Photosynthesis

“The Core of Metabolism in

Plants”
Understanding Light Reactions and
Energy Conversion

Aliah U. Jalil
BIO108 – General
Physiology
CONTENT 01 BASICS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

S 02 STRUCTURE OF THE CHLOROPLAST

03 LIGHT REACTIONS IN
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
04 EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS
05 PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS AND
LIGHT ABSORPTION

06 ELECTRON TRANSPORT AND THE Z-

SCHEME

07 PHOTOSYSTEMS AND ANTENNA

COMPLEXES
 • Photosynthesis is the process by which plants
Basics of convert light energy into chemical energy.
• Reaction Equation: 6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + Light
Photosynthesis Energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂
• Importance: Produces glucose for plant
energy and releases oxygen, essential for life.
Structure of the
Chloroplast
 Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis
in plant cells.
 Key components include thylakoid
membranes (light-dependent reactions) and
the stroma (Calvin cycle).
 Thylakoid membranes contain chlorophyll
pigments crucial for light absorption.
Figure 7.14 Transmission electron micrograph of a
chloroplast from pea (Pisum sativum) fixed in
glutaraldehyde and OsO4, embedded in plastic resin, and
thin-sectioned with an ultramicrotome. (14,500×) (Courtesy
of J. Swafford.)
Structure of the
Chloroplast
 Thylakoid:
 An extensive system of
internal membranes in the
chloroplast, where all the
chlorophyll is contained. It is
the site of the light reactions
of photosynthesis.
 Stroma:
 The region of the chloroplast
outside the thylakoids, where
carbon reduction reactions
occur. These reactions are
catalyzed by water-soluble
enzymes.
 Structure of the
Chloroplast
Grana Lamellae:
 Stacked thylakoid membranes
within the chloroplast. Each
stack is called a granum.
 Stroma Lamellae:
 Exposed thylakoid membranes
that are not part of the stacked
regions (grana). These are
found in the stroma.
 Envelope:
 Two membranes composed of
lipid bilayers that surround
most types of chloroplasts. This
double-membrane system
contains metabolite transport
Organization of the Photosynthetic Apparatus:
Thylakoids contain integral membrane proteins

Figure 7.15 Schematic picture of the

overall organization of the membranes in
the chloroplast. The chloroplast of higher
plants is surrounded by the inner and
outer membranes (envelope). The region
of the chloroplast that is inside the inner
membrane and surrounds the thylakoid
membranes is known as the stroma. It
contains the enzymes that catalyze carbon
fixation and other biosynthetic pathways.
The thylakoid membranes are highly
folded and appear in many pictures to be
stacked like coins (the granum), although
in reality they form one or a few large
interconnected membrane systems, with
a well-defined interior and exterior with
respect to the stroma. (After Becker 1986.)
Organization of the Photosynthetic Apparatus:
Thylakoids contain integral membrane proteins

 Thylakoid Membranes
 Membranes in chloroplasts
that contain proteins essential
for photosynthesis. Portions of
these proteins extend into
aqueous regions on both sides
of the membranes.
 Integral Membrane Proteins
 Proteins embedded in the
thylakoid membrane, with large
proportions of hydrophobic amino
acids, making them stable in the
hydrocarbon portion of the
membrane. These proteins include
reaction centers, antenna
pigment-protein complexes, and
Organization of the Photosynthetic Apparatus:
Thylakoids contain integral membrane proteins
 Lumen
 The interior space of the thylakoid
membrane. Integral membrane proteins
are oriented with one region pointing
toward the lumen and the other toward
the stromal side of the membrane.
 Pigment–Protein Complexes
 Noncovalent associations of
chlorophylls and accessory pigments
with proteins in the thylakoid
membrane. These complexes optimize
energy transfer in antenna complexes
and electron transfer in reaction
centers.
 Antenna and Reaction Center
Chlorophylls
 Chlorophylls within pigment-protein
complexes, organized to maximize
 i o n s o f
t R e a c t
L i g h
The sy n th e si s
P h o to

• Location: Thylakoid
membranes within the
chloroplast.
• Processes:
- Light absorption excites
chlorophyll, splitting water and
releasing oxygen.
- Conversion of light energy
into ATP and NADPH.
• Products: ATP and NADPH fuel
the Calvin Cycle in the stroma.
 • Chlorophylls (a and b): Absorb blue
Photosynthetic and red light, reflect green.
Pigments and • Carotenoids: Accessory pigments
that protect and assist in light
Light absorption.
• Absorption Spectrum: Different
Absorption pigments absorb light at specific
wavelengths.
 • The Z-Scheme illustrates the flow of electrons
Electron through photosystems I and II.
• Key steps:
Transport - Water oxidation releases electrons and
protons, producing oxygen.
and the Z- - Electrons move through an electron
transport chain to generate ATP and NADPH.
Scheme • Final Product: NADPH and ATP are
synthesized for use in the Calvin Cycle.
 Electron Transport and the Z-
Scheme
Figure 7.19. Detailed Z scheme for O - 2

