OEI101 Sensors and Transducers Dept.

of ECE 2024-25

UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION
Basics of Measurement -Classification of error -Error analysis-Static and dynamic
characteristics of transducers-Performance measures of sensors-Classification of sensors-
Sensor calibration techniques Sensor output signal types
INTRODUCTION
The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result of comparison between the
quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) and a predefined standard.
Since two quantities are compared, the result is expressed in numerical values.
In fact, measurement is the process by which one can convert physical parameters to meaningful
numbers.

The measuring process is one in which the property of an object or system under consideration is
compared to an accepted standard unit, a standard defined for the particular property.
Since two quantities, the amount of which is unknown and other quantity whose amount is known
are compared, the result is expressed in terms of a numerical values.

MEASUREMENT:
The process or the act of measurement consists of obtaining a quantitative comparison
between a pre-defined standard and a measurand. The word measurand is used to designate the
particular physical parameter being observed and quantified that is, the input quantity to the
measuring process
Basic requirements:
 OEI101 Sensors and Transducers Dept. of ECE 2024-25

1.The standard used for comparison purpose must be accurately defined and should be commonly
accepted.
2. The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.
BASICS OF MEASUREMENT
Measurements is a vast field which embraces detection, acquisition control and analysis of data.
It involves the measurement of physical, electrical, mechanical, optical and chemical quantities
and plays a very significant role in every branch of scientific research and engineering process
which include control systems, process Instrumentation and data reduction.
There are two major function of all branch of engineering
Design of equipment and processes and
Proper operation control and maintenance of process.
METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS
The methods of measurements may be broadly classified into two categories.
(i) Direct methods
The unknown quantity (also called the measurand) is directly compared against a standard.
The result is expressed as a numerical number and a unit.
Direct methods are quite common for the measurement of physical quantities like length, mass
and time.
(ii) Indirect methods
Measurements by direct methods are not always possible, feasible and practicable. These
methods in most of the cases, are inaccurate because they involve human factors.
They are also less sensitive.
Hence direct methods are not preferred and are less commonly used.
A measurement system consists of a transducing element which converts the quantity to
be measured into an analogous signal.
The analogous signal is then processed by some intermediate means and is then fed to the end
devices which present the results of the measurements.
PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND TERTIARY MEASUREMENTS
Measurements may be classified as primary, secondary and tertiary based upon whether direct or
indirect methods are used.
1.Primary Measurements
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A primary measurement is one that can be made by direct observation without involving any
conversion (translation) of the measured quantity into length.
Typical examples of primary measurements are:
The matching of two lengths such as when determining the length of an object with a meter rod.
ii) The matching oof red hot met
iii) The counting of strokes of a clock chime to measure the time.
2.Secondary Measurement:
A secondary measurement involves only one translation (conversion) to be done on the quantity
under measurement to convert it into a change of length.
The measurement quantity may be pressure of gas, and therefore, may not be observable.
Therefore, a secondary measurement requires,
i) An instrument which translates pressure changes into length changes.
ii) A length scale or a standard which is calibrated in length units equivalent to known changes in
pressure.
Therefore, in a pressure gauze, the primary signal (pressure) is transmitted to a translator and the
secondary signal (length) is transmitted to observer’s eye.
3. Tertiary Measurement
A tertiary measurement involves two translations. A typical example of such a measurement of
temperature of an object by thermo couple.
The primary signal (temperature of object) is transmitted to a translator which generates a voltage
which is a function of the temperature. Therefore, first translation is temperature to voltage.
The secondary translation is then voltage into length. The tertiary signal (length change) is
transmitted to the observer’s brain.
 OEI101 Sensors and Transducers Dept. of ECE 2024-25

Functions of Measurement System

1. Indicating Function:
Instruments and systems use different kinds of methods for supplying information concerning the
variable quantity under measurement.
Most of the time this information is obtained as a deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument.
Example:
The deflection of pointer of a speedometer indicates the speed of the automobile at that moment.
A pressure gauge is used for indicating p

ressure.

2. Recording function
In many cases the instrument makes a written record, usually on paper, of the value of the quantity
under measurement against time or against some other variables. Thus the instrument performs a
recording function.
Example:
A potentiometric type of recorder used for monitoring temperature records the instantaneous
values of temperature on a strip chart recorder.
3.Controllingfunction
This is one of the most important functions especially in the field of industrial control processes.
In this case, the information is used by the instrument or the system to control the original measured
quantity.
The instruments whose functions are mainly indicating and recording especially these instruments
which are used for engineering analysis purpose.
Example:
 OEI101 Sensors and Transducers Dept. of ECE 2024-25

Controlling instruments are thermostats of temperature control and floats for liquid level control.
Applications of Measurement Systems:
1.Monitoring of processes and operation:
There are certain applications of measuring instruments that have essentially a monitoring
function. They simply indicate the value or condition of parameter under study and their readings
do not serve any control functions.
Example:
An ammeter or a voltmeter indicates the value of current or voltage being monitored (measured)
at a particular instant.
Similarly, water and electric energy meters installed in homes keep track of commodity used so
that later on its cost may be computed to be realized from the user.
2. Control of processes and operation:
A very useful application of instrument is in automatic control systems.
There has been a very strong association between measurements and control.

