Chemical Level of

Organization
CHAPTER 2
Chemical Organization

 Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass.

 Mass – the amount of matter contained in an object. A
given mass is the same on Earth as it is in the zero-
gravity of outer space.
 Element – is a pure substance that is distinguished from
all other matter by the fact that it cannot be created or
broken down by ordinary chemical means.
Elements

 All of the elements in your body are derived from the

foods you eat and the air you breathe.
 The 4 most abundant elements in the body are:
 Oxygen – the most abundant element in your body.
 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Nitrogen
 Chemical Organization

 Each element’s
name can be
replaced by a one-
or two-letter symbol
 Here are a few
elements within our
bodies
Chemical Organization

 Compound – a substance composed of two or more

elements joined by chemical bonds (i.e. glucose: carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen)
 Atom – the smallest quantity of an element that retains
the unique properties of that element. (the period at the
end of the sentence contains millions of atoms).
 Atoms are made up of even smaller subatomic
particles: protons, neutrons, electrons.
Atoms

 Proton – is the positively charged particle of an atom

that gives mass to the atom.
 Neutron – the non-charged particle that gives mass to
the atom.
 The proton and neutron are located within the nucleus
of an atom
 Electron – the negatively charged particle of an atom
 Electrons exist in a “cloud” or a “shell” surrounding
the nucleus of an atom.
 The number of electrons of an atom are equal to the
number of protons of that atom.
Atom
Elements

 A particular element is defined by the number of protons in its

nucleus
 For example: Carbon (C) is Carbon because it has 6 protons
in its nucleus
 Atomic number – is the number of protons in the nucleus of the
atom and thus identifies the element. (i.e. Carbon’s (C) atomic
number is 6)
 Mass number – is the sum of the number of protons AND
neutrons in the element’s nucleus.
Periodic Table of Elements
Elements

 Although an element has a unique number of protons, it can

exist as different isotopes
 Isotope – one of the different forms of an element,
distinguished from one another by different numbers of
neutrons in the nucleus (proton number stays the same).
 Electron shell – is a layer of electrons that encircle the
nucleus at a distinct energy level.
 Valence shell – is an atom’s outermost electron shell. An
Atom’s reactivity with other atoms is determined by this
shell: full shell means non-reactive, “not full” shell means
reactive.
Isotope
Atoms
Electron Shells

 “Rule of Eight” – is a valence shell filling convention which notes that

an atom is least reactive when its outer valence shell is “full” or has
at least 8 electrons in it.
 Atoms’ electrons move about the nucleus at differing levels of
distance away from the nucleus depending on how many electrons are
at that level of energy or valence shell.
 The 1st level or “shell” can only hold 2 electrons. Any electrons
more than 2 start filling the next energy level or valence shell.
 The next or 2nd “shell” can only hold 8 electrons. Any electrons
more than 2 start filling the next energy level or valence shell.
 The next, or 3rd “shell” can hold 18 electrons, but is less reactive or
“happy” holding 8 electrons.
Valence Shells
 Remember that an element is determined by its number of protons in
its nucleus, or its atomic number, and that an atom has the same
amount of electrons as it does protons. Thus:
 Sodium (Na), atomic number 11 (means 11 protons and thus 11
electrons)
 1st shell takes 2 of the electrons (11-2=9); 2nd shell takes 8 (9-
8=1); 3rd shell takes the 1 electron left.
 Oxygen (O), atomic number 8 (means 8 protons and thus 8
electrons)
 1st shell takes 2 electrons (8-2=6); 2nd shell (which can hold a
total of 8) can take all of the remaining 6 electrons.
Chemistry

 Molecule – 2 or more atoms of different or same element held

together by a chemical bond. (i.e. O2 or Oxygen gas, NaCl or
table salt)
 Compound – 2 or more atoms of different element held together
by a chemical bond. (H2O or Water)
 Bond – is a weak or strong electrical attraction that holds atoms
in the same vicinity. The new grouping is typically more stable
(or less likely to react again) than its component atoms were
when they were separate.
Ions

 Recall that an atom tends to have the same number of protons and
electrons: the same number of positive charges as negative
charges (thus electrically neutral).
 When an atom participates in a chemical reaction it may donate
electrons (lose some negative charge and become net positively
charged) or accept electrons (gain some negative charge and
become net negatively charged).
 Ion- is an atom that has a net positive “+” or negative “-” charge.
 Cation – positively charged ion
 Anion – negatively charged ion
 Compounds

 Ionic Bond – an
ongoing, close
association
between ions of
opposite charge:
Bonds

 Covalent Bond – the atoms in the molecule do not donate or

accept electrons to complete their valence shells, but share the
electrons in a mutually stabilizing relationship.
 Non- polar covalent bond – the shared electrons spend equal
time around the 2 different atoms and thus do not create an
electrical imbalance.
 Polar covalent bond – the shared electrons spend more time
around one atom than the other and thus there is an imbalance
of electrical charge. (one side of the molecule is more positive
or negative than the other side).
Covalent Bonds
 Hydrogen Bond

