UNIT II BASIC PROCESSING

TOPICS COVERED: 1.Fundamental concepts T1 7.1 pp 412-420 2. Execution of complete instruction T1 7.2 pp 421-422 3. Multiple bus organization T1 7.3 pp 423-425

Overview

Instruction Set Processor (ISP) Central Processing Unit (CPU) A typical computing task consists of a series of steps specified by a sequence of machine instructions that constitute a program. An instruction is executed by carrying out a sequence of more rudimentary operations.

Some Fundamental Concepts

Fundamental Concepts

Processor fetches one instruction at a time and perform the operation specified. Instructions are fetched from successive memory locations until a branch or a jump instruction is encountered. Processor keeps track of the address of the memory location containing the next instruction to be fetched using Program Counter (PC). Instruction Register (IR)

Executing an Instruction

Fetch the contents of the memory location pointed to by the PC. The contents of this location are loaded into the IR (fetch phase). IR [[PC]] Assuming that the memory is byte addressable, increment the contents of the PC by 4 (fetch phase). PC [PC] + 4 Carry out the actions specified by the instruction in the IR (execution phase).

Internal processor bus Control signals

Processor Organization
Instruction Address lines decoder and MAR control logic Memory bus MDR Data lines IR Y Constant 4 R0 Select MUX Add ALU control lines Sub A B R n - 1 ALU Carry -in XOR Z TEMP

PC

Figure 7.1. Single-bus organization of the datapath inside a processor.

MDR HAS TWO INPUTS AND TWO OUTPUTS

Datapath

Textbook Page 413

Executing an Instruction

Transfer a word of data from one processor register to another or to the ALU. Perform an arithmetic or a logic operation and store the result in a processor register. Fetch the contents of a given memory location and load them into a processor register. Store a word of data from a processor register into a given memory location.

Register Transfers
Internal processor bus Riin Ri

Riout Yin

Y
Constant 4 Select MUX A ALU Zin Z B

Zout

Figure 7.2. Input and output gating for the registers in Figure 7.1.

Bus

Register Transfers
D Q 1 Q Riout Ri in Clock

Figure 7.3. Input and output g for one gister bit. ating re

All operations and data transfers are controlled by the processor clock.

Figure 7.3. Input and output gating for one register bit.

Performing an Arithmetic or Logic Operation

The ALU is a combinational circuit that has no internal storage. ALU gets the two operands from MUX and bus. The result is temporarily stored in register Z. What is the sequence of operations to add the contents of register R1 to those of R2 and store the result in R3?
1. 2.

3.

R1out, Yin R2out, SelectY, Add, Zin Zout, R3in

Fetching a Word from Memory

Memory -b us data lines MDRoutE MDRout Internal processor bus MDR MDR inE MDRin

Figure 7.4. Connection and control signals for re MDR. gister

Address into MAR; issue Read operation; data into MDR.

Figure 7.4. Connection and control signals for register MDR.

Fetching a Word from Memory

The response time of each memory access varies (cache miss, memory-mapped I/O,). To accommodate this, the processor waits until it receives an indication that the requested operation has been completed (Memory-Function-Completed, MFC). Move (R1), R2
MAR [R1] Start a Read operation on the memory bus Wait for the MFC response from the memory Load MDR from the memory bus R2 [MDR]

out

Figure 7.5. Timing of a memory Read operation.

Timing
MAR [R1] Assume MAR is always available on the address lines of the memory bus.

Start a Read operation on the memory bus

Wait for the MFC response from the memory Load MDR from the memory bus
R2 [MDR]

Execution of a Complete Instruction

Add (R3), R1 Fetch the instruction Fetch the first operand (the contents of the memory location pointed to by R3) Perform the addition Load the result into R1

Architecture
Internal processor bus Riin Ri

Riout Yin

Y
Constant 4 Select MUX A ALU Zin Z B

Zout

Figure 7.2. Input and output gating for the registers in Figure 7.1.

Execution of a Complete Instruction

Internal processor bus Control signals PC Instruction Address lines decoder and MAR control logic

Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Action

Memory bus

PCout , MAR in , Read, Select4, dd, Zin A Zout , PCin , Y in , WMF C MDR out , IR in

MDR

Data lines

IR

Constant 4

R0

R3out , MAR in , Read R1out , Y in , WMF C

Select

MUX

MDR out , SelectY,Add, Zin Zout , R1 in , End

Add

ALU control lines

Sub

R n - 1

ALU

Carry -in XOR Z TEMP

Figure 7.6. Control sequence executionof the instruction Add (R3),R1. for

Figure 7.1. Single-bus organization of the datapath inside a processor.

