Easc 216 - Lecture 1

INTRODUCTION
EASC 216 – FUNDAMENTALS

OF GEOPHYSICS
2
Course Description
• An introduction to the basic principles of
geophysics and how these are applicable
to exploration, environmental problems
and the solid earth.
Learning Outcomes
• General Earth properties • Relevant definitions and
terminologies
• Physical principles
guiding various • Basic principles of
geophysical methods geophysics.
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Recommended Reading
Refer to Course Outline

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Course Outline
Detailed outline will be shared on

SAKAI by end of day
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Introduction to Geophysics
Important questions:
• What is geophysics?
• What properties of the earth allow for the study of geophysics?
• What benefits or advantages are gained from using

geophysical methods?
• What geophysical methods are available for various

applications?
• How are various geophysical methods applied in practice?
• How are geophysical datasets interpreted and used for

problem solving?
6
Important Concepts
• What is geology?
• What are rocks?
• What are minerals?
• What are structures?
• What is physics?
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Important Concepts
• What is physics?
▫ The study of the properties of matter,
energy and their mutual relationships
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▫ Application of principles of physics to the study of the

Earth (from the surface to its center), oceans, atmosphere
and near-Earth space. It encompasses many major
sciences including physics, geology, environmental
science, oceanography, meteorology, astronomy, planetary
science, etc.
OR
▫ The study of the Earth’s physics and structure using

mathematical and physical methods which offer an
understanding of the microscopic properties of rocks and
minerals as well as an understanding of global processes
such as earthquakes and climate.
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▫ Differences in chemical and physical properties

of geologic/earth materials allow for
measurements – contrasts.
▫ Subsurface characterization based on mapping

the lateral and vertical variations in physical
properties. This is done using non-invasive
methods.
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• What are geologic/earth materials?
▫ Minerals
▫ Rocks
▫ Soil
▫ Water
• What physical properties of earth materials are we

interested in?
▫ Density of materials
▫ Elasticity
▫ Resistance/conductance
▫ Magnetic susceptibility, etc.
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• What are some career options?
▫ Mining
▫ Consultant
▫ Petroleum Geophysicist
▫ Seismologist
▫ Teacher
▫ GIS Expert
▫ Environmental Geophysicists
▫ Hydrogeophysics
▫ Geological Engineering, etc
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• What are the different types of
geophysical investigations based on
scale?
Geophysics
Applied/
Exploration Global Geophysics
Geophysics
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Global Geophysics
• Application of physical concepts to
understand the structure and dynamics of
the Earth.
▫ Origin of the Earth
▫ Composition and structure of Earth’s
interior
▫ Plate Tectonics
▫ Mantle convection
▫ Earth’s magnetic fields and how they have
changed or are changing over the years,
etc
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Exploration/Applied Geophysics
• Often used in initial exploration phases
and/or provide supplementary information
to existing observations.
▫ Establishing stratification of subsurface
materials
▫ Locating depths to various resources (e.g.
groundwater, base metals, etc)
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• Airborne
Survey Methods: • Ground
• Marine
Method Measured Physical Property
Parameter
Seismic Travel times Density and elastic
moduli
Gravity Spatial variations in the Density
gravitational field of the
Earth
Magnetic Spatial variations in the Magnetic susceptibility
geomagnetic fields and remanence
Electrical
- Resistivity Resistance Electrical conductivity
- Induced polarization Polarization dependent Electrical capacitance
on ground resistance
- Electromagnetics Response to Electrical conductivity
electromagnetic and inductance
induction
- Self-potential Electrical potentials Electrical conductivity
Radiometric Gamma radiations from Natural decay of K, Th
the decay of K, Th, U and U elements
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• Geophysical surveys can be classified into
two types based on energy sources:
▫ Passive geophysical surveys – also

known as static methods measure naturally
occurring fields or properties of the earth.
▫ Active geophysical surveys – also known
as dynamic methods measure the earth’s
response to signals which are injected into
the earth.
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Radiometrics
Seismic reflection and

Resistivity
Electromagnetics
Magnetics
refraction
Induced
Polarization Self potential
Gravity
Active Methods Passive Methods

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• How do you determine which geophysical method
to employ
▫ The best contrast in physical properties
 Resolution
 Cost
 Depth
 Size of area of interest
▫ Ideally, multiple methods are used to give

more accurate results.
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7-step Framework For Applied

