F Chapter1

Chapter 01
Introduction to
Instrumentatio
n&
Measurement
INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT (BTE 1443)
Assessments plan
Assessment CO 01 CO 02 CO 03 CO 04 Distribution (%)
Quizzes (5x) Ö Ö 10
Laboratory (2x) Ö Ö 10
Assignment (1x) Ö Ö 10
Tests (2x) Ö Ö 30
Final Examination Ö Ö 40
INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT

(BTE 1443)
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
 explain units and quantities in electrical
 discuss and calculate various types of error in
measurement
 explain the meaning of some terms in
instrumentation field

(BTE 1443)
Acknowledgement
 Thank you to all past lecturers who has
developed the slide contents for
Instrumentation and Measurements
course.
 Thisslides has been amended from their

slides.

(BTE 1443)
Chapter outline
The outline of this chapter is as
follows:
1.1 Principles of instrumentation and
measurements
1.2 Error in measurement
1.3 Measurement standard

(BTE 1443)
1.1 Principle of Instrumentation &
Measurement
Instrumentation:
 is a technology of measurement which serves not only
science but all branches of engineering, medicine, and
etc
 instrumentations serve three (3) basic functions: -
indicating…
recording…
controlling…
 the knowledge of any parameter largely depends on the

measurement
(BTE 1443)
1.1 Principle of Instrumentation
& measurement
3 basic functions of instrument:
Indicating Recording Controlling
General-purpose electrical &

Industrial-process
electronics test instruments
Control / automated
system INSTRUMENTATION &
MEASUREMENT (BTE 1443)
Instruments examples

Measurement
Measurement
• A process to present an observer with a numerical
value corresponding to the variable being measured
by using appropriate instrument
• Basically used to monitor a process or operation, or as well
as the controlling process
• Eg: thermometers, multimeter, etc
Input Measurement Output

system
True value Measured value
of variable of variable
(BTE 1443)
measurement
• The major problem encountered with any
measuring instrument is the error
• Therefore, it is necessary to select the
appropriate measuring instrument &
measurement method which minimises error
• To avoid errors in any experimental work,
careful planning, execution & evaluation of the
experiment are essential

(BTE 1443)
Measurement
Before measurement process we have to
ensure:
 Methods/procedures of measurement
 Characteristics of the parameter
 Quality: time and cost, instrument capabilities,
knowledge of measurement, acceptable result
 What instrument to use

Measurement
During the measurements we have to ensure:
 Quality- best instrument chosen, suitable position when

taking the data, etc..
 Safety- electric shock, overloaded, instrument limits,
read instrument manual
 Sampling – observe parameter changing, taking enough
sample
After measurement
 Analyse the data mathematically/statistically
 Full result must be reported completely and accurately
Measurement
Electrical Units
i) Fundamental Quantity…
Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbre.
Length l meter m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Temperature T Kelvin o
K
Electric current I Ampere A

Measurement
ii) Derived Quantity…
emf/ voltage V volt V
charge Q coulomb C
resistance R Ohm Ω
capacitance C farad F
inductance L henry H
INSTRUMENTATION &
1.2 Error in Measurement
Error:
• is defined as the difference between the measured value

and the expected value (true value) of the measured
parameter
Random
Limiting
Types
of Static
Gross
error errors
Absolut
e
Systematic
**static error = numerical difference between the true value of a quantity and its
value as obtained by measurement (i.e. repeated measurement of the same
quantity gives different indications.
1.2 Error in
Measurement
i) Absolute error:
The difference between the expected value
of the variable and the measured value of the
variable, or
e = Yn – Xn
where:
e = absolute error
Yn = expected
value
Xn = measured value (BTE 1443)
1.2 Error in
Measurement
• To express error in percentage
e
% error = Y (100) , e = Yn - Xn
n
• We also derived relative accuracy, A;

Yn  X n
A 1 
Yn
INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMEN

TS (BTE 1443)
1.2 Error in
Measurement
• Percentage accuracy, a:
a = 100% - % error
or
a = A x 100%
INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS (BTE

1443)
Example 1.1
The expected value of the voltage across a
resistor is 10.0 V. However, measurement
yields a value of 8.0 V. Calculate:
a) absolute error
b) % error
c) relative accuracy
d) % accuracy

1443)
1.2 Error in
Measurement
ii) Gross Error
Incorrect
reading
Incorrect
recording
Gross Human
Error Mistake Improper
use of
instrument
Etc.
 To minimize:
 take at least 3 separate reading
 take proper care in reading & recording
1.2 Error in
Measurement
iii) Systematic Error
Instrumentatio
n error
Systematic Environmental
Error Error
 example…???
 defective or worn parts Observational
Errors
 ageing
 parallaxerror
 wrong estimation reading scale
Systematic errors