3.Experimental engineering analysis

For solution of engineering problems, theoretical and experimental methods are available.
The relative affectability of the method depends upon the nature of the problem.
Experimental engineering analysis has many uses and some are listed below.
i) Testing the validity of theoretical prediction
ii) Formulations of generalized empirical relationship in cases where no
proper theoretical backing exists.
iii) Determination of system parameters, variables and performance indices.
iv) For development in important spheres of study where there is sample
 OEI101 Sensors and Transducers Dept. of ECE 2024-25

scope of study.
v) Solutions of mathematical relationships with the help of analogies.
CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS
Errors in a measurement system can be classified into following categories
Gross errors
Systematic errors
Instrumental error
Environmental error
Observational error
Random errors
1.Gross Error
This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading instruments, recording and
calculating measurement results.
The causes of these errors are as follows,
1. Misreading of the instruments
2. Incorrect adjustments
3. Improper application of the instruments.
Gross error can be avoided by adopting two means.
i) Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
ii) Two, three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity under measurement.
2.Systematic errors
a.Instrumental Errors
These errors arise due to three main reasons
(i) Due to inherent shortcoming in the instruments
These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure. They may be due
to construction, calibration or operation of the instruments or measuring devices. These errors may
cause the instrument to read too low or too high.
The possibility of such errors as it is often possible to eliminate them, or at least reduce them to a
great extent by using the following methods.
 OEI101 Sensors and Transducers Dept. of ECE 2024-25

a) The procedure of measurement must be carefully planned. Substitution methods or calibration

against standard may be used for the purpose.
b) Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental errors.
c) The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
(ii) Due to misuse of the instruments
The errors caused in measurements are due to the fault of the operator than that of the
instrument. A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give erroneous results.
(iii) Due to loading effects of instruments
One of the most common errors committed by beginners, is the improper use of an instrument
for measurement work.
2. Environmental Errors
These errors are due to external condition to the measuring device including conditions in the
area surrounding the instrument.
These may be effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or of external magnetic
or electrostatic fields. The corrective measure employed to eliminate or to reduce these undesired
effects are
Arrangements should be made to keep the conditions as nearly as
constant as possible.
Using equipment which is immune to these effects.
Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these disturbances
3. Observation Errors
These are the errors introduced by the observer. There are many sources of observational errors
such as parallax error while reading a meter, wrong scale selections, the habits of individual
observers etc.,
To eliminate such observational errors, one should use the instruments with mirrors, knife edged
pointers etc.,
Now a days, the instruments with digital display of output which completely eliminates the
errors on account of human
Observational or sensing powers as the output is in form of digits.
4.Random Errors
Random errors are generally unpredictable errors, and they occur even when all systematic errors
are accounted for although the instrument is selected properly based on the nature of
measurement,
 OEI101 Sensors and Transducers Dept. of ECE 2024-25

pre-calibration of the instrument is properly done before the measurement and there is an
environmental control, random errors will be there.
However, these errors can be minimized by taking more number of readings and using proper
statistical methods for obtaining the best approximation of the true value.
ERROR ANALYSIS
Due to the presence of the random errors in any measurement systems, the uncertainty associated
with any measurement cannot be predetermined.
Only the probable value of the error an be specified using statistical error analysis.
1.Probable Error
The data collected from any measurement can be pictorially represented by a histogram for a
better visual appeal and quick understanding of information.

2. Limited Error
Generally the accuracy of a measuring instrument is usually specified by its manufacturer as a
percentage of the full scale readings.
But there is a possibility of getting the percentage error for various values of readings taken will
be more than the percentage specified.
3. Odds and Uncertainty
The specification of limiting error is in itself uncertain since the
manufacture themselves are not sure about the accuracy due to the presence of random errors in
the measurement.
4. Propagation of Errors
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If many number of instruments are to be used any measurement in order to compute a quantity,
the overall limiting error should be computed from the individual limiting errors of the
instruments.
STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCERS
1. Static Characteristic
The main static characteristics discussed here are,
i) Accuracy
ii) Sensitivity
iii) Reproductively
iv) Drift
v) Static Error
vi) Dead Zone
The qualities (i), (ii) and (iii) are desirable, while qualities (iv), (v)
and (vi) are undesirable.
1. Accuracy and Precision
i) Accuracy
It is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the quantity
being measured. Thus accuracy of a measurement means conformity to truth.
ii) Precision
It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity,
precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of measurements. The
term
‘precise’ means clearly or sharply defined.
2. Sensitivity
The sensitivity of any instrument is stated as an ability to detect changes in the measured quantity.
It can be defined as the slope of the calibration curve, if the input/output relationship is linear. The
sensitivity of an instrument is also referred to the true quantity that is being measured.

