ATOM AND NUCLEI

1. Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment

2. Distance of Closest Approach (Nuclear Size)
3. Impact Parameter
4. Composition of Nucleus
5. Atomic Number, Mass Number and Atomic Mass Unit
6. Radius of the Nucleus and Nuclear Density
7. Mass Energy Relation and Mass Defect
8. Binding Energy and Binding Energy per Nucleon
9. Binding Energy Curve and Inferences
10. Nuclear Forces and Meson Theory
11. Radioactivity and Soddy’s Displacement Law
12. Rutherford and Soddy’s Laws of Radioactive Decay
13. Radioactive Disintegration Constant and Half-Life Period
14. Units of Radioactivity
15. Nuclear Fission and Fusion
Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment

α
Bi-214 or
Radon
α - Beam
α
Lead Box Thin
Gold Foil

ZnS Screen

No. of α-particles
scattered (N)
+ Gold Atom

Scattering angle (θ)

α - Beam
S. No. Observation Conclusion
1 Most of the α-particles passed It indicates that most of the space
straight through the gold foil. in an atom is empty.

2 Some of the α-particles were α-particles being +vely charged and

scattered by only small angles, heavy compared to electron could
of the order of a few degrees. only be deflected by heavy and
positive region in an atom. It
indicates that the positive charges
and the most of the mass of the
atom are concentrated at the centre
called ‘nucleus’.
3 A few α-particles (1 in 9000) α-particles which travel towards the
were deflected through large nucleus directly get retarded due to
angles (even greater than 90°). Coulomb’s force of repulsion and
ultimately comes to rest and then
Some of them even retraced
fly off in the opposite direction.
their path. i.e. angle of
deflection was 180°.
NUCLEI
 Composition of Nucleus:
Every atomic nucleus except that of Hydrogen has two types of particles –
protons and neutrons. (Nucleus of Hydrogen contains only one proton)
Proton is a fundamental particle with positive charge 1.6 x 10 -19 C and mass
1.67 x 10-27 kg (1836 times heavier than an electron).
Neutron is also a fundamental particle with no charge and
mass 1.675 x 10-27 kg (1840 times heavier than an electron).

Atomic Number (Z):

The number of protons in a nucleus of an atom is called atomic number.

Atomic Mass Number (A):

The sum of number of protons and number of neutrons in a nucleus of an
atom is called atomic mass number.
A=Z+N
Atomic Mass Unit (amu):
Atomic Mass Unit (amu) is (1 / 12)th of mass of 1 atom of carbon.
1 12
1 amu = x g = 1.66 x 10-27 kg
12 6.023 x 10 23
ize of Nucleus:
Nucleus does not have a sharp or well-defined boundary.
However, the radius of nucleus can be given by

where R0 = 1.2 x 10-5 m is a constant which is the same for

all nuclei and A is the mass number of the nucleus.

Radius of nucleus ranges from 1 fm to 10 fm.

Nuclear Volume,
V = (4/3) π R3 = (4/3) π R03 A So VαA

Nucleus Density:
Mass of nucleus, M = A amu = A x 1.66 x 10 -27 kg
Nuclear Volume, V = (4/3) π R3 = (4/3) π R03 A
4 22
= x x (1.2 x 10-15)3 A m3
3 7
= 7.24 x 10-45 A m3

Nucleus Density, ρ = M / V = 2.29 x 1017 kg / m3

Discussion:
1. The nuclear density does not depend upon mass number. So, all
the nuclei possess nearly the same density.
2. The nuclear density has extremely large value. Such high
densities are found in white dwarf stars which contain mainly
nuclear matter.
3. The nuclear density is not uniform throughout the nucleus. It has
maximum value at the centre and decreases gradually as we move
away from the centre of the nucleus.
4. The nuclear radius is the distance from the centre of the nucleus
at which the density of nuclear matter decreases to one-half of its
maximum value at the centre.
Mass – Energy Relation:

The total energy of the body is given by E = m c2

This is Einstein’s mass - energy equivalence relation.
 Mass Defect:
It is the difference between the rest mass of the nucleus and the sum of the
masses of the nucleons composing a nucleus is known as mass defect.

Δm = [ Zmp + (A – Z) mn ] - M

Mass defect per nucleon is called packing fraction.

Binding Energy:
It is the energy required to break up a nucleus into its constituent parts and
place them at an infinite distance from one another.
B.E = Δm c2
Binding Energy per Nucleon:
It is the binding energy divided by total number of nucleons.

It is denoted by B

B = B.E / Nucleon = Δm c2 / A
 Fe56
Al27 Cl35
Ar40 Binding Energy Curve:
9 Sr86 Xe124
8.8 Ne 20 As 75 Xe136
W182
Mo98 Pt208
O16
8 Cu63 Xe130 U238
F19
C12 Pt194
Average B.E per Nucleon (in MeV)

N14
He4
7 Be11 U235
Fission

Region of maximum stability

Be9
6
Li7
Li6 Special Features:
5
Fusion
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H2
1

H1
0 20 40 56 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

Mass Number (A)

 Special Features:
1. Binding energy per nucleon of very light nuclides such as 1H2 is very small.
2. Initially, there is a rapid rise in the value of binding energy per nucleon.
3. Between mass numbers 4 and 20, the curve shows cyclic recurrence of
peaks corresponding to 2He4, 4Be8, 6C12, 8O16 and 10Ne20. This shows that the
B.E. per nucleon of these nuclides is greater than those of their immediate
meighbours. Each of these nuclei can be formed by adding an alpha
particle to the preceding nucleus.
4. After A = 20, there is a gradual increase in B.E. per nucleon. The maximum
value of 8.8 MeV is reached at A = 56. Therefore, Iron nucleus is the most
stable.
5. Binding energy per nucleon of nuclides having mass numbers ranging from
40 to 120 are close to the maximum value. So, these elements are highly
stable and non-radioactive.
6. Beyond A = 120, the value decreases and falls to 7.6 MeV for Uranium.
7. Beyond A = 128, the value shows a rapid decrease. This makes elements
beyond Uranium (trans – uranium elements) quite unstable and radioactive.
8. The drooping of the curve at high mass number indicates that the nucleons
are more tightly bound and they can undergo fission to become stable.
9. The drooping of the curve at low mass numbers indicates that the nucleons
can undergo fusion to become stable.
Chain Reaction:

Neutron (thermal) 0n1

Uranium 92U235

Barium 56 Ba141

Krypton 36 Kr92

n = No. of fission stages

n=1 n=2 n=3 N = No. of Neutrons
N=1 N=9 N = 27 N = 3n
Nuclear Fusion:
Nuclear fusion is defined as a type of nuclear reaction in which two lighter
nuclei merge into one another to form a heavier nucleus accompanied by a
release of a large amount of energy.
Energy Source of Sun:
Proton – Proton Cycle:
1H + 1H1 → H2 + e0 + 0.4 MeV
1
1 1

1H1 + 1 H2 → 2 He3 + γ + 5.5 MeV

2He3 + He3 →
2 He4 + 2 1H1 + 12.9 MeV
2

Energy Source of Star:

Carbon - Nitrogen Cycle:
6C12 + H1
1 → N13 + γ
7 (energy)
7N13 → 6 C13 + 1e0 (positron)
6C13 + H1
1 → N14 + γ
7 (energy)
7N14 + H1
1 → O15 + γ
8 (energy)
8O15 → 7 N15 + 1e0 (positron)
7N15 + H1
1 → C12 + 2He4 + γ (energy)
6