 Hydrogen Bond – is formed when a

weakly positive hydrogen atom already
bonded to one electronegative atom is
attracted to another electronegative
atom from another molecule. (i.e. one
H2O molecule’s bond with the H2O
molecules next to it).
Reactions

 Metabolism – the sum total of all of the chemical reactions that go on to

maintain that organism’s health and life.
 Kinetic Energy – the form of energy powering any type of matter in
motion.
 For example building a brick wall: kinetic energy is that which is used
to place one brick atop another.
 Potential Energy – the energy matter possesses because of the
positioning or structure of its components.
 The brick wall has potential energy that get released as kinetic
energy when it collapses.
 Chemical Energy – the form of potential energy in which energy is stored
in chemical bonds. When those bonds are formed, chemical energy is
invested and when they break, chemical energy is released.
Reactions

 Reactant – a general term used for the one or more

substances that enter into the reaction.
 Product – the one or more substances produced by a
chemical reaction.
 General reactions – as in math chemical reactions are
written as equations and proceed from left to right, but
instead of an equal sign, they use an arrow or arrows
indicating the direction in which the chemical reaction
proceeds.
Reactions

 Synthesis Reaction (anabolic reaction) – one which

involves the joining of components that were formerly
separate
 General equation: A+B  AB (chemical energy is
absorbed and stored in the form of a bond)
 Example: N+3H  NH3
 Decomposition Reaction (catabolic reaction) – one in
which the reaction breaks down or “dek-composes”
something larger int it component parts.
 General equation: AB  A+B (chemical energy is
released by the breaking of a bond)
 Example: NH3  N+3H
Reactions

 Exchange Reaction – one in which both synthesis and

decomposition occur (chemical bonds are both formed
and broken and chemical energy is absorbed, stored and
released).
 General Equation: A + BC  AB + C
 Reactant may synthesize into a product that is later
decomposed
 Reversibility is also a quality of exchange reactions
Fundamental Chemical Reactions
Chemical Building Blocks

 The four types of organic compounds most important to human structure

and function along with their component building blocks are as follows:
 Carbohydrates (referred to as saccharides or sugars) – building block
is monosaccharide of which there are 5 used by humans: glucose,
fructose, galactose, ribose and deoxyribose.
 Triglycerides (lipids) – Building blocks are Glycerol and Fatty Acid
chain.
 Protein – building blocks are amino acids (AA): 20 of them.
 Each AA has a basic structure: There is a central Carbon atom to
which Carboxyl is bonded on one side and an Amino group is
bonded on the other side.
 Nucleic Acids – Their building blocks are nucleotides. Each nucleotide
includes a phosphate group, a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) and a
base (adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, or uracil).
Essential Compounds

 Both Inorganic and Organic compounds are essential to human

functioning
 Inorganic Compound – a substance that does not contain both
carbon AND hydrogen
 Examples: H20 (water), HCL (hydrochloric acid), CO2 (carbon
dioxide)
 Organic Compound – a substance that contains BOTH Carbon and
Hydrogen
 They are synthesized via covalent bonds within living organisms
 Examples: sugars, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids
Water

 Water (H2O) – is an essential inorganic compound for life. 70 percent of

an adult’s body weight is water and it exhibits the following properties
which contribute to why it is essential.
 Lubricant – water is a major component of many of the body’s lubricating
fluids such as those that decrease friction in synovial joints, the pleural space
and between abdominal organs.
 Heat Sink – is a substance or object that absorbs and dissipates heat but
does not experience a corresponding increase in temperature. In the body,
water absorbs the heat generated by chemical reactions without greatly
increasing in temperature. Water stored in the body helps keep the body
cool.
 Water

 In a solution there is a substance that is dissolved, solute, and something that

does the dissolving, a solvent. Within our bodies our cells must be bathed in
solution with other molecules to keep them alive and functioning. Thus since
water is the solvent in that solution, and can dissolve many diverse solutes, it is
referred to as the “universal solvent”.
 Chemical Reactions – There are two types of chemical reactions in the body that
involve the atoms within the water molecule itself for the completion of that
reaction’s product.
 Dehydration synthesis – one reactant gives up an atom of Hydrogen (H) and
another reactant gives up a hydroxyl group (OH) in the synthesis of a new
product.
 Hydrolysis – a molecule of water disrupts a compound, breaking its bonds. In
the process water is itself split into Hydrogen (H) and Hydroxyl (OH).
Water
Chemistry

 Mixture – a combination of two or more substances, each of which

maintains its own chemical identity: the resulting substances are
not chemically bonded into a new or larger chemical compound.
 For example if you thoroughly mix sugar with flour, the sugar
molecules remain sugar molecules and the flour remains flour.
The substances are NOT evenly distributed throughout: they are
heterogeneous.
 Solution – is a liquid mixture in which there is a solute, a substance
that is dissolved, and a solvent a liquid that causes the dissolving.
 An important characteristic is that they are homogeneous: the
solute molecules are distributed evenly throughout the solution.
Chemistry

 Acid – a substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+)in solution.