Instrumental errors :
Incorrect
spring Friction in
tension meter
movemen
t
Instrument
al Error
Improper
Faulty calibration
instrument
- can be reduced by proper maintenance, use, and handling of instruments

Environmental errors :
- due to external condition of the

measuring
- eg: effects of change in temperature, humidity,
barometric pressure, electrostatic fields etc
- can be avoided by: air conditioning,
hermetically sealing certain components in the
instrument and using magnetic shields
INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS (BTE 1443)
Observational errors :
- Errors that introduced
by the observer
- The two most common

observational errors are
probably the parallax
error introduced in
reading a meter scale
and the error of
estimation when
obtaining a reading
from a meter scale
1.2 Error in
Measurement
iv) Random Errors
 Errors that remain after gross and systematic
errors have been substantially reduced
 Are generally the accumulation of a large

number of small effects
 May be of real concern only in measurements

requiring a high degree of accuracy
 such errors can only be analyzed statistically

 Due to unknown causesINSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS (BTE 1443)
1.2 Error in
Measurement
v) Limiting Errors
 Most manufacturers of instruments state that an

instrument is accurate within a certain percentage
of a full-scale reading
 Eg: a voltmeter is accurate within ±2% at full-scale

deflection (limiting errors)
 However, with reading less than full-scale, the

limiting error will increase
 therefore, it is important to obtain measurements

as close as possible to fullINSTRUMENTATION
scale & MEASUREMENTS (BTE 1443)
Example 1.2
A 300-V voltmeter is specified to be accurate
within ±2% at full scale. Calculate the limiting
error when the instrument is used to measure a
120-V source?

Example 1.2
Solution
The magnitude of the limiting error is:
300 x 2/100 = 6V
Therefore, the limiting error at 120 V is:

6/120 x 100 = 5%
(reading < full scale, limiting error
increased)
1443)
1443)
Example 1.3
A voltmeter and an ammeter are to be used to determine
the power dissipated in a resistor. Both instruments are
guaranteed to be accurate within ±1% at full scale. If the
voltmeter reads 80V on its 150-V range and the ammeter
reads 70mA on its 100-mA range, calculate the limiting
error for the power calculation.
** The limiting error for the power calculation is the

sum of individual limiting errors involved
Precision of measurement
 A measure of the consistency or repeatability of
measurements
Precision = 1 - Xn - Xn
Xn
where
Xn = the value of the nth measurement
Xn = the average of the set of n measurements
= sum of the nth measurement values / nth
Example 1.4
Measurement Measurement  Table below gives the set of 10
number value Xn measurement that were recorded in
1 98 the laboratory. Calculate the
2 101 precision of the 6th measurement.
3 102
4 97
5 101 Xn = ??
6 100 Precision = ??
7 103
8 98
9 106
10 99

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT DATA
 Important because it allows an analytical determination of the
uncertainty of the final result
 A large number of measurements is usually required
Mean
/average deviation
Statistical
analysis
Standard Average
deviation deviation

i) Arithmetic mean/average:
- the most probable value of measured variable
x1  x 2  x 3    x n n
xi
x 
n i 1 n
n = total number of reading

xn = nth reading taken
xi = set of number

ii) Deviation:
- The difference between each piece of data and
arithmetic mean
d n xn  x
d1  x1  x d 2  x2  x
- Algebraic sum of deviation,
d tot d1  d 2    d n 0
iii) Average deviation (D):
- precision of a measuring instrument
- high D low precision
- low D  high precision
d1  d 2    d n
D
n
INSTRUMENTATION &
iv) Standard deviation:
- also known as root mean square deviation
- the most important factor in statistical analysis
- reduction means improvement in measurement
√
2 2 2 2
𝑑 1 +𝑑2 +𝑑3 +....+𝑑 𝑛 For sample data only
𝜎=
𝑛−1
√
2 2 2 2
𝑑 1 +𝑑2 +𝑑3 +....+𝑑 𝑛 For whole data
𝜎=
𝑛
Example
Your class has five students, and the height of each student is
as follows:
First student = 150 cm
Second student = 160 cm
Third student = 170 cm
Fourth student = 165 cm
Fifth student = 155 cm
Calculate the standard deviation.
you need the mean and variance.
Mean = (150 + 160 + 170 + 165 + 155) / 5 = 160cm
Variance = [(150 – 160)2 + (160 – 160) 2 + (170 – 160) 2 + (165 –
160) 2 +
Standard Deviation
(155 – 160) 2
] / 5 ==
50Square Root of Variance = =7.07cm
These data gives you
• The average height of students is 160 cm (mean).
• The height of most of the students varies from 152.93 cm (160
– 7.07) to 167.07 cm (160 + 7.07).
Example 1.5
For the following data compute
(a) The arithmetic mean (49.9)
(b) The deviation of each value (0.2,-0.2,-0.3,0.3)
(c) The algebraic sum of the deviation (0)
(d) The average deviation (0.25)
(e) The standard deviation (0.294)
x1= 50.1 x2= 49.7

