Outline of section 5

Angular momentum in quantum mechanics

Classical definition of angular momentum Linear Hermitian Operators for angular momentum Commutation relations Physical consequences Simultaneous eigenfunctions of total angular momentum and the z-component Vector model Spherical harmonics Orthonormality and completeness

Classical angular momentum

For a classical particle, the angular momentum is defined by

L p r

L ! rvp ! Lx i  Ly j  Lz k
In components

Lx ! ypz  zp y Ly ! zpx  xpz Lz ! xp y  ypx

Same origin for r and F

Angular momentum is very important in problems involving a central force (one that is always directed towards or away from a central point) because in that case it is conserved

dL d dr dp ! (r v p) ! v p  r dt dt dt dt p ! ( v p)  (r v F ) ! 0. m

Hermitian operators for quantum angular momentum

In quantum mechanics we get linear Hermitian angular momentum operators from the classical expressions using the postulates

r p r ! r, p p p ! i! L ! r v p p L ! i!r v

Lx ! ypz  zp y Ly ! zpx  xpz Lz ! xp y  ypx

Lx ! ypz  zp y Ly ! zpx  xpz Lz ! xp y  ypx

! i ! y x  z x Lx xz xy ! i ! z x  x x Ly xx xz ! i ! x x  y x Lz xy xx

Commutation relations
The different components of angular momentum do not commute with one another, e.g.

Lx , Ly ! i!Lz
Lx ! ypz  zp y Ly ! zpx  xpz Lz ! xp y  ypx
[ x, px ] ! i! [ y , p y ] ! i! [ z , p z ] ! i!

Proof: Lx , Ly ! Lx Ly  Ly Lx

Similar arguments give the cyclic permutations

Ly , Lz ! i!Lx

Lz , Lx ! i!Ly

Summarize these as

Li , L j ! i!Lk

where i, j, k obey a cyclic (x, y, z) relation

Commutation relations (2)

The different components of L do not commute with each another, but they do commute with the squared magnitude of the angular momentum vector: Proof:

L2 ! L2  L2y  L2 x z

Lx , L2 !

Similar proofs for the other components

Lx , L2 ! Ly , L2 ! Lz , L2 ! 0

Commutation relations (3)

The different components of angular momentum do not commute Lx, Ly and Lz are not compatible observables They do not have simultaneous eigenfunctions (except when L = 0) We can not have perfect knowledge of any pair at the same time BUT, the different components all commute with L2 L2 and each component are compatible observables We can find simultaneous eigenfunctions of L2 and one component CONCLUSION We can find simultaneous eigenfunctions of one component of angular momentum and L2 . Conventionally we chose the z component. Next step is to find these eigenfunctions and study their properties.

Lz] ! E !] L2] ! F ! 2]

What determines the direction of the z-axis? In an experiment we usually have one or more privileged directions (e.g. the direction of an external electric or magnetic field) which gives a natural z axis. If not, this direction is purely arbitrary and no physical consequences depend on what choice we make.

Angular momentum in spherical polar coordinates

Spherical polar coordinates are the natural coordinate system in which to describe angular momentum: x, y, z p r ,U ,J The angular momentum operators only depend on the angles and and not on the radial coordinate r.
x x Lx ! i! y  z xy xz x x Ly ! i! z  x xz xx x x Lz ! i! x  y xx xy

z r y

x cos J x  Lx ! i! sin J xU tan U xJ x sin J x  Ly ! i!  cos J xU tan U xJ x Lz ! i! xJ

2 x 2 y 2 z 2

x ! r sin U cos J y ! r sin U sin J z ! r cos U

1 x 1 x2 x L ! L  L  L ! ! sin U  2 sin U xU xU sin U xJ 2

2

Note: The angular momentum operators commute with any operator which only depends on r. L2 is closely related to the angular part of the Laplacian 1 x 2 x L2 2 ! 2 (see 2B72 and Section 6). r  2 2

r xr

xr ! r

Lz in spherical polars
Proof that

x ! r sin U cos J y ! r sin U sin J z ! r cos U x x Lz ! i! x  y xx xy

x Lz ! i! xJ

x xx x xy x xz x !   xJ xJ xx xJ xy xJ xz
x ! r sin U cos J y ! r sin U sin J z ! r cos U

xx !  r sin U sin J !  y xJ xy ! r sin U cos J ! x xJ

xz !0 xJ

x x x i !  y  x ! Lz xJ xx xy !

