ATOMS

An atom is the smallest particle of an element possessing the properties of the element. The word
atom is derived from a Greek word atomos meaning not cut or indivisible.
The first contribution in the study of atom came from Dalton, who postulated that matter is made
up of atoms, which are indivisible. Later, J J Thomson, Rutherford, and Neil’s Bohr contributed
in the study of atom, which played a very significant role in the development of atomic and
nuclear physics.

THOMSON’S MODEL OF ATOM:

According to Thomson’s model of atom, positive charge of the atom is uniformly distributed
throughout the volume of the atom and negatively charged electrons are embedded in it like the
seeds of watermelon. This model is also called plum-pudding model of an atom
Limitations:
This model couldn’t explain the features of optical spectra of hydrogen and other elements.

RUTHERFORD’S α-PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT:

In 1911, Rutherford studied the scattering of α-particles from a thin gold foil in order to study the
structure of atom. This important experiment led to the discovery of atomic nucleus.
The experimental set up of Rutherford’s α- particle scattering experiment is shown in the fig.1

Fig.1 Schematic arrangement of Geiger-Marsden experiment)

A narrow beam of high energy α- particles from a radioactive source (Bismuth) was incident on
a thin sheet of gold foil (about 2.1×10-7m). The α- particles scattered in different directions are
observed through a rotatable detector consisting of a zinc sulphide screen and a microscope. The
α- particles produce bright flashes or scintillations on ZnS screen. The angle θ of the deviation of
a α- particle from its original direction is called scattering angle. The whole apparatus is placed
inside a vacuum chamber.

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The graph between the total number of α- particles
N(θ) scattered at angle θ and the scattering angle θ is
shown in fig.2
The graph reveals the following observations,
• Most of the α- particles passed straight
through the gold foil.
• Only about 0.14% of incident α- particles
scatter by more than 10.
• A very small number of α- particles (about 1 in
8000) are deflected by more than 900 and few
of them were even retraced their path.
Fig 2

The scattering of α- particles is due to coulombian interaction of α- particles with electrons in

every atom of gold foil. Rutherford argued that, to deflect α- particle backwards, it must
experience a large repulsive force. This force could be provided if the entire mass and positive
charge of the atom is concentrated tightly at the centre. Then the incoming α- particle get very
close to positive charge and hence result in a large deflection.

Sr. Observation Conclusion

no
1 Most of the α-particles passed straight It indicates that most of the space inside an atom is
through the gold foil. empty
2 Some of the α-particles were scattered α-particles being positively charged and heavy
by very small angles. compared to electron could only be deflected by
heavy and positive region in an atom. It indicates that
positive charge and most of the mass of an atom is
concentrated at the centre called nucleus.
3 A few α-particles (1in 8000) deflect by α-particles which travel towards the nucleus directly
o
more than 90 and some of them even get retarded due to coulombs repulsive force and
retraced their path i.e., angle of comes to rest and move in the opposite direction.
o
deflection was 180 .
CONCLUSION:
• In Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom, the entire positive charge and most of the
mass of the atom are concentrated in the nucleus and the electrons move around the
nucleus in orbits, just like the planets do around the sun.
• Rutherford’s experiment suggested the size of the nucleus to be about 10-15m. The size of
the atom is 10-10m. The nucleus occupies a very small portion of atom and hence, most of
the atom is empty.
NOTE:
1. An α- particle is a helium nucleus containing 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
2. The charge of the gold nucleus is Ze, where Z is the atomic number of the atom; for gold
Z = 79. Since the nucleus of gold is about 50 times heavier than an α -particle, we can
assume that it remains stationary throughout the scattering process.

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THEORY OF α-PATICLE SCATTERING
1. DISTANCE OF CLOSEST APPROACH(r0):
Rutherford’s experiment of α-particle scattering can be used to estimate the size of the
nucleus. Suppose an α-particle is directed towards the centre of the nucleus as shown in
Fig.3, it experiences repulsive force due to nucleus. Its kinetic energy starts getting
converted into electrostatic potential energy of the system. Therefore, the α-particle slows
down and at some distance r0 from the nucleus, it stops for a moment and begins to
retrace its path i.e., it is scattered back through an angle of 1800.