3. Repeatability and Reproducibility:

 OEI101 Sensors and Transducers Dept. of ECE 2024-25

Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings,when the same input is applied repetitively
over a short period of time with the same measurement conditions, same instrument and observer,
same location and same conditions of use maintained throughout.

Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when there
are changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, condition of
use and time of measurement.
4. Drift
All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid under controlled conditions of
temperature, pressure etc., These standard ambient conditions are usually defined in the instrument
specifications. As variations occur in ambient temperature etc.,
Drift may be classified into three categories
i) Zero Drift
If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set or due to undue warming
up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.
ii) Span Drift or Sensitivity Drift
If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the drift is called span
drift or sensitivity drift.
iii) Zonal Drift
In case the drift occurs only over a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.
There are many environmental factors which cause drift. They may be stray electric and magnetic
fields, thermal emfs, change in temperature, mechanical vibrations, wear and tear and high
mechanical stresses developed in some parts of the instruments and systems.
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5. Static Error
Static error is defined as the difference between the measured value and the true value of
quantity then.

6. Dead Zone
Dead zone is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of the
instrument. The factors which produce dead zone are friction, backlash and hystersis in the
instrument.
Dynamic Characteristics:
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument refers to performance of the instrument when it is
subjected to time varying input. The performance criteria based upon the dynamic relation
constitute the dynamic characteristics.
The dynamic characteristics of a measurement system are:
Speed of response
It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the
measured quantity.
Measuring log
It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to change in the measured
quantity.
The measuring lags are of two types,
i) Retardation type ii) Time delay type
i) Retardation Type
In this case the response of the measurement system begins immediately after a change
in measured quantity has occurred.
ii) Time Delay Type
In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a dead time after the application
of the input. Dead time simply shift the response of the system along the time scale and causes a
corresponding dynamic error.
Fidelity
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It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the measured
quantity without any dynamic error.
Dynamic error
It is the difference between the true value of quantity (under measurement)
changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement system. If no static error
is assumed. It is also called measurement error.
PERFORMANCE MEASURES OF SENSORS
Types of Input
The type of input, which can be any physical quantity, is generally determined in advance.
1. Operating Range
Choice of transducer depends upon the useful range of input quantity.
2. Loading Effect
The transducer, that is selected for a particular application should ideally exact no force, power or
energy from the quantity under measurement in order that is measured accurately.
3. Response of Transducer to Environmental Influences
It should not be subjected to any disturbances like stray electromagnetic and electrostatic fields,
mechanical shocks and vibrations temperature changes, pressure and humidity changes, changes
in supply voltage and improper mechanical mountings.
4. Accuracy and Repeatability
High accuracy ensures that frequent calibration is not required and errors are less. Repeatability
is more important than accuracy.
Type of Electrical Output
The type of output which may be available from the transducers may be available from the
transducers may be a voltage, current, impedance or a time function of these amplitudes.
1. Sensitivity
The transducers must be sensitive enough to produce detectable output.
2. Output Impedance
Ideally the value of output impedance should be zero if no loading effects are there on
the subsequent stage.
3. Useful Output Range
The output range of a transducer is limited at the lower end by noise signal.
The upper limit is set by the maximum useful input level.
 OEI101 Sensors and Transducers Dept. of ECE 2024-25

4. Usage and Ruggedness

The ruggedness both mechanical and electrical intensities of the transducer versus its size and
weight must be considered.
III.Electrical Aspects
Attention must be paid to signal to noise ratios in case the transducer is to be used in conjunction
with amplifiers.

1. Stability and Reliability

The transducer should exhibit a high degree of stability during its operation and storage life.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
1. Direct Sensor
A sensor that can convert a non-electrical stimulus into an electrical signal with intermediate
stage. Example : Thermocouple (temperature to voltage)
2. Indirect Sensor
A sensor that multiple conversion steps to transform the measured signal into an electrical signal.
Based on physical law or convent distinguishing property:
Active and passive sensor
Contact and non contact sensor
Absolute and relative sensor
Analog and digital sensor
Active and Passive Sensor
1. Active Sensor
A sensor that requires external power to operate.
Example:
Carbon microphone, thermistor, strain gauges, capacitive and inductive sensors, etc.,
The active sensor is also called as parametric sensor (output is a function of a parameter
like resistance).
2. Passive Sensor
It generates its own electric signal and does not require a power source.
Example:
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Thermocouples, magnetic microphones, piezoelectric sensors, photodiode.