 Hydrogen has an atomic number of 1 (one proton) and thus
1 electron. A Hydrogen ion is missing its electron and
symbolized by H+. Since it is missing its electron that means
the H+ ion consists of 1 proton only.
 Base – a substance that releases hydroxyl ions (OH-) in
solution.
 pH – the relative acidity (how strong an acid) or alkalinity (how
strong a base) of a solution can be indicated by its pH. pH is
determined by the negative, base-10 logarithm of the hydrogen
ion (H+) concentration of the solution: which means a solution
with pH 4 is 10 times stronger than a solution with pH of 5. A
solution with pH 5 is 10 times stronger than one with pH of 6.
Acid/Base
pH

 Body pH – the human blood normally ranges from a pH of 7.35

to 7.45. This slightly basic pH helps to counteract the acid-
creating affect that carbon dioxide in the blood causes.
 Buffer – a solution of a weak acid and its conjugate base. A
buffer can neutralize small amounts of acids or bases in body
fluids.
 All cells of the body depend on homeostatic regulation of acid-
base balance at a pH of approximately 7.4. The body therefore
has several mechanisms for this regulation.
Saccharides (Sugars)

 Monosaccharides – is a monomer of carbohydrates.

Examples: glucose, fructose, galactose.
 Its base chemical equation is (CH2O)n- this means that
each carbohydrate has the same number of Carbon as
Oxygen atoms, and has twice as many Hydrogens.
 The body obtains carbohydrates from plant-based
foods. They are a critical fuel source. When combined
with lipids they are found in membranes that encloses
the contents of body cells. When combined with
proteins they become important cell receptors on the
cell surface.
Saccharides (sugars)

 Disaccharide – is a pair of monosaccharides.

 They are formed via dehydration synthesis and the bond linking them is
referred to as a glycosidic bond.
 3 important disaccharides: Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
 Polysaccharide – can contain a few to a thousand or more monosaccharides.
 3 important polysaccharides: Starches, Glycogen, Cellulose.
 Starch – storage molecule for plants
 Glycogen - is the energy storage molecule for animals
 Cellulose - is a structural saccharide and is the primary component of
the cell wall of green plants and is referred to as “fiber”.
 Chitin - is a structural saccharide that gives strength to the
exoskeleton of crustaceans and insects.
Lipids

 Triglycerides – is on of the most common dietary lipid groups

and the type found most abundantly in body tissues.
 Commonly referred to as fat
 Formed by dehydration synthesis of glycerol and fatty acids.
If the fatty acid chains have no double carbon bonds, or in
other words have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms,
then they are called “saturated fatty acids”.
 Saturated fats are solid at room temperature
 Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature
 Their major function is as a fuel source and assists in the
absorption and transport of certain vitamins. Lipids are also
used in cell membrane structures and hormones.
Lipids

 Types of Lipids:
 Phospholipid – cell membranes are composed of a
“phospholipid bilayer”
 Steroids (cholesterol) – is a lipid molecule of specific
shape that is found in bile, and it can be found in
hormones
 Prostaglandin – is a lipid molecule of a specific shape
that is one of a group of signaling molecules that are
used in regulation of blood pressure, inflammation,
and pain.
Proteins

 Proteins - are organic molecules made up of Amino Acid

subunits that are critical components of all tissues and
organs.
 peptide bond – a covalent bond between amino acid
subunits that is formed via dehydration synthesis
reactions.
 Essential amino acid - 9 of the 20 amino acids cannot be
synthesized within the body and must be obtained in the
diet.
Proteins

A protein’s shape is essential to its function.

 Fibrous proteins – elongated proteins of secondary structure that
are hydrophobic, strong and durable and are used structurally:
alpha helix and beta pleated sheets.
 Globular proteins – as the name suggests these are globe- or
sphere-shaped proteins of tertiary or quaternary structure that are
highly reactive and hydrophilic. They play critical roles throughout
the body to catalyze chemical reactions, as chemical messengers
(hormones), as cell membrane gates, as cell surface receptors or pH
buffers.
 Enzyme – a type of globular protein that causes chemical
reactions in the body to occur OR to occur at a very rapid rate.
Nucleotides

 Nucleotides are organic compounds that store genetic information or

contain a high-energy bond used in cellular metabolism.
 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) – stores genetic information. It has base
molecules which determine the particular bonding along its helical
structure.
 DNA bases: Adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine,
 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) – used to manifest the genetic code as protein.
 RNA bases: Adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil
 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) – is a high energy compound because of
the two covalent bonds linking its 3 phosphates that store a significant
amount of potential chemical energy. This is the primary energy
molecule of the body (glucose and oxygen are utilized in a series of
reactions to produce ATP).
DNA