x3= 49.6 x4= 50.2

1.3 Measurement
Standards
 Standards are defined in 4 categories:
i) international standards
ii) primary standards
iii) secondary standards
iv) working standards

(BTE 1443)
1.3 Measurement
Standard
i) International Standards
 Defined by international agreements
 These standards are maintained at the
International Bureau of Weight and Measures in
Paris, Frances
 They are periodically evaluated and checked by
absolute measurements in term of the
fundamental units of physics
 They represent certain units of measurement to
the closest possible accuracy attained by the
science and technology of measurement and
used for comparison with primary standards
(BTE 1443)
SI units

1.3 Measurement Standard
ii) Primary Standard
 Are maintained at institution in various countries
around the world, such as the National Bureau
of Standard on Washington D.C, SIRIM in
Malaysia
 The primary standards are not available for use
outside the national laboratories
 Their principle function is to calibrate and verify
the secondary standards
 Also known as National Standard
iii) Secondary Standard
 Used as the basic reference standards used by
measurement & calibration laboratories in the
industry
 Each industrial laboratory is completely
responsible for its own secondary standards
 Each laboratory sends its secondary standards to
the national standards ( primary standards)
laboratory for calibration
 After calibration, the secondary standards are
returned to the industrial uses with the
certification and checked periodically
iv) Working Standard
 Working standard is the principle tools of a
measurement laboratory and the lowest level of
standards
 Used to check and calibrate the instruments used
in the laboratory or to make comparison
measurement in industrial application
 Example: the standard resistor, capacitors,
inductor which usually found in an electronics
laboratory are classified as working standards.

Summary
 Some terms +definitions are as below:
 Error – ---???
 Accuracy – The degree of exactness of a
measurement compared to the expected
value
 Precision – A measure of consistency, or
repeatability of measurements.

(BTE 1443)
Summary
 Instrument – a device or mechanism used to
determine the present value of a quantity
 Measurement – a process of comparing an
unknown quantity with an accepted standard
quantity.
 Standard – an instrument or device having a
recognized permanent (stable) value that is used
as a reference.

(BTE 1443)
Summary
 expected value – the most probable value we
should expect to obtain.
 deviation – the difference between any piece of
data in a set of numbers and the arithmetic mean
of the set of numbers.
 transducer – a device that converts one form of
energy into another form

(BTE 1443)
Evaluation
 Electrical Quantity…
l meter
Capacitance F
Time second
T Kelvin o
K
Charge

THANK U FOR
YOUR
ATTENTION!!

(BTE 1443)

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Chapter 01

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT

 Thisslides has been amended from their

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT

 the knowledge of any parameter largely depends on the

Indicating Recording Controlling

General-purpose electrical &

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT (BTE 1443)

Input Measurement Output

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT (BTE 1443)

 Quality- best instrument chosen, suitable position when

Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbre.

Electric current I Ampere A

Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbre.

emf/ voltage V volt V

• is defined as the difference between the measured value

• We also derived relative accuracy, A;

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMEN

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS (BTE

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS (BTE

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT (BTE 1443)

- can be reduced by proper maintenance, use, and handling of instruments

- due to external condition of the

- The two most common

 Are generally the accumulation of a large

 May be of real concern only in measurements

 such errors can only be analyzed statistically

 Most manufacturers of instruments state that an

 Eg: a voltmeter is accurate within ±2% at full-scale

 However, with reading less than full-scale, the

 therefore, it is important to obtain measurements

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS (BTE 1443)

Therefore, the limiting error at 120 V is:

** The limiting error for the power calculation is the

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS (BTE 1443)

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS (BTE 1443)

n = total number of reading

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS (BTE 1443)

x1= 50.1 x2= 49.7

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT (BTE 1443)

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT (BTE 1443)

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS (BTE 1443)

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT

Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbre.

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT (BTE 1443)

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENT

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