Geophysics
1. Setup: What is the problem?
i. Geoscience objectives
ii. Conventional practice
iii. How can geophysics help?
 Literature review/Existing knowledge

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Geophysics
2. Properties
i. What characteristic are you measuring?
ii. Link geology to geophysics
iii. Remember the physical properties?
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Geophysics
3. Surveys
i. Select the best method
ii. Design an effective and efficient
methodology
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Geophysics
4. Data
i. Ensure complete, high quality, cost
effective datasets
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Geophysics
5. Processing
i. Noise reduction
ii. Transform the numbers
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Signals, Messages and Noise

i. Data Acquisition
 Signal = Message + Noise
ii. Data Processing and Interpretation

 Message = Signal – Noise
iii. Types of noise

 Instrumental - Due to the rapid development of technology
instrumental noise is virtually insignificant in modern geophysical
equipment
 Operator (human) - This can be reduced drastically by careful and

responsible field practices
 Geological - This is a contribution to the total response of geological

bodies or formations which are not of interest to the prospector or
surveyor
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Geophysics
6. Interpretation
i. What do your results say about the
geology?
 How are the physical properties
distributed?
ii. What decisions can be made?
 Non-uniqueness of geophysical
interpretations
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Geophysics
7. Synthesis
i. Combine interpretations with prior
information
ii. Combine interpretations from different
methods
iii. Do your results address your initial problem?
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Model
• A model is a simple and ideal view of a
physical reality.
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Geophysical Data
Representation
• Survey Outputs
▫ 1D
▫ 2D
Laxminarayana, 2016
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Geophysical Data
Representation
• Survey Outputs
▫ 3D
www.bgs.ac.uk
▫ 4D
Du & Peng, 2016

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• Some applications of geophysics.
▫ Geotechnical applications (roads, houses,
etc.)
▫ Groundwater (exploration and contaminant
mapping)
▫ Geologic Mapping
▫ Archeology
▫ Mineral exploration
▫ Petroleum exploration, etc.
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• What are some advantages of geophysics?
▫ Non-invasive
▫ Covers large areas
▫ Allows for continuous scanning of the subsurface
▫ Significantly reduce cost of exploration
▫ The method is able to image/measure physical
phenomena which are out of reach of human senses
 E.g. Earth’s magnetic field; low amplitude of vibrations
associated with seismic activity
* Each method will have its own set of advantages.

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• What are the disadvantages/limitations of
geophysics?
▫ Most methods require significant contrasts in physical

properties
▫ Susceptible to noise if surveys are not conducted
properly. Hence requires skilled professionals
▫ Signal attenuation with depth
▫ Non-uniqueness (ambiguity/uncertainty) of geophysical
results - Interpretation needs to be guided by existing
knowledge. Using an integrated approach also helps.
* Each method will have its own set of limitations.

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• Which methods can be integrated?
Application Combined Methods

Petroleum Seismic, Gravity, Magnetics, EM
exploration
Sand and Gravels Electrical Resistivity, Seismic, Gravity
Groundwater Electrical Resistivity, EM, Seismic,
Magnetics
Engineering Seismic, Electrical Resistivity

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INTRODUCTION

EASC 216 – FUNDAMENTALS

Refer to Course Outline

Detailed outline will be shared on

• What properties of the earth allow for the study of geophysics?

• What benefits or advantages are gained from using

• What geophysical methods are available for various

• How are various geophysical methods applied in practice?

• How are geophysical datasets interpreted and used for

• What are rocks?

• What are minerals?

• What are structures?

▫ Application of principles of physics to the study of the

▫ The study of the Earth’s physics and structure using

▫ Differences in chemical and physical properties

▫ Subsurface characterization based on mapping

• What physical properties of earth materials are we

▫ Passive geophysical surveys – also

Seismic reflection and

Active Methods Passive Methods

▫ The best contrast in physical properties

▫ Ideally, multiple methods are used to give

7-step Framework For Applied

 Literature review/Existing knowledge

7-step Framework For Applied

7-step Framework For Applied

7-step Framework For Applied

7-step Framework For Applied

Signals, Messages and Noise

ii. Data Processing and Interpretation

iii. Types of noise

 Operator (human) - This can be reduced drastically by careful and

 Geological - This is a contribution to the total response of geological

7-step Framework For Applied

7-step Framework For Applied

Du & Peng, 2016

* Each method will have its own set of advantages.

▫ Most methods require significant contrasts in physical

* Each method will have its own set of limitations.

Application Combined Methods

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