At distance r0 the entire kinetic energy of

α-particle gets converted into electrical
potential energy of the system. According
to law of conservation of energy,
kinetic energy = potential energy
1 1 2𝑍𝑒 2
i.e., 2 mv2 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟0
1 2𝑍𝑒 2
Or r0 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝐾𝐸
1
where, KE = 2 mv2

Fig.3

NOTE:
The radius of the nucleus must be smaller than the calculated value of r0, as the α-particle
can’t touch the periphery of the nucleus on account of strong repulsion.

2. IMPACT PARAMETER (b):

The impact parameter of the α-particle is defined as the perpendicular distance of the
initial direction of the α-particle from the centre of the nucleus, when the particle is far
away from the nucleus of the atom.

Fig.4

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 • When the value of impact parameter b is large, the repulsive force experienced by the α-
particle is small and the α-particle is scattered through a small angle(θ)
• For small value of impact parameter, the repulsive force on the α-particle is large and it is
scattered through a large angle.
• For head on collision, the impact parameter b=0, so that scattering angle θ=1800. Here
particle retraces its path.
• Impact parameter is given by,
1 𝑍𝑒 2 𝜃 1
b= 4𝜋𝜀 cot 2 where KE = 2 mv2
0 𝐾𝐸

NOTE:
• The shape of the trajectory of the scattered α-particle depends upon the impact parameter
and the force between the α-particle and the nucleus.
•
RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF ATOM:
According to this model,
• Every atom consists of a tiny central core, called the nucleus which contains all the atoms
positive charge and most of its mass.
• The radius of the nucleus is of the order of 10-15m and that of the atom is of the order 10-
10
m. Therefore, the nucleus occupies only an extremely small portion of the size of the
atom.
• The electrons occupy the space outside the nucleus. Since the atom is electrically neutral,
the positive charge of the nucleus is equal to the negative charge on electrons surrounding
the nucleus.
• Electrons are not stationary but revolve around the nucleus in various circular orbits. The
necessary centripetal force required by the electrons for revolution is provided by the
electrostatic force of attraction between the electrons and the nucleus.

LIMITATIONS OF RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL:

• According to classical electromagnetic theory, the electron revolving around the nucleus
loses its energy continuously. Due to this, the electrons in Rutherford’s model were
bound to spiral towards the nucleus and fall into it. Hence, this model fails to explain the
stability of the atom.
• During inward spiral motion, the electrons angular frequency continuously increases. As
a result, electrons will radiate electromagnetic waves of all frequencies. This gives rise to
continuous spectrum. But experiment shows that an atom emits line spectra and each line
corresponds to a particular frequency. Thus, this model is unable to explain the emission
of line spectra.

ATOMIC SPECTRA:
Each element has a characteristic spectrum of radiation, emitted by it. When an atomic gas or
vapour is excited by passing an electric current through it, the emitted radiation has a spectrum

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which contains certain specific wavelengths only. A spectrum of this kind is termed as emission
line spectrum and it consists of bright lines on a dark background.
When white light passes through a gas and we analyze the transmitted light using a spectrometer,
we find some dark lines in the spectrum. These dark lines correspond precisely to those
wavelengths which were found in the emission line spectrum of the gas. This is called
absorption spectrum of the material of the gas.
Emission line spectra serve as a fingerprint for identification of the gas.
Emission lines in the spectrum of hydrogen is shown in Fig.5

Fig.5

SPECTRAL SERIES:
The frequencies of the light emitted by a particular elements exhibit some regular pattern. The
spacing between lines within certain sets decreases in a regular way. Each of these set of lines is
called spectral series. Consider the line emission spectrum of hydrogen which is the simplest
atom. The first series was observed by Balmer in the visible region. Four of the most prominent
lines in this region occur at the wavelength 656.3nm, 486.1nm, 434.1nm and 410.2nm as shown
in fig.6. It is called Balmer series.
• The spectral line with the longest wavelength, 656.3nm, in the red region is called Hα
line.
• The line with wavelength 486.1nm in the blue-green region is called Hβ line.
• The line with wavelength 434.1nm in the violet region is called Hγ line and so on.
• As the wavelength decreases, the lines appear closer and are weaker in intensity.