evolving photosynthetic organisms. The

redox carriers are placed at their midpoint
redox potentials (at pH 7). (1) The vertical
arrows represent photon absorption by
the reaction center chlorophylls: P680 for
photosystem II (PSII) and P700 for
photosystem I (PSI). The excited PSII
reaction center chlorophyll, P680*,
transfers an electron to pheophytin
(Pheo). (2) On the oxidizing side of PSII
(to the left of the arrow joining P680 with
P680*), P680 oxidized by light is re-
reduced by Y , which has received
z

electrons from oxidation of water. (3) On

the reducing side of PSII (to the right of
the arrow joining P680 with P680*),
pheophytin transfers electrons to the
acceptors PQ and PQ , which are
A B

plastoquinones. (4) The cytochrome b f 6

complex transfers electrons to

plastocyanin (PC), a soluble protein,
which in turn reduces P700 (oxidized +

P700). (5) The acceptor of electrons from

P700* (A ) is thought to be a chlorophyll,
0

and the next acceptor (A ) is a quinone. A

1

series of membrane-bound iron–sulfur

proteins (FeS , FeS , and FeS) transfers
X A

electrons to soluble ferredoxin (Fd). (6)

The soluble flavoprotein ferredoxin–
NADP reductase (FNR) reduces NADP to
+ +

NADPH, which is used in the Calvin–

Benson cycle to reduce CO (see Chapter
2

8). The dashed line indicates cyclic

electron flow around PSI. (After
Blankenship and Prince 1985.
 Photosystems and Antenna
Complexes
Oxygen-evolving organisms have two photosystems that operate in series

 Photosystem I (PSI) : A photochemical complex that absorbs far-red light (greater

than 680 nm) and produces a strong reductant capable of reducing NADP+, and a weak
oxidant.
 Photosystem II (PSII) : A photochemical complex that absorbs red light (around 680
nm) and produces a strong oxidant capable of oxidizing water, as well as a weaker
reductant than PSI.

Figure 7.13 Z scheme of photosynthesis. Red light absorbed by photosystem II (PSII) produces a strong oxidant and a weak reductant. Far-red light
absorbed by photosystem I (PSI) produces a weak oxidant and a strong reductant. The strong oxidant generated by PSII oxidizes water, while the strong
reductant produced by PSI reduces NADP+. This scheme is basic to an understanding of photosynthetic electron transport. P680 and P700 refer to the
wavelengths of maximum absorption of the reaction center chlorophylls in PSII and PSI, respectively.
 Photosystems and Antenna
Complexes
• Photosystems I and II: Essential for capturing light and initiating electron transport.
• Antenna Complexes: Collections of pigments that absorb light and transfer energy.
• Benefit: Increase the efficiency of photosynthesis by channeling light energy to the
reaction centers. Figure 7.16 Organization and structure of the four
major protein complexes of the thylakoid
membrane. (A) PSII is located predominantly in
the stacked regions of the thylakoid membrane;
PSI and ATP synthase are found in the unstacked
regions protruding into the stroma. Cytochrome b f
6

complexes are evenly distributed. This lateral

separation of the two photosystems requires that
electrons and protons produced by PSII be
transported a considerable distance before they
can be acted on by PSI and the ATPcoupling
enzyme. (B) Structures of the four main protein
complexes of the thylakoid membrane. Shown
also are the two diffusible electron carriers—
plastocyanin, which is located in the thylakoid
lumen, and plastohydroquinone (PQH ) in the
2

membrane. The lumen has a positive electrical

charge (p) with respect to the stroma (n). (A after
Allen and Forsberg 2001; B after Nelson and Ben-
Shem 2004.)
 Photosystems and Antenna
Complexes
• Photosystems I and II: Essential for capturing light and initiating electron transport.
• Antenna Complexes: Collections of pigments that absorb light and transfer energy.
• Benefit: Increase the efficiency of photosynthesis by channeling light energy to the
reaction centers.
Figure 7.16 Organization and structure of the four
major protein complexes of the thylakoid
membrane. (A) PSII is located predominantly in
the stacked regions of the thylakoid membrane;
PSI and ATP synthase are found in the unstacked
regions protruding into the stroma. Cytochrome b f
6

complexes are evenly distributed. This lateral

separation of the two photosystems requires that
electrons and protons produced by PSII be
transported a considerable distance before they
can be acted on by PSI and the ATPcoupling
enzyme. (B) Structures of the four main protein
complexes of the thylakoid membrane. Shown
also are the two diffusible electron carriers—
plastocyanin, which is located in the thylakoid
lumen, and plastohydroquinone (PQH ) in the
2

membrane. The lumen has a positive electrical

charge (p) with respect to the stroma (n). (A after
Allen and Forsberg 2001; B after Nelson and Ben-
Shem 2004.)
 THANK
YOU
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