Chapter 01

Introduction to Instrumentation &

Measurements (3 Hours)

INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS (BTE

1313)
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
 explain units and quantities in electrical
 discuss and calculate various types of error in measurement
 explain the meaning of some terms in instrumentation field
Chapter outline
 The outline of this chapter is as follows:
1.1 Principles of instrumentation and
measurements
1.2 Error in measurement
1.3 Measurement standard
1.4 Static & Dynamic Characteristics
1.5 Uncertainties
1.6 Standard Calibration
1.1 Principle of Instrumentation &
Measurements
 Instrumentation is a technology of measurement which serves not only
science but all branches of engineering, medicine, and & almost every
human endeavour (ranging from basic test instruments found on
workbench to complex scientific instruments in research lab).
 Instrumentations serve three (3) basic functions: -
indicating…
recording…
controlling…
 An instrument is a device that measures a physical quantity such as
flow, temperature, level, distance, angle, or pressure
INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS (BEE
1313)
1.1 Principle of Instrumentation &
measurements
3 basic functions of instrument:

Indicating Recording Controlling

General-purpose electrical &

Industrial-process
electronics test instruments

Control / automated
system
1.1 Principle of Instrumentation &
Measurements
Measurement
 A process to present an observer with a numerical value corresponding
to the variable being measured by using appropriate instrument
 Basically used to monitor a process or operation, or as well as the
controlling process
 E.g.: thermometers, millimetre, etc.

Input Measurement Output

system
True value Measured value
of variable of variable
1.1 Principle of Instrumentation &
measurements
 The major problem encountered with any measuring
instrument is the error.
 Therefore, it is necessary to select the appropriate
measuring instrument & measurement method which
minimises error.
 To avoid errors in any experimental work, careful planning,
execution & evaluation of the experiment are essential.
 1.1 Principle of Instrumentation &
Measurements
Before measurement process we have to
ensure:
 Methods/procedures of measurement.
 Characteristics of the parameter.
 Quality: time and cost, instrument capabilities, knowledge
of measurement, acceptable result.
 What instrument to use.
1.1 Principle of Instrumentation &
Measurements
During the measurements we have to ensure:

 Quality- best instrument chosen, suitable position when taking the

data, etc..
 Safety- electric shock, overloaded, instrument limits, read instrument
manual
 Sampling – observe parameter changing, taking enough sample
After measurement
 Analyse the data mathematically/statistically
 Full result must be reported completely and accurately
1.1 Principle of Instrumentation &
Measurements
Electrical Units
i) Fundamental Quantity…

Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbre.

Length l meter m

Mass m kilogram kg

Time t second s

Temperature T Kelvin o
K

Electric current I Ampere A

 1.1 Principle of Instrumentation &
Measurements
ii) Derived Quantity…

Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbre.

emf/ voltage V volt V

charge Q coulomb C

resistance R Ohm Ω

capacitance C farad F

inductance L henry H
1.2 Error in Measurement
Error:

•is defined as the difference between

the measured value and the expected
value (true value) of the measured
parameter
 1.2 Error in Measurement
Random
Limiting

Types of Static
error Gross
errors
Absolute

Systematic

**static error = numerical difference between the true value of a quantity and its
value as obtained by measurement (i.e. repeated measurement of the same
quantity gives different indications.
 1.2 Error in Measurement
i) Absolute error:
The difference between the expected value of the variable
and the measured value of the variable, or

e = Yn – X n
where:
e = absolute error
Yn = expected value
Xn = measured value
1.2 Error in Measurement
 To express error in percentage
e
% error = (100) , e = Yn - Xn
Yn

 We also derived relative accuracy, A;

Yn  X n
A  1
Yn
1.2 Error in Measurement
• Percentage accuracy, a:
a = 100% - % error
or
a = A x 100%
Example 1.1
The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 5.0
V. However, measurement yields a value of 4.9 V.
Calculate:
a) absolute error
b) % error
c) relative accuracy
d) % accuracy
1.2 Error in Measurement
ii) Gross Error
Incorrect
reading
Incorrect
recording

Gross Human
Error Mistake Improper use
of instrument

Etc.

 To minimize:
 take at least 3 separate reading
 take proper care in reading & recording
 1.2 Error in Measurement
iii) Systematic Error
Instrumentati
on error

Systematic Environment
Error al Error

 example…???
 defective or worn parts Observationa
l Errors
 ageing
 parallaxerror
 wrong estimation reading scale
1.2 Error in Measurement
Instrumental errors :

Incorrect
spring
tension Friction in
meter
movement
Instrumental
Error

Improper
Faulty calibration
instrument

- can be reduced by proper maintenance, use, and handling of instruments

1.2 Error in Measurement
Environmental errors :

- due to external condition of the

measuring
- eg: effects of change in temperature, humidity,
barometric pressure, electrostatic fields etc
- can be avoided by: air conditioning,
hermetically sealing certain components in the
instrument and using magnetic shields
1.2 Error in Measurement
Observational errors :
- Errors that introduced
by the observer

- The two most common

observational errors are
probably the parallax
error introduced in
reading a meter scale
and the error of
estimation when
obtaining a reading
from a meter scale
1.2 Error in Measurement
iv) Random Errors
 Errors that remain after gross and systematic
errors have been substantially reduced