Add (R3), R1

Execution of Branch Instructions

A branch instruction replaces the contents of PC with the branch target address, which is usually obtained by adding an offset X given in the branch instruction. The offset X is usually the difference between the branch target address and the address immediately following the branch instruction. Conditional branch

Execution of Branch Instructions

Step Action
1 2 PCout , MAR in , Read, Select4,Add, Z in Zout , PCin , Yin , WMF C

3
4 5

MDR out , IR in
Offset-field-of-IR , Add, Z in out Z out , PCin , End

Figure 7.7. Control sequence for an unconditional branch instruction.

Multiple-Bus Organization
Bus A Bus B Bus C
Incrementer PC Re gister f ile Constant 4
MUX

ALU

Instruction decoder

IR

MDR

MAR

Memory b us data lines

Address lines

Figure 7.8. Three-b or anization of the datapath. us g

Multiple-Bus Organization

Add R4, R5, R6

Step Action 1 2 3 4 PCout, R=B, MAR in , Read, IncPC WMFC MDR outB , R=B, IR in R4outA , R5outB , SelectA, Add, R6in , End

Figure 7.9. Control sequence for the instruction. Add R4,R5,R6, for the three-bus organization in Figure 7.8.

Internal processor bus Control signals PC Instruction

Quiz

Address lines MAR Memory bus MDR Data lines

decoder and control logic

IR

Y Constant 4 R0

Select

MUX Add

ALU control lines

Sub

A ALU

R n - 1

Carry -in XOR Z TEMP

Figure 7.1. Single-bus organization of the datapath inside a processor.

What is the control sequence for execution of the instruction Add R1, R2 including the instruction fetch phase? (Assume single bus architecture)

Hardwired Control

Overview

To execute instructions, the processor must have some means of generating the control signals needed in the proper sequence. Two categories: hardwired control and microprogrammed control Hardwired system can operate at high speed; but with little flexibility.

Control Unit Organization

Clock CLK Control step counter

External inputs IR Decoder/ encoder Condition codes

Control signals

Figure 7.10. Control unit organization.

Clock

Control step counter

Step decoder T 1 T2 INS1 INS2 Instruction decoder Tn

Detailed Block Description

IR Encoder Condition codes INS m Run End Control signals

External inputs

Figure 7.11. Separation of the decoding and encoding functions.

Generating Zin

Zin = T1 + T6 ADD + T4 BR +
Branch
T4 Add T6

T1

Figure 7.12. Generation of the Zin control signal for the processor in Figure 7.1.

Generating End
Branch<0 Add N T7 T5 N T4 T5 Branch End

Figure 7.13. Generation of the End control signal.

End = T7 ADD + T5 BR + (T5 N + T4 N) BRN +

Instruction unit

Inte ger unit

Floating-point unit

A Complete Processor
Bus interf ace

Instruction cache

Data cache

Processor

Sy stem us b

Main memory

Input/ Output

Figure 7.14. Block diagram of a complete processor .

Microprogrammed Control

Overview
MDRout PCin

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0 1 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 1 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 0 1 0 0

R1in

Add

Z out

IRin

0 0 0 0 0 0 1

0 0 0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 1 0 0

Control signals are generated by a program similar to machine language programs. Control Word (CW); microroutine; microinstruction
Figure 7.15 An e xample of microinstructions for Figure 7.6.

End

Yin

Zin

Micro instruction

WMFC

MAR in

Select

Read

PCout

R1 out

R3 out

0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Step

Action PCout , MAR in , Read, Select4, dd, Zin A Zout , PCin , Y in , WMF C MDR out , IR in R3out , MAR in , Read R1out , Y in , WMF C MDR out , SelectY,Add, Zin Zout , R1 in , End

Overview

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 7.6. Control sequence executionof the instruction Add (R3),R1. for

IR

Starting address generator

Overview

Clock

PC

Control store

CW

Figure 7.16. Basic organization of a microprogrammed control unit.

Control store
One function cannot be carried out by this simple organization.