Eigenfunctions of Lz
Look for simultaneous eigenfunctions of L2 and Lz First find the eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of Lz. Can only depend on the angle

Lz *E J ! E !*E J x i! *E J ! E !*E J xJ *E J ! A exp iEJ

x Lz ! i! xJ

2T

Normalize solution

dJ * J
E 0 2 2T 2

!1
2

*E J ! A* exp iEJ A exp iEJ ! A A

dJ ! 2T
0

A !1

1 A! 2T

1 *E J ! exp iEJ 2T

Eigenfunctions of Lz (2)
Boundary condition: wave-function must be single-valued

* (J  2T ) ! * (J ) exp 2T iE ! 1 E ! m ! 0, s1, s2, s3

*E J !

1 exp iEJ 2T

exp iEJ ! exp iEJ exp 2T iE

The angular momentum about the z-axis is quantized in units of hbar (compare Bohr model). The possible results of a measurement of Lz are So the eigenvalue equation and eigenfunction solution for Lz are

Lz ! m! m ! integer

Lz * m J ! m!* m J

1 * m J ! exp imJ 2T

Orthonormality and completeness

Lz is a Hermitian operator. Its eigenfunctions are orthonormal and complete for all functions of the angle that are periodic when increases by 2 . Orthonormality
2T

] J  2T ! ] J

1 * m J * n J dJ ! 2T 0
*

2T

exp i n  m J dJ ! H
0

mn

Completeness

] J !
2T

g m !g

am * m J

* m J !

1 2T

exp imJ

am !

** J ] J dJ m
0

Example
A particle has the angular wavefunction

* m J !

1 exp imJ 2T

] J !

1 1  i cos 3J , 0 e J e 2T 3T
g m !g

Find, by inspection or otherwise, the coefficients am in the expansion

] J !

* m J

Hence confirm that the wavefunction is normalized.

What are the possible results of a measurement of Lz and their corresponding probabilities?

Hence find the expectation value of Lz for many such measurements on identical particles.

Eigenfunctions of L2
Now look for eigenfunctions of L2

L2 f U , J ! F ! 2 f U , J ! ! 1 x sin U x L sin U xU xU
2 2

1 x2  2 2 sin U xJ

Try a separated solution of the form

1 f (U , J ) ! 5(U )* (J ) ! exp(imJ )5(U ) 2T

(this ensures the solutions remain eigenfunctions of Lz) Eigenvalue equation is

L2 ?exp(imJ )5(U ) A ! F ! 2 exp(imJ )5(U )

We get the equation for
m(

) which depends on both

and m

1 x x sin U sin U xU xU

1  2 m 2  F 5 F m U ! 0 sin U

Eigenfunctions of L2 (2)
Make the substitution
Q ! cos U x dQ x x ! !  sin U xU dU xQ xQ
1 x x sin U sin U xU xU 1  2 m 2  F 5 F m U ! 0 sin U

This gives the Legendre equation, solved in 2B72 by the Frobenius method.

d 5 F m Q d m2 2 5 F m Q ! 0 1   Q  F  2 xQ xQ 1  Q
We need solutions that are finite at = 1 (i.e. at cos ). This is only possible if satisfies = 0 and = since =

F ! l (l  1) where l ! 0,1, 2, and l u m

This is like the SHO where we found restrictions on the energy eigenvalue in order to produce normalizable solutions.

