,
 Condensed the vapours white coloured moths less.
 Amino acids were formed  Adaptive radiation
 Evolution of different species – in a given area –
starting from a point – radiating to other areas
 Eg: Australian Marsupials, Darwin finches
 More than one divergent evolution in an area –
leads to convergent evolution also.
 Biological evolution
 Key concepts of Darwinian theory of Evolution –
Branching descent and Natural selection
 Work of Thomas Malthus influenced Darwin
 Mechanism of evolution
Sl No Theory of Natural Mutational theory
selection of evolution
1 By Darwin By Hugo de Vries
2 Directional Non directional
 Evidence for evolution 3 Slow Fast
1. Embryological evidence by Ernst Haeckel  Saltation – single step large mutation
 Embryo of all organisms pass through same  Hardy – Weinberg Principle
stage  Gene pool remains constant
 Disapproved by Karl Ernst von Baer  Allelic frequency in a population is stable,
Sl No Homologous organs Analogous organs p+q=1
1 Same structure Different structure  Genotypic frequency in a population is stable,
2 Different function Same function p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1, p = dominant allele, q =
3 Divergent evolution Convergent evolution recessive allele
4 Eg: 1. Forelimbs of Eg: 1. Wings of  Factors affecting Hardy – Weinberg Principle –
human and lion butterfly and bird. Genetic drift (selection by chance), Mutation,
2. Wing of bird and 3. Eyes of octopus Genetic recombination, Natural selection, Gene
forelimb of human and mammals migration/ gene flow.
4. Flippers of penguin  Founder effect
and Dolphin  Change in allelic frequency makes a new species.
5 Eg: Potato and Thorn Eg: Stem tendril &
 New species become the founder of that
of citrus leaf tendril
ecosystem
 Operation of Natural selection in an area
1. Stabilising – more individuals acquire mean
character value (A)
2. Directional – more individuals acquire value
other than mean character value (B)
3. Disruptive – more individuals acquire value at
both ends (C)

 Account of evolution
 Study fig: 7.9, pg no. 138
 Coelacanth (lobefins) – ancestor of modern day
frogs and salamanders.
 Evolution of man
 Dryopithecus – ape like
 Ramapithecus – man like
 Australopithecines – hunted with stone
weapons, ate fruit
 Homo habilis – first human like hominid, didn’t
eat meat
 Homo erectus – ate meat