Also called as self generating sensors.
Contact and Non Contact Sensor
Contact sensor is a sensor that requires physical contact with the stimulus.
Example : Strain gauges, temperature sensor
Non contact sensor does not requires no physical contact.
Example: Most optical and magnetic sensors, infrared
thermometer, etc.,
1.7.3 Absolute and Relative Sensors
1. Absolute Sensors
A sensor that reacts to a stimulus on an absolute scale such as thermistor, strain gauge,
etc., (thermistor always reads the absolute temperature).
2. Relative Sensors
The stimulus is sensed relative to a fixed or variable reference, for example thermocouple
measures the temperature difference, pressure is often measured relative to atmospheric pressure.
Analog and Digital Sensors
Analog sensors have an output that changes over a range of values while digital sensors are
binary and only have two states ON and OFF.
The anemometer is an example of an analog device. Since its rotating speed increases along with
wind speed. Therefore, it can produce a range of value.
An occupancy sensor is an example of a digital device, since it can only detect two states , empty
room and occupied room.
Application of Sensors
1.Classification based on broad area of detection like electric sensors, magnetic, electromagnetic,
acoustic, chemical, optical, heat, temperature, mechanical, radiation, biological, etc.,
2. Classification based on physical law like photoelectric, magneto electric, thermoelectric,
photoconductive, photo magnetic, thermo magnetic, thermo-optic, electrochemical, magnetro
resistive, photo elastic, etc.,
3. Classification based on specification like accuracy, sensitivity, stability, response time,
hysteresis, frequency response, input, resolution, linearity, hardness, cost size, weight, conduction
material, temperature,etc.
SENSOR CALIBRATION
 OEI101 Sensors and Transducers Dept. of ECE 2024-25

Techniques of Sensors
1. Why do we need to calibrate sensors?
In order to achieve the best possible accuracy a sensor should be calibrated in the system where it
will be used this is because.
i) No Sensor is Perfect
ii) The sensor is only one component in the measurement
2. What makes a good sensor?
The two most important characteristics of a sensor are:
i) Precision
The ideal sensor will always produce the same output for the same input.
ii) Resolution
A good sensor will be able to reliably detect small changes in the measured parameter.
Calibration Methods:
The three different types of calibration are,
1.One point calibration

One point calibration can be used to correct for sensor offset errors in the
following cases.
i) Only One Measurement Point is Needed
ii) The Sensor is Known to be Linear and Have the Correct Slope over
 OEI101 Sensors and Transducers Dept. of ECE 2024-25

the Desired Measurement Range

2. Two point calibration
A two point calibration is a little more complex.
But it can be applied to
either raw or scaled sensor outputs.
A two point calibration essentially re-scales the output and is capable of correcting both slope
and offset errors.

Multi point curve fitting:

Sensors that are non - linear over the measurement range require some curve-fitting to achieve
accurate measurements over the measurement range.
A common case requiring curve-fitting is thermocouples at extremely hot or cold temperatures
while nearly linear over a fairly wide range, they do deviate significantly at extreme temperature.
 OEI101 Sensors and Transducers Dept. of ECE 2024-25

SENSOR OUTPUT SIGNAL TYPES

1.Analog Voltage
Sensor output an analog voltage proportional to some parameter which they are sensing. Figure
below shows a typical analog transfer characteristics for a distance sensor.
Analog signals are much more susceptible to noise than digital signals, so there are several
measures that must be taken to ensure the date obtained from the sensor is accurate.
The most common techniques for noise reduction are differential signal transmission and passive
low pass filtration. Since we are using a microcontroller, it may be convenient to apply an IIR or
an FIR filter, coded in software.

2.PWM
PWM is a popular technique for transmitting digital data in embedded system. A typical PWM
 OEI101 Sensors and Transducers Dept. of ECE 2024-25

waveform is shown in below Figure for a digital sensor with an N bit resolution, the on time (TON)
can take 2N different values. A change in, 1 LSB is signified by a small change in the on time.

A PWM signal is much more immune to noise than an analog signal, but
signal integrity can still benefit from differential transmission (as in USB).
There is also a speed requirement : Any circuitry in between the sensor
and the microcontroller must exhibit short settling time to preserve fast signal edges. If the rise
time of a PWM signal is too slow, it may not be possible to use.
3. Serial Digital
Serial digital signals are the most complicated. This type of signal requires that the devices sharing
information are synced, and this is accomplished using one of many data packet protocols. An
example is shown in below Figure.
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This is the type of signal used for communication between the arduino and a computer over
USB.
In order to communicate the two devices must agree on the serial transmission protocol
and the symbol rate (band).
Being a digital signal, the noise margining is quite high, but signal integrity is still
substantially improved with differential transmission.
As with PWM, any signal conditioning circuitry must be fast to pressurising and falling
edges.