Introduction to Sociology

Module 1: Foundations of Sociology

 Why It Matters: Foundations of Sociology

• We are all members of society and we all experience a variety of

social interactions every day
• Sociology complements many other subject areas and is pertinent to
every aspect of your life
• You are an individual within society but also a member of several
social groups that interact constantly and part of social institutions
Sociology

• Sociology is the scientific study of social behavior and human groups

• Sub-sections of study range from analysis of conversations to the
development of theories and explaining how the world works
What is Sociology?
• Sociology is the study of groups and group interactions,
societies and social interactions
• A group is any collection of at least two people who interact
with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned
identity
• A society is a group of people who live in a defined geographic
area who interact and share a common culture
• Sociologists study small groups and individual interactions from
the micro-level and trends among and between large groups
and societies on the macro-level
• Culture refers to the group’s shared practices, values, and
beliefs
• Sociological imagination (C. Wright Mills): an awareness of
the relationship between one’s behavior and experience and
Why Study Sociology?
• The field of sociology consists of people
interested in contributing to the body of
knowledge as well as those interested in both
the study and improvement of society
• Sociology has played a crucial role in
desegregation, gender equality in the workplace,
improved treatment of individuals with
disabilities, and the rights of native populations
• Sociology can teach people ways to recognize
how they fit into the world and how others
perceive them and increase awareness of
differences
Practice Question 1
What is Sociology?

a. The study of personal choices and behavior.

b. The study of cultures and ways of life.
c. The study of society and social interaction.
d. The study of personality and social behavior.
Practice Question 1 Answer
What is Sociology?

a. The study of personal choices and behavior.

b. The study of cultures and ways of life.
c. The study of society and social interaction.
d. The study of personality and social behavior.

Explanation of answer:
Sociology is the study of social behavior and human groups.
Sociologists study how society effects people and how people
effect society.
Structural-Functional Theory
• Structural-functional theory sees society as a structure with interrelated
parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals in
society
• English philosopher and biologist Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903) wrote about
the similarities between society and the human body and argued that as
various organs of the body work together, various parts of society work
together to keep society functioning
• These parts of society are social institutions that include patterns of belief
and behaviors focused on meeting social needs
• Émile Durkheim applied Spencer’s theory to explain how societies change
and survive over time
• Durkheim believed that society is a complex system of interrelated and
interdependent parts working together to maintain stability
• Durkheim believed that sociologists need to look beyond individuals to social
facts in order to study society
Structural-Functional Theory
Structural-functional theory is a way of looking at society that sees it
as a system made up of different parts, each with a specific function
or role. These parts—such as institutions (family, government,
schools) or groups (workers, students)—work together to maintain
stability and order in society.
In simple terms, it’s like a machine where every part has a job to
keep the whole system running smoothly. For example, the family
provides emotional support, schools teach knowledge, and the
government enforces laws. When all these parts function well,
society remains stable.
The theory was first developed by sociologists like Emile Durkheim
and later expanded by others, like Talcott Parsons, and focuases on
how each part of society helps to maintain balance and harmony.
Conflict Theory
• Conflict theory looks at society as a competition for limited resources
• This is a macro-level approach most identified with Karl Marx who saw
society as being made of capitalist (bourgeoisie) an worker (proletariat)
classes
• Ida B. Wells articulated conflict theory through theorized connection
between an increase in lynching and increase in black social mobility
• She also examined competition within the feminist movement as women
fought for the right to vote
• W.E.B. DuBois also examined race in the U.S. and in U.S. colonies from a
conflict perspective and emphasized the importance of a reserve labor
force, made up of black men
• C. Wright Mills used conflict theory to look at systems of power and ways in
which government, military, and corporations formed a power elite in the
U.S. in the 1950s
• Conflict Theory has been criticized for focusing on the conflict to the
exclusion of recognizing stability
Conflict Theory
• Conflict theory is a way of looking at society that focuses on
the struggles and inequalities between different groups. It
suggests that society is made up of groups that compete for
resources, power, and control. These groups can be based on
things like wealth, class, race, or gender.
• In simple terms, conflict theory says that instead of everyone
working together harmoniously (like in structural-
functionalism), society is often divided by conflicts, with the
rich or powerful groups having more advantages and the less
powerful groups trying to fight for their rights.
• This theory was developed by Karl Marx and focuses on how
inequality and power differences lead to social tension and
change. So, instead of seeing society as a stable system,
conflict theory highlights the problems caused by inequality.
Symbolic Interactionist Theory
• Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory focusing on meaning
attached to human interaction, verbal and non-verbal, and to symbols
• Communication is the way in which people make sense of their social worlds
• Looking-glass self (Charles Horton Cooley) describes how a person’s
sense of self grows out of interactions with others
• Threefold process: 1)We see how others react to us 2) We interpret that
reaction, and 3) We develop a sense of self based on those interpretations
• George Herbert Mead (1863 – 1931) is considered the founder of symbolic
interactionism
Reviewing Sociological Theories
• Food consumption from a structural-functional approach might be
interested in the role of the agricultural industry within the economy and
how it is changed, different functions that occur in food production, or
how food production is related to social solidarity
• A conflict theorist might be interested in the power differentials present
in food regulation, the power and powerlessness experienced by local
farmers vs. conglomerates, or how nutrition varies based on social classes
or other groups
• A symbolic interactionist would have more interest in topics such as
the symbolic use of food in religious rituals, food’s role at family dinners,
interactions among members identifying with a particular diet,
relationships between farm workers and employees, and symbolism
related to food consumption
Reviewing Sociological Theories
• Symbolic Interactionism is a theory that focuses on how people create and
share meaning through their everyday interactions. It suggests that society is
built from small, everyday interactions between individuals, and these
interactions are based on symbols—like words, gestures, and objects—that
have shared meanings.
• In simple terms, this theory says that we understand the world and form
relationships by interpreting and responding to the symbols and meanings we
create together. For example, when we greet someone with a handshake or
say "hello," we understand that as a friendly gesture, based on shared
cultural meaning.
• Symbolic interactionism was developed by thinkers like George Herbert Mead
and Herbert Blumer, and it emphasizes how our actions and beliefs are
shaped by our interactions with others.
Putting It Together: Sociological Foundations

