Chapter Three

Signal Conditioning and Conversion

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Eng.,

AASTU
Addis Ababa
By Biruk T.

1
 Introduction

•The output of sensors is usually small or not suitable to directly process

or present it. Thus conditioning or suiting of the signal is necessary.
• Signal conditioners are circuit that takes the output of a sensor or
transducer and converts it in to a form more suitable for further processing or
presenting.
•Usually the output is current, voltage or frequency
•Some of the very commonly used type of signal conditioning and
interfacing circuits are; Deflection bridge, Instrumentation Amplifier(INA),
filters, V/I,I/V,V/F,F/V and as interfacing circuits, ADC, DAC
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There are many possible functions of the signal-conditioning stage.
The following are the most common:
• deflection/Wheatstone bridge
• Amplification/Attenuation
• Filtering (high pass, Low pass, band pass, or band stop)
• Differentiation, Integration, Linearization
• Combining a measured signal with a reference signal
• Converting a resistance to a voltage signal
• Converting a current to a voltage / Converting a voltage to a current signal
• Converting a frequency signal to a voltage signal.
• More than one signal-conditioning function, such as amplification and filtering, can be
performed on a signal. 3
 1. Deflection Bridges:
• Bridge circuits are extensively used for measuring component values, such as
resistance, inductance, or capacitance, and other circuit parameters directly
derived from component values, such as frequency, phase angle, and temperature.
• Deflection bridges are used to convert the output of resistive, capacitive and
inductive sensors into a voltage signal.
• Thévenin equivalent circuit for a deflection bridge:

Thévenin equivalent circuit for a deflection bridge.

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• Assuming Q is at earth potential, then:
Potential at P and A = V S

Potential at B = V - i Z S 1 2

Potential at D = V - i Z S 2 1

E is equal to the potential difference between B and D, i.e.

Th

E = (V - i Z ) - (V - i Z )
Th S 1 2 S 2 1

= i Z - i Z , i and i defined above then calculate for ETh

2 1 1 2 1 2

is Thévenin voltage for general deflection bridge

• ZTh is the impedance, looking back into the circuit, between the output terminals
BD, when the supply voltage VS is replaced by its internal impedance.
• Assuming the internal impedance of the supply is zero, then this is equivalent to a
short circuit across AC.
• ZTh is equal to the parallel combination of Z2 and Z3 in series with the parallel
combination of Z1 and Z4, i.e Thévenin impedance for general
deflection bridge 5
• If a load, e.g. a voltmeter or amplifier, of impedance Z is connected across the
L

output terminals BD, then the current through the load is i = E /(Z + Z ). Th Th L

• The corresponding voltage across the load is V = E Z /(Z + Z ).

L Th L Th L

• Thus in the limit that |Z | >> |Z |, V → E .

L Th L Th

Design of resistive deflection bridges

In a resistive or Wheatstone bridge all four impedances Z1 to Z4 are pure resistances R1 to R4

First consider the case when only one of the resistances is a sensing element. Here R1 depends
on the input measured variable I. i.e. R1 = RI, and R2, R3 and R4 are fixed resistors. ETh

6
• Specify the three parameters V , R and R /R2. The individual values of R2 and R3
S 4 3

are not critical; their ratio is crucial to the design. The three parameters can be
specified by considering the range and linearity of the output voltage and
electrical power limitations for the sensor.
• Thus if I and I are minimum and maximum values of the measured
MIN MAX

variable, and R and R are the corresponding sensor resistances, then in

IMIN IMAX

order for the bridge output voltage to have a range from V to V the MIN MAX

following conditions must be obeyed:

Often we require VMIN = 0, i.e. the bridge to be balanced when I = IMIN; in this case the
above equation reduces to
Relationship between resistances in a balanced Wheatstone bridge

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• A third condition is required to complete the design:- is the need to limit the electrical
power RI in the sensor to a level which enables it
to be dissipated as heat flow to the surrounding fluid;
• otherwise the temperature of the sensor rises above that of the surrounding fluid, thereby
affecting the sensor resistance
• if watts is the maximum power dissipation , Z1=R1 and Z4=R4

For I MIN ≤ I ≤ I MAX ,

To keep the non-linearity of the overall relationship between ETh and I within specified
limits. Assuming VMIN = 0, then the ideal relationship between V and I is the ideal
straight line