Fig.6
The empirical formula for the observed wavelength in Balmer series is,
1 1 1
= R [22 − ] where, n=3, 4, 5, 6…
𝜆 𝑛2

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Here R is the Rydberg constant and R= 1.097× 107 m-1
For n=3, the wavelength of the first member of the Balmer series is 656.3nm.
For n= ∞ , λ= 364.6nm is the shortest wavelength and is called series limit.
Other series of spectra for hydrogen were subsequently discovered. They are,
1 1 1
Lyman series = R [12 − ] where n=2, 3, 4…
𝜆 𝑛2
1 1 1
Paschen series = R [32 − ] where n= 4, 5, 6…
𝜆 𝑛2
1 1 1
Brackett series = R [4 2 − ] where n=5, 6, 7 …
𝜆 𝑛2
1 1 1
Pfund series = R [52 − ] where n=6, 7, 8,…
𝜆 𝑛2

BOHR'S MODEL OF ATOM:

To explain the stability and spectrum of an atom, Neil’s Bohr applied Planck’s quantum theory of
radiation to Rutherford’s model of atom. He gave his theory in the form of 3 postulates. They are,
• The electrons revolve around the nucleus of the atom in certain stable circular orbits without the
emission of radiant energy. These orbits are called non-radiating stationary orbits. The centripetal
force required by electrons for revolution is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction
between the electron and the nucleus.
• An electron can revolve around the nucleus only in those circular orbits in which its angular
momentum is an integral multiple of h/2π where, h is Planck’s constant
ℎ
i.e., mvr = n 2𝜋 where, n=1, 2, 3..
• The revolving electron might make a transition from outer stationary orbit of higher energy to the
inner stationary orbit of lower energy and thus, emits a photon having energy equal to the energy
difference between the two states.
Suppose E1 & E2 are the total energy of electron in the inner and outer stationary orbits
respectively, then the frequency ν of the emitted photon is E2 - E1 = hν
Where, h is the Planck’s constant

RADII OF BOHR'S STATIONARY ORBIT:

Consider an atom whose nucleus has positive charge Ze and an electron of charge e and mass m
revolve around the nucleus in an orbit of radius r. The centripetal force FC is provided by the
electrostatic force of attraction FE between the nucleus and electron. i.e., FE = FC
Therefore,
1 Ze2 𝑚𝑣 2
=
4πε0 r2 𝑟
1 Ze2
mv2 = 4πε ……..(1)
0 r
ℎ
According to Bohr, mvr = n 2𝜋 where, n= 1, 2, 3… ……..(2)
Squaring equation (2) and dividing by equation (1), we get
𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝜺𝟎
r=
𝝅𝒎𝒁𝒆𝟐
𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝜺𝟎
For hydrogen atom, Z=1, and hence r =
𝝅𝒎𝒆𝟐

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From the above equation, it is clear that radius of the Bohr stationary orbit is directly
proportional to n2. Thus, stationary orbits are not equally spaced.
For n=1, r1 = 0.53× 10-10 m. This is called Bohr radius.

VELOCITY OF ELECTRON IN BOHR'S STATIONARY ORBIT:

ℎ
From Bohr's postulate, we have mvr = n 2𝜋
𝑛ℎ
Velocity of electron v= 2𝜋𝑚𝑟 ….(1)
𝑛 2 ℎ 2 𝜀0
Substitute for r = in equation (1), we get
𝜋𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
𝒁𝒆𝟐
v = 𝟐𝒏𝒉𝜺
𝟎
𝒆𝟐
For hydrogen atom, Z=1, therefore, v = 𝟐𝒏𝒉𝜺
𝟎
1
Clearly, v α i.e., electron moves at a lower speed in higher orbits.
𝑛
For n=1, v1= 2.18× 106 m/s

TOTAL ENERGY OF ELECTRON IN BOHR'S STATIONARY ORBIT:

The total energy of electron is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy.
1 𝑍𝑒 2
Kinetic energy, K= 2 mv2 = 8𝜋𝑟𝜀
0
1 (𝑍𝑒)(−𝑒) −𝑍𝑒 2
Potential energy, U = 4𝜋𝜀 = 4𝜋𝑟𝜀
0 𝑟 0
Total energy, E = K + U
𝑍𝑒 2 𝑍𝑒 2
= 8𝜋𝑟𝜀 -
0 4𝜋𝑟𝜀0
𝒁𝒆𝟐
E = - 𝟖𝝅𝒓𝜺
𝟎
Substituting the value of r, we get
−𝒎𝒁𝟐 𝐞𝟒
E= 𝟖𝛆𝟐𝟎 𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
−𝒎𝐞𝟒
For Z=1, E= 𝟖𝛆𝟐𝟎 𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
−𝟏𝟑.𝟔
Substituting the values of m, e, h and 𝜀0 we get, E= eV where, n= 1, 2, 3…
𝒏𝟐
The total energy of the electron in a stationary orbit is negative which means that the electrons
are bound to the nucleus and it is not free to leave the atom.

NOTE:
• The total energy of electron increases as the electron goes to higher orbits.
• When n → ∞ , E = 0 and the electron becomes free.

ENERGY LEVELS:
The total energy of an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom is,
13.6
En = - eV
𝑛2

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By substituting n = 1, 2, 3…, we find the total energy of electron in various stationary orbits are,
E1 = - 13.6 eV (n=1)
E2 = - 3.4 eV (n=2)
E3 = - 1.51eV (n=3) and so on
The energy level diagram of hydrogen atom is shown in fig.7. The total energy of electron in a
stationary orbit is represented by a horizontal line drawn to some suitable energy scale.

• The hydrogen atom has only one electron and this normally
occupies the lowest level with energy – 13.6 eV. At room
temperature, nearly all the atoms of hydrogen are in the
ground state.
• The minimum energy required to remove an electron from the
ground state of the atom to infinite distance from the nucleus
is called ionization energy of atom.The energy required to
remove the electron from ground state
of hydrogen atom is 13.6eV.
• If hydrogen atom absorbs energy (e.g. electron collision), the
electron gets promoted into one of the higher energy levels.
Thus, when the electron occupies other than the lowest energy
level, the atom is said to be in the excited state.
• The energy required to raise an atom from the ground state to
the excited state is called excitation energy. For hydrogen
atom, E1 = - 13.6 eV (for n=1) and E2 = - 3.4 eV (for n=2).
Therefore, the energy required to excite an electron to the first
excited state (from n=1 to n=2) is E2 – E1 = 10.2eV.
• The atom is unstable in an excited state. After a short interval,
the electron falls back into ground state and emits a photon of
particular energy.

Fig. 7

SPECTRAL SERIES OF HYDROGEN ATOM:

When energy is supplied to a number of hydrogen gas, they may be excited to different energy
states. Hence a large number of photons of different frequencies are emitted giving rise to
spectral lines.
When an electron jumps from a higher orbit nf to the lower orbit ni, the energy difference
between the two orbits is released in the form of electromagnetic radiation. Then energy of the
radiation emitted, according to Bohr's second postulate is
hν = E2 – E1
−𝑚𝑒 4 1
Where, E2 is the total energy of electron in nfth orbit and E2 = 8𝜀2 ℎ2 𝑛2
0 𝑓

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 −𝑚𝑒 4 1
And E1 is the total energy of electron in nith orbit and E1 = 8𝜀02 ℎ2 𝑛𝑖2
The frequency ν of the emitted radiation is ,
𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
ν = 8𝜀2ℎ3 ( 𝑛2 - 2 ) ……(1)
0 𝑖 𝑛𝑓

The wavelength of the emitted radiation is given by c= νλ where, c is velocity of light.