Eigenfunctions of L2 (3)
Label solutions to the Legendre equation by the values of l and m

5 F m Q p 5lm Q F ! l (l  1)

d m2 2 d 5 lm Q 5lm Q ! 0 1   Q  l l  1  2 xQ xQ 1  Q

For m = 0 the finite solutions are the Legendre polynomials

5l ,m !0 Q ! Pl Q ! Pl cos U

P0 Q ! 1 P Q ! Q 1 P2 Q ! 1 3Q 2  1 2

For non-zero m the solutions are the associated Legendre polynomials

5lm Q ! Pl m Q ! Pl m cos U

d Pl m ( Q ) ! (1  Q 2 ) m / 2 Pl ( Q ) dQ

Note that these only depend on the size of m not on its sign

Eigenvalues of L2
So the eigenvalues of L2 for physically allowed solutions are

F ! 2 ! l (l  1)! 2 , where l ! 0,1, 2, and l u m

The possible results for the measurement of the squared magnitude of the 2 2 2 angular momentum are

L ! F ! ! l (l  1)!
L ! l (l  1)!

The possible results for a measurement of the magnitude of the angular momentum are

From l u m we get  l e m e l
For each l there are 2l+1 possible integer values of m The restriction on the possible values of m is reasonable. The z-component of angular momentum can not be greater than the total! In fact, unless l = 0, the z-component is always less than the total and can never be equal to it. Why?

Summary
The simultaneous eigenfunctions of Lz and L2 are

f (U , J ) w Pl m cos U exp imJ

Eigenvalues of L2 are l (l  1)! 2 , with l ! 0,1, 2,

The integer l is known as the principal angular momentum quantum number. It determines the magnitude of the angular momentum

Eigenvalues of Lz are m!, with  l e m e l (i.e. m ! l , l  1 , 1, 0,1, l  1, l )

The integer m is known as the magnetic quantum number. It determines the z-component of angular momentum. For each value of l there are 2l+1 possible values of m. The simultaneous eigenfunctions of L2 and Lz do not correspond to definite values of Lx and Ly, because these operators do not commute with Lz. We can show, however, that the expectation value of Lx and Ly is zero for the functions f( , ).

The vector model

This is a useful semi-classical model of the quantum results. Imagine L precesses around the z-axis. Hence the magnitude of L and the z-component Lz are constant while the x and y components can take a range of values and average to zero, just like the quantum eigenfunctions. A given quantum number l determines the magnitude of the vector L via

L2 ! l (l  1) ! 2 L ! l (l  1) !
L
The z-component can have the 2l+1 values corresponding to

Lz ! m!, l e m e l
In the vector model this means that only particular special angles between the angular momentum vector and the z-axis are allowed

The vector model (2)

Example: l=2
Magnitude of the angular momentum is Lz

L ! l (l  1)! ! 6!
2 2

Ly

L ! l (l  1)! ! 6!
Component of angular momentum in z- direction can be

Lx

l e m e l Lz ! 2!,  !, 0, !, 2!

Quantum eigenfunctions correspond to a cone of solutions for L in the vector model

Spherical harmonics
The simultaneous eigenfunctions of L2 and Lz are usually written in terms of the spherical harmonics

LzYlm U , J ! m!Ylm U , J L2Ylm U , J ! l l  1 ! 2Ylm U , J

First few examples (see 2B72):

f (U , J ) p Ylm U , J ! N lm Pl m cos U exp imJ

Proportionality constant Nlm is chosen to ensure normalization NB. Some books write the spherical harmonics as

Y00 (U , J ) ! Y11 (U , J ) ! 

1 4T 3 3 ( x  iy ) sin U exp(iJ ) !  r 8T 8T 3 3 z cos U ! 4T 4T r 3 3 ( x  iy ) sin U exp(iJ ) ! r 8T 8T 5 3cos2 U  1 16T

Yl m (U , J )

Y10 (U , J ) ! Y11 (U , J ) ! Y20 U , J !