• Sociology can contribute positively in both your personal and

professional life
• Due to the diversity of our society and a “shrinking” world, it is likely
you will run into people from distinctly different cultures
• Understanding one another contributes to more peaceful interactions in
our daily interactions
• A solid knowledge of the sociological imagination helps us see
connections between personal experiences and how our life may be
impacted by how society views us as individuals
Practice Question 5
What is a sociological paradigm?

a. A well-founded theory and framework used to

explain societies, and formulate further theories,
generalizations, and experiments.
b. A theory that explains small-scale relationships and
answers fundamental questions about relationships
between individuals or small groups.
c. A theoretical framework to describe society with
specific aspects pertaining to different cultures.
d. An educated guess as to the causes of a particular
social phenomena.
Practice Question 5 Answer
What is a sociological paradigm?

a. A well-founded theory and framework used to explain societies,

and formulate further theories, generalizations, and experiments.
b. A theory that explains small-scale relationships and answers fundamental
questions about relationships between individuals or small groups.
c. A theoretical framework to describe society with specific aspects
pertaining to different cultures.
d. An educated guess as to the causes of a particular social phenomena.

Explanation of answer:
”Paradigm” is a term used by sociologists to reflect a broad viewpoint, perspective, set
of guiding principles, or belief systems that allows them to build hypotheses and
theories. Sometimes the word paradigm is used interchangeably with theory,
philosophical framework, or approach.
Practice Question 6
Which statement best describes the structural-functional theory?

a. Society is a structure of interrelated parts that

meet the needs of those who live in that society.
b. Society is a competition for scarce resources.
c. Face-to-face relationships among individuals within
a society is very important.
d. One must examine gender to understand human
behavior and society.
Practice Question 6 Answer
Which statement best describes the structural-functional theory?

a. Society is a structure of interrelated parts that meet

the needs of those who live in that society.
b. Society is a competition for scarce resources.
c. Face-to-face relationships among individuals within a society is
very important.
d. One must examine gender to understand human behavior and
society.

Explanation of answer:
Structural-functional theory views society as a structure with interrelated
parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals
in that society.
Practice Question 7
The idea that people ascribe meaning to things based on interactions with
others and society is the main idea behind _________.

a. Symbolic interactionism
b. Conflict theory
c. Structural-functionalism
d. Class theory
Practice Question 7 Answer
The idea that people ascribe meaning to things based on interactions with
others and society is the main idea behind _________.

a. Symbolic interactionism
b. Conflict theory
c. Structural-functionalism
d. Class theory

Explanation of answer:
Symbolic interactionism focuses on how people relate to
society and give meaning to their interactions with others.
PSYCHOANALYSIS
Psychoanalysis, developed by Sigmund Freud, is a way of understanding
the mind and treating mental issues by exploring unconscious thoughts,
feelings, and past experiences. Freud believed that much of our
behavioris influenced by unconscious desires and unresolved conflicts,
often from childhood.

He divided the mind into three parts: the id (which seeks pleasure), the
ego (which deals with reality), and the superego (which holds moral
standards). Freud also introduced the idea of defense mechanisms, like
repression, that help protect us from anxiety. He believed people pass
through different psychosexual stages of development, and unresolved
issues in these stages could cause problems later in life. Freud's
therapeutic methods, like dream analysis and free association
(talking freely about thoughts), aim to uncover these hidden conflicts.
Overall, psychoanalysis helps people understand their unconscious mind
to improve mental health.
PSYCHOANALYSIS

• Psychoanalysis is a theory and treatment method for

understanding the mind, created by Sigmund Freud. It focuses
on how our unconscious mind (the part of our mind we’re not
aware of) influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

• In simple terms, psychoanalysis believes that many of our

actions and problems come from hidden feelings or memories,
often from childhood. By talking about our thoughts, dreams,
and past experiences, we can uncover these unconscious issues.
This helps us understand ourselves better and work through
emotional struggles. Psychoanalysis is often used in therapy to
treat things like anxiety, depression, and relationship problems.