1 𝑚𝑒 4 1 1
Substituting the value of ν from equation (1) , we get, 𝜆 = 8𝜀2𝑐ℎ3 ( 𝑛2 - 2 ) ….(2)
0 𝑖 𝑛𝑓
1
Also, 𝜆 = ῡ = wave number = number of waves in a unit length.
𝑚𝑒 4 1 1 1 1
ῡ = 8𝜀2𝑐ℎ3 ( 𝑛2 - 2 ) = R (𝑛 2 - 2 ) where, R is the Rydberg constant = 1.097× 107 m-1.
0 𝑖 𝑛𝑓 𝑖 𝑛𝑓

This value is very close to the value obtained by

Balmer empirical formula. This agreement between
the theoretical and experimental value of Rydberg
constant provided the direct proof for the
confirmation of Bohr model of atom.
The various spectral series of hydrogen atom are
shown in fig.8. In the fig, the vertical lines represent
the transition of electron from one to other states.
The various spectral series of hydrogen atom are,

• Lyman series: This series is obtained when

electrons jump to first orbit (n1 =1) from outer
orbits (n2 =2, 3 ,.. ). The formula for
calculating the wavelengths of the lines in this
series is
1 1 1
= R [12 − 𝑛2 ] where n=2, 3, 4…
𝜆
This series lies in the ultraviolet region.
• Balmer series: This series is obtained when
electrons jump to second orbit (n1 =2) from
outer orbits (n2 = 3, 4, ..) . The formula for
calculating the wavelength of the lines in this Fig.8
1 1 1
series is 𝜆 = R [22 − 𝑛2 ] where, n=3, 4, ..
This series lies in the visible region

• Paschen series: This series is obtained when electrons jump to third orbit (n1 =3) from
the outer orbits (n2 = 4, 5, ..). The formula for calculating the wavelengths of the lines in
1 1 1
this series is 𝜆 = R [32 − ] where n= 4, 5, 6…
𝑛2
This series lies in the infrared region.
• Brackett series: This series is obtained when electrons jump to fourth orbit (n1 =4) from
the outer orbits (n2 = 5, 6, ..). The formula for calculating the wavelengths of the lines in
1 1 1
this series is 𝜆 = R[42 − ] where n=5, 6, 7 …
𝑛2
This series lies in the infrared region.

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 • Pfund series: This series is obtained when electrons jump to fifth orbit (n1 =5) from the
outer orbits (n2 = 6, 7, , ..). The formula for calculating the wavelengths of the lines in
1 1 1
this series is 𝜆 = R[52 − ] where n=5, 6, 7 …
𝑛2
This series lies in the infrared region.

DE- BROGLIES EXPLANATION OF BOHR'S SECOND POSTULATE OF

QUANTISATION:
Bohr's second postulate states that, angular momentum of the electron orbiting around the
ℎ
nucleus is quantized, i.e., mvr= n 2𝜋 where, n=1, 2, 3..
Louis de-Broglie explained why should angular momentum have those values that are integral
ℎ
multiples of 2𝜋. According to de Broglie, a particle of mass m moving with speed v is associated
ℎ
with a wave of wavelength λ given by, λ= . He also suggested that, since electrons move in
𝑚𝑣
circles, orbiting electron around the nucleus of an atom is associated with a stationary wave as
shown in fig.9.
If the wavelength of a wave doesn’t close upon itself, destructive
interference takes place as wave travels around the circular orbit and it
dies out. Thus, only those de-Broglie waves exist foe which the
circumference of the circular orbit contains a whole number of
wavelengths.
For an electron moving in the nth circular orbit of radius rn , the
circumference of the orbit is 2πrn. Thus,

2πrn = nλ where, n= 1, 2, 3…
ℎ
Or, 2πrn = n 𝑚𝑣
𝒉
Or, mvrn = n 𝟐𝝅
Fig.9
This is the quantum condition proposed by Bohr for the angular
momentum of the electron.

LIMITATIONS OF BOHR'S THEORY:

• Bohr's model is applicable to simplest atoms like hydrogen with Z= 1. It fails for other
elements.
• This theory doesn’t explain the fine structure of spectral lines even in the hydrogen atom.
• It couldn’t explain the difference in the intensities of emitted radiations.
• This model doesn’t explain why the orbits are circular while elliptical orbits are also possible.
NOTE:

• The minimum energy required to excite an atom in the ground state to one of the higher
stationary states is called excitation energy.
• The minimum accelerating potential which provides all electron sufficient energy to jump
from the ground state to one of the outer orbit is called excitation potential.
• The minimum energy required to ionize an atom is called ionization energy of the atom.
• The minimum accelerating potential which would provide electron energy, sufficient to
just remove the electron from the atom is called ionization potential.

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