 Are generally the accumulation of a large

number of small effects

 May be of real concern only in measurements

requiring a high degree of accuracy

 such errors can only be analyzed statistically

 Due to unknown causes
1.2 Error in Measurement
v) Limiting Errors

 Most manufacturers of instruments state that an instrument is

accurate within a certain percentage of a full-scale reading

 Eg: a voltmeter is accurate within ±2% at full-scale deflection

(limiting errors)

 however, with reading less than full-scale, the limiting error

will increase

 therefore, it is important to obtain measurements as close as

possible to full scale
Example 1.2
A 300-V voltmeter is specified to be accurate within ±2% at
full scale. Calculate the limiting error when the instrument
is used to measure a 120-V source?
Example 1.2

Solution
The magnitude of the limiting error is:
300 x 2/100 = 6V

Therefore, the limiting error at 120 V is:

6/120 x 100 = 5%
(reading < full scale, limiting error increased)
Example 1.3
A voltmeter and an ammeter are to be used to determine the power
dissipated in a resistor. Both instruments are guaranteed to be accurate
within ±1% at full scale. If the voltmeter reads 80V on its 150-V range
and the ammeter reads 70mA on its 100-mA range, calculate the
limiting error for the power calculation.

** The limiting error for the power calculation is the

sum of individual limiting errors involved
1.2 Error in Measurement
Precision of measurement
 A measure of the consistency or repeatability of
measurements

Precision = 1 - Xn - Xn
Xn
where
Xn = the value of the nth measurement
Xn = the average of the set of n measurements
= sum of the nth measurement values / nth
 Example 1.4
Measurement Measurement  Table below gives the set of 10
number value Xn measurement that were recorded in
1 98 the laboratory. Calculate the
2 101 precision of the 6th measurement.
3 102
4 97
5 101 X n= ??
6 100 Precision = ??
7 103
8 98
9 106
10 99
1.2 Error in Measurement
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENT DATA
 Important because it allows an analytical determination of the
uncertainty of the final result
 A large number of measurements is usually required

Mean
/average deviation

Statistical
analysis

Standard Average
deviation deviation
1.2 Error in Measurement
i) Arithmetic mean/average:
- the most probable value of measured variable

x1  x 2  x 3    x n n
xi
x 
n i 1 n

n = total number of reading

xn = nth reading taken
xi = set of number
 1.2 Error in Measurement
ii) Deviation:
- The difference between each piece of data and
arithmetic mean

d n  xn  x
d1  x1  x
d 2  x2  x

- Algebraic sum of deviation,

d tot  d1  d 2    d n  0
INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS (BEE
1313)
1.2 Error in Measurement
iii) Average deviation (D):
- precision of a measuring instrument
- high D low precision
- low D  high precision

d1  d 2    d n
D
n
1.2 Error in Measurement
iv) Standard deviation:
- also known as root mean square deviation
- the most important factor in statistical analysis
- reduction means improvement in measurement

d12  d 2 2  d32  ....  d n 2


n 1

dn2

n 1
INSTRUMENTATION & MEASUREMENTS (BEE
1313)
Example 1.5
For the following data compute
(a) The arithmetic mean (49.9)
(b) The deviation of each value (0.2,-0.2,-0.3,0.3)
(c) The algebraic sum of the deviation (0)
(d) The average deviation (0.25)
(e) The standard deviation (0.294)

x1= 50.1 x2= 49.7

x3= 49.6 x4= 50.2
 1.3 Measurement Standards
 Standards are defined in 4 categories:
i) international standards
ii) primary standards
iii) secondary standards
iv) working standards
1.3 Measurement Standard
i) International Standards
 Defined by international agreements
 These standards are maintained at the International Bureau
of Weight and Measures in Paris, France
 They are periodically evaluated and checked by absolute
measurements in term of the fundamental units of physics
 They represent certain units of measurement to the closest
possible accuracy attained by the science and technology of
measurement and used for comparison with primary
standards
 1.3 Measurement Standard
ii) Primary Standard
 Are maintained at institution in various countries around the
world, such as the National Bureau of Standard on
Washington D.C, SIRIM in Malaysia
 The primary standards are not available for use outside the
national laboratories
 Their principle function is to calibrate and verify the
secondary standards
 Also known as National Standard
 1.3 Measurement Standard
iii) Secondary Standard
 Used as the basic reference standards used by measurement &
calibration laboratories in the industry
 Each industrial laboratory is completely responsible for its own
secondary standards
 Each laboratory sends its secondary standards to the national
standards ( primary standards) laboratory for calibration
 After calibration, the secondary standards are returned to the
industrial uses with the certification and checked periodically
 1.3 Measurement Standard
iv) Working Standard
 Working standard is the principle tools of a measurement
laboratory and the lowest level of standards
 Used to check and calibrate the instruments used in the
laboratory or to make comparison measurement in industrial
application
 Example: the standard resistor, capacitors, inductor which
usually found in an electronics laboratory are classified as
working standards.
Summary
 Some terms +definitions are as below:
 Error – ---???
 Accuracy – The degree of exactness of a
measurement compared to the expected value
 Precision – A measure of consistency, or
repeatability of measurements.
 Summary
 Instrument – a device or mechanism used to determine the
present value of a quantity
 Measurement – a process of comparing an unknown quantity
with an accepted standard quantity.
 Standard – an instrument or device having a recognized
permanent (stable) value that is used as a reference.
 Summary
 expected value – the most probable value we should expect to
obtain.
 deviation – the difference between any piece of data in a set of
numbers and the arithmetic mean of the set of numbers.
 transducer – a device that converts one form of energy into
another form
 Evaluation
 Electrical Quantity…

Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbre.

l meter

Capacitance F

Time second

T Kelvin o
K

Charge
THANK U FOR YOUR
ATTENTION!!