Remember x ! r sin U cos J y ! r sin U sin J z ! r cos U

Shapes of the spherical harmonics

Y00
z y x

Y11

Y10

Re[Y11 ]
l ! 0, m ! 0 1 Y00 ! 4T
l ! 1, m ! 1 Y11 !  3 sin U exp(iJ ) 8T

l ! 1, m ! 0 Y10 ! 3 cos U 4T
Imaginary

Real

To read plots: distance from origin corresponds to magnitude (modulus) of plotted quantity; colour corresponds to phase (argument).
(Images from http://odin.math.nau.edu/~jws/dpgraph/Yellm.html)

Shapes of spherical harmonics (2)

Y22
z y x

Y21

Y20

Re[Y22 ]

Re[Y21 ]

l ! 2, m ! 0 Y20 ! 5 (3cos 2 U  1) 16T

l ! 2, m ! 2 Y22 ! 15 sin 2 U exp(2iJ ) 32T

l ! 2, m ! 1 Y21 !  15 sin U cos U exp(iJ ) 8T

Imaginary

Real To read plots: distance from origin corresponds to magnitude (modulus) of plotted quantity; colour corresponds to phase (argument). (Images from http://odin.math.nau.edu/~jws/dpgraph/Yellm.html)

Orthonormality of spherical harmonics

The spherical harmonics are eigenfunctions of Hermitian operators. Solutions for different eigenvalues are therefore automatically orthogonal when integrated over all angles (i.e. over the surface of the unit sphere). They are also normalized so they are orthonormal. Integration is over the solid angle

d 3r ! r 2 drd ;
which comes from

d ; ! sin U dU dJ
2T T

! r 2 dr sin U dU dJ

* dJ dU sin U Ylm (U  J )Yl ' m ' (U  J ) ! 1 if l ! l ' and m ! m ' 0 0

! 0 otherwise
Convenient shorthand

d; Y

* lm

(U  J )Yl ' m ' (U  J ) ! H ll ' H mm '

Compare: 1D Cartesian version of orthonormality

g

* Jn x Jm x dx ! H mn

Completeness of spherical harmonics

The spherical harmonics are a complete, orthonormal set for functions of two angles. Any function of the two angles and can be written as a linear superposition of the spherical harmonics.

f U , J ! almYlm (U  J )
l ! 0 m ! l

l e m e l

Using orthonormality we can show that the expansion coefficients are

* alm ! d ; Ylm (U  J ) f (U  J ) 2T T

* dJ dU sin U Ylm (U  J ) f (U  J ) 0 0

Compare: 1D version

] ( x) ! anJn ( x)
n

* an ! Jn x ] x dx g

Examples
1) A particle has the un-normalized angular wavefunction ] U ,J ! 4 3 2 6 Y00  Y11  Y10  Y11  Y21 5 5 5 5

f U , J ! almYlm (U  J )
l !0 m ! l

a) Normalize this wavefunction.

b) What are the possible results of a measurement of Lz and their corresponding probabilities? What is the expectation value of many such measurements?

c) What are the possible results of a measurement of L2 and their corresponding probabilities? What is the expectation value of many such measurements?

Examples (2)
1) A particle has normalized angular wavefunction ] U ,J ! 15 cos 2U sin J 14T

Y11 (U , J ) !  Y10 (U , J ) ! Y11 (U , J ) !

3 sin U exp(iJ ) 8T 3 cos U 4T 3 sin U exp(iJ ) 8T

Find the probability of measuring

T

L2 ! 2! 2

You can use the result

cos 2U sin 2 U dU ! T / 4
0

Summary
The simultaneous eigenfunctions of Lz and L2 are the spherical harmonics Ylm U , J

LzYlm U , J ! m!Ylm U , J L2Ylm U , J ! l l  1 ! 2Ylm U , J

Eigenvalues of L2 are l (l  1)!2 , with l ! 0,1, 2,

l = principal angular momentum quantum number. Determines the magnitude of the angular momentum. Eigenvalues of Lz are m!, with  l e m e l m = magnetic quantum number. Determines the z-component of angular momentum. The spherical harmonics are a complete orthonormal set for functions of two angles

d; Y

* lm

(U  J )Yl ' m ' (U  J ) ! H ll ' H mm '

2T T

f U , J ! almYlm (U  J )
l ! 0 m ! l * alm ! d ; Ylm (U  J ) f (U  J )

d ; | dJ dU sin U
0 0