The non-linear function N(I) = ETh - VIDEAL

percentage of full scale

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• The value of ratio R3/R2 varies according to the type of resistive sensor used.
We have R4 = (R3/R2)RSubstituting
IMIN for R4 on

When r = R3/R2 = 1, for a bridge with a single strain gauge, we require R2, R3 and R4 to all
equal the unstrained gauge resistance R0 , The value of VS is determined by the power
condition. Putting r = 1 and as x~1

Output voltage for single-element strain gauge bridge

i.e. the relationship between ETh and e is linear 9
 Example
A quarter strain gauge bridge has a strain gauge of resistance R1=200Ω and
gauge factor G=1.9, while R2, R3 and R4 are fixed resistance at 200Ω. The
strain gauge experiences a strain of 400micro strain. If the input voltage is 4v
determine the change in output voltage ΔV and ΔR.
Solution
•Given at the balanced condition R1=R2=R3=R4=200 Ω, and GF=1.9
•For e=400x10-6 , the resistance change is
•ΔR=Ge*R= 0.152 Ω
•The output voltage is 10
 The resistance R Ω of a metal resistance sensor, e.g. platinum, at T °C is given
T

approximately by R = R (1 + αT ).
T 0

• For large r (i.e. r >>1), v approximate as

If T MIN = 0 °C, then since RT /R0 = 1 + αT:

• Output voltage for metal resistance sensor bridge (large

r),

Figure (a) Two-element resistance sensor bridge (b) Four-element strain

gauge bridge. 11
In order to balance the bridge when
T1 - T2 = 0, we require R4/R1 = R3/R2 when T1 = T2; this implies R4/R0 = R3/R0, i.e. R4 = R3

and if we choose R3 so that R3/R0 >>1, this

approximates to:
• Output voltage for two-element resistance sensor bridge

• Output voltage for cantilever and torque elements

#Here the output voltage is four times that of the single gauge bridge

• Output voltage for pillar load cell

• Output voltage for strain gauge accelerometer
where e0 = strain due to prestressing which is present at zero acceleration and e is the acceleration-
induced strain, G is the gauge factor and R0 the unstrained resistance of the gauges
12
Practical elastic sensing elements
using strain gauges:
(a) Cantilever load cell
(b) Pillar load cell
(c) Torque sensor
(d) Unbonded strain
gauge accelerometer

13
 Design of reactive deflection bridges
• A reactive bridge has an a.c. supply voltage; two arms are usually reactive impedances
and two arms resistive impedances.

(a) Bridge for capacitive level sensor (b) Bridge for inductive push-pull
displacement sensor
Figure (a) shows the bridge to be used with the capacitance level
transducer

14
 • in order to get :E = 0 at minimum level h , we require C = C
Th MIN 0 h

(R /R ),
MIN 3 2

giving: Output voltage for capacitance level bridge

• if R3/R2 >> 1, this approximates to the linear form:

 The most common two-element reactive bridges incorporate either capacitive or inductive push-pull
displacement sensors
For the capacitive sensor has C1 = εε0 A/(d + x) and C2 = εε0 A/(d - x)
so that Z1 = l/( jωC1), Z2 = Z3 = R, Z4 = 1/( jωC2) , there fore :

After some steps the output voltage for capacitance push pull bridge

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• A similar result is obtained with the variable reluctance push-pull displacement sensor

Output voltage for inductive push-pull bridge

α = k/R0, R0= is reluctance at zero air gap and

Differential reluctance
displacement sensor

16
 2. Amplifiers
• Amplifiers are necessary in order to amplify low-level signals, e.g. thermocouple or strain
gauge bridge output voltages, to a level which enables them to be further processed
indication or recording.
a. The ideal operational amplifier and its applications

Operational amplifiers (OPAMPs) are special types of amplifiers which essential component of
both practical and precision instruments.
The operational amplifier can be regarded as the basic building block for modern amplifiers.
It is a high gain, integrated circuit amplifier designed to amplify signals from d.c. up to many
kHz.