Overview

The previous organization cannot handle the situation when the control unit is required to check the status of the condition codes or external inputs to choose between alternative courses of action. Use conditional branch microinstruction.
Address Microinstruction

0
1

PCout , MAR in , Read, Select4, Add, Z in

Zout , PCin , Y in , WMF C

MDRout , IR in

3 Branch to starting address appropriatemicroroutine of . ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. 25 26 27 If N=0, then branch to microinstruction0 Offset-field-of-IRout , SelectY, Add, Z in Zout , PCin , End

Figure 7.17. Microroutine for the instruction Branch<0.

Overview
External inputs IR Starting and branch address generator Condition codes

Clock

PC

Control store

CW

Figure 7.18.

Organization of the control unit to allow

conditional branching in the microprogram.

Microinstructions

A straightforward way to structure microinstructions is to assign one bit position to each control signal. However, this is very inefficient. The length can be reduced: most signals are not needed simultaneously, and many signals are mutually exclusive. All mutually exclusive signals are placed in the same group in binary coding.

Partial Format for the Microinstructions

Microinstruction F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F1 (4 bits) 0000: 0001: 0010: 0011: 0100: 0101: 0110: 0111: 1010: 1011: F2 (3 bits) F3 (3 bits) F4 (4 bits) 0000: Add 0001: Sub F5 (2 bits) No transf er 000: PC 001: out MDR 010: out Z 011: out R0 100: out R1 101: out R2 110: out R3 111: out TEMP out Of f set out No transf er000: No transf er PC 001: MARin in IR 010: MDR in in Z 011: TEMP in in R0 100: Y in in R1 in R2 in R3 in 00: No action 01: Read 10: Write 1111: XOR 16 ALU f unctions F6 F7 F8 F6 (1 bit) F7 (1 bit) F8 (1 bit) 0: SelectY 1: Select4 0: No action 1: WMFC 0: Continue 1: End

Figure 7.19. An example of a partial format for field-encoded microinstructions.

What is the price paid for this scheme?

Further Improvement

Enumerate the patterns of required signals in all possible microinstructions. Each meaningful combination of active control signals can then be assigned a distinct code. Vertical organization Horizontal organization

Microprogram Sequencing

If all microprograms require only straightforward sequential execution of microinstructions except for branches, letting a PC governs the sequencing would be efficient. However, two disadvantages:
Having a separate microroutine for each machine instruction results in a large total number of microinstructions and a large control store. Longer execution time because it takes more time to carry out the required branches.

Example: Add src, Rdst Four addressing modes: register, autoincrement, autodecrement, and indexed (with indirect forms).

- Bit-ORing - Wide-Branch Addressing - WMFC

Mode

Contents of IR

OP code

0 1 11 10

0 87

Rsrc 4 3

Rdst 0

Address (octal)

Microinstruction

000
001 002 003 121 122 123 170 171 172 173

4, PC , MARin, Read, Select Add, Zin out

Zout, PC , Yin, WMFC in MDRout, IRin

Branch { PC PC 5,4

101 (from Instruction decoder);

[IR10,9]; PC [IR 10] [IR9] [IR8]} 3

Rsrc , MARin , Read, Select4, Add,in Z out Zout, Rsrc in Branch { PC 170;PC [IR8]}, WMFC 0 MDRout, MARin, Read, WMFC MDRout, Yin Rdst , SelectYAdd, Zin , out Zout, Rdst , End in

Figure 7.21. Microinstruction for Add (Rsrc)+,Rdst. Note:Microinstruction at location 170 is not executed for this addressing mode.

Microinstructions with NextAddress Field

The microprogram we discussed requires several branch microinstructions, which perform no useful operation in the datapath. A powerful alternative approach is to include an address field as a part of every microinstruction to indicate the location of the next microinstruction to be fetched. Pros: separate branch microinstructions are virtually eliminated; few limitations in assigning addresses to microinstructions. Cons: additional bits for the address field (around 1/6)

Microinstructions with NextAddress Field

IR External Inputs Condition codes Decoding circuits A R Control store Next address I R Microinstruction decoder Control signals

Figure 7.22. Microinstruction-sequencing organization.

Implementation of the Microroutine

Octal address 000 001 002 003 121 122 170 171 172 173 F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 01 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 00 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 01 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 01 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 00 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 01 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 00 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 01 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 10 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00

Figure 7.24. Implementation of the microroutine of Figure 7.21 using a next-microinstruction address field. Figure 7.23 for encoded signals.) (See

Rsrc out Rsrc in

Other control signals

Figure 7.25. Some details of the control-signal-generating circuitry.

bit-ORing

Further Discussions

Prefetching Emulation