HL Extension:

Philosophy in Contemporary Societies

E1.1 Philosophy and Culture

IB Philosophy HL
Mr. Matthew Wong
P1A
How do we define culture?
• Why is it hard to define culture?

• Research on some varying perspectives of what culture is.

• What makes up culture?

• What makes your opinion correct?

Why it is difficult to define ‘culture’
Complexity in Definition
• Multifaceted Nature: Culture comprises various components such as
language, customs, beliefs, rules, tools, technologies, products, organisations,
and institutions.
• Subjective Interpretations: Different disciplines approach culture from
varied perspectives, adding layers of complexity to its definition.

Dynamic and Evolving Nature

• Historical Changes: Cultures transform with historical events, such as
colonialism, which have reshaped the cultural landscapes of societies.
• Continuous Evolution: Modern culture is characterised by its fluidity and
the rapid pace of change, influenced by technological advances and global
communication.
Historical vs Contemporary understandings of
culture
• Classical Views: Ancient Greeks, for example, considered culture as
an ideal state of intellectual development and refinement.
• Enlightenment Thought: During the Enlightenment, culture was
seen as a benchmark of civilisation, often used to justify imperialist
ideologies.

• Edward Tylor's Broad Definition: In 1871, Tylor defined culture as

"that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by
[humans] as a member of society."
• Franz Boas's Cultural Relativism: Boas introduced the idea that
culture is relative and each should be understood on its own terms.
Historical vs Contemporary understandings of
culture
Culture as Identity
• Ethnic and National Identity: Culture is a key component in the
formation of ethnic and national identities, providing a sense of
belonging and self-understanding.

Globalisation's Impact
• Cultural Diffusion: The spread of cultural elements across borders is
facilitated by globalisation, sometimes resulting in the dilution of
distinct cultural practices.
• Resistance and Reinvention: In response, some groups emphasise
traditional cultural practices as a means of resistance against
homogenisation.
If there are many cultures, what are the
distinctions between them? Are there any
similarities between them?
Distinctions
• Value Systems: Distinct cultural groups often hold differing value systems,
which can be a source of both diversity and conflict.

• Cultural Norms: From the rituals surrounding birth, marriage, and death to
the less formalised customs of daily life, cultural norms provide a distinctive
rhythm and pattern to a community's way of life.
Overlaps
• Syncretism: Cultures often borrow and blend elements from
one another, resulting in syncretic practices, like the blending
of African religious traditions with Christianity in Latin America.
• Cultural Convergence: With the global spread of media,
food, music, and fashion, there is an increasing convergence
of cultural norms and styles.
In the 21st century, why have we started to lose
grasp of what culture really is?
• Intangible and Multifaceted Nature: Much of culture is composed
of invisible threads such as beliefs and values, rather than just
observable artefacts and rituals.
• Personal and Collective: Culture operates at both personal and
collective levels, influencing individual behaviour and group dynamics.
• Cross-Cultural Interactions: In our interconnected world, cultures
continually interact and influence one another through trade, travel,
and technology.
• Emergent Cultures: New forms of culture are emerging that do not fit
neatly into existing categories, such as online gaming communities or
global environmental movements.
How do we find our own identities in a rapidly
evolving culture?
Hybrid Identities
• Multiple Belongings: Many people now identify with multiple cultural
traditions, negotiating their identity accordingly.
• Cultural Negotiation: Individuals navigate and negotiate between the
cultural expectations of their heritage and the mainstream culture in which
they live.

Subcultures and Countercultures

• Diversity within Societies: Within any given society, various subcultures
with their own distinctive practices and beliefs may exist.
• Countercultural Movements: These movements often arise in opposition to
perceived mainstream cultural norms, seeking to establish new ways of living
and thinking.
How do we classify and separate distinct
cultures?
• Language
• Technology
• Economic and political frameworks
Language
• Vehicle of Tradition: Language transmits the