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Ideal and typical operational amplifier characteristics revision

18
Summing point conditions for ideal operational amplifier with negative feedback

The first condition results from assuming input impedance Z = ∞. The second condition results from
IN

assuming that A → ∞:
OL

since VOUT = A (V+ - V-) and VOUT is finite, then the differential voltage (V+ - V-) → 0 i.e. V+ = V-
OL

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Common op-amp circuit configurations

•Some of the most common circuit configuration where Opamp is

used to for suiting signal are;
•Voltage comparator
•Inverting amplifier
•Non inverting amplifier
•Summing amplifier
• Voltage follower
• Differential amplifier
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• Voltage comparator
• If v2>v1 the output voltage is -ve
• If v2<v1the output voltage is +ve
• If v2=v1, then the output voltage is zero

Inverting amplifier

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 Non Inverting Amplifier

𝑣 𝑜 =𝑣 𝑖𝑛
[ 1+
𝑅𝑓
𝑅1 ]
Voltage Follower (Unity Gain)
 This circuit has unity gain, high input impedance
and low output impedance and is used as a buffer
amplifier to connect a voltage signal source with
high output impedance to a low impedance load.
V =V
OUT IN

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Differential amplifier

Strain gauge bridge connected to differential amplifier

A strain gauge bridge connected to a differential
amplifier. Here R1 and R3 experience tensile strain
+e so that: R1 = R3 = R0(1 + Ge) , while R2 and R4
experience compressive strain -e so that:
R2 = R4 = R0(1 - Ge)

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• RIN is the Thevenin resistance of the potential divider R1, R4 (also R2, R3): RIN
is therefore equal to the resistance of R1 and R4 in parallel Since the strain e is
much less than 1, we have: RIN ≈ R0/2 ,

A.C. Amplifier

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Voltage adder

Limitations of practical operational amplifiers VOUT = AOL(V+ - V-) + ACMVCM

The existence of input offset voltage VOS The common mode voltage VCm

𝑉 +¿+𝑉
𝑉 𝑐𝑚= −
¿
For an inverting amplifier 2
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Instrumentation amplifiers
• Is a high-performance differential amplifier system consisting of several closed-loop
operational amplifiers.
• An instrumentation amplifier (INA) is specially designed amplifier to have differential
gain, high input impedance, high CMRR ratio ,low input offset voltage, low
temperature coefficient of offset voltage.

VOUT = K(V2 - V1)

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 v1  v 2 v  v2
v o1  v o 2  R2  v1  v 2  1 R2
R1 R1
R R 
v1  v 2  2  1  2 
 R1 R1 
 2 R2 
v1  v 2 1  
 R1 

The inverting amplifier produces 𝑣 𝑜𝑖 =−𝑣 𝑜 1

[ ]
𝑅4
𝑅3
The non-inverting amplifier produces 𝑣 𝑜𝑛 =𝑣 𝑜 2
[ ][ ]
𝑅4
𝑅3 + 𝑅 4
1+
𝑅4
𝑅3

𝑣𝑜 =𝑣𝑜𝑖 +𝑣𝑜𝑛 =𝑣𝑜2

[[ ] ][ ] [ [ ]
𝑅4 𝑅4
1+ − 𝑣𝑜1
𝑅3 +𝑅4 𝑅3
𝑅4
𝑅3
][ ]
𝑣 𝑜=( 𝑣 02 −𝑣𝑜 1 )
𝑅4
𝑅3
𝑣 0=− ( 𝑣 1 −𝑣 2 ) 1+
2𝑅2
𝑅1
𝑅4
𝑅3
=(𝑣 2− 𝑣 1)[1+
2𝑅2 𝑅4
][
𝑅1 𝑅3
]
[ 1+
2𝑅2
𝑅1 ][ ]
𝑅4
𝑅3
=𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
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Example
A bridge circuit for which R4 varies from 100 to 102 is shown
below. Show how this bridge could be connected to the given
instrumentation amplifier to provide an output of 0 to 2.5V for
that change in R4. Assume that, in the instrumentation
amplifier circuit, R2 = R3 = 1 k and R1 = 100 k.

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Answer
• Clearly, the bridge nulls when R 4=100 Ω. So, we do not need
zero adjustment.
• When R4 = 102Ω the bridge offset voltage is found as

Δ 𝑉 =𝑉 𝑏 −𝑉 𝑎=5 (102
−
100
100+102 100+100 )
=24.75mV .

• To get an output of 2.5V at 102Ω we need a differential gain of

(2.5 V/24.75 mV) = 101.
• For the given instrumentation amplifier we have

( )( )
𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1+
2𝑅 1 𝑅3
𝑅𝐺 𝑅 2
(𝑉 2 −𝑉 1 )⇒101= 1+
𝑅𝐺 1(
2(100) 1
)( ) 29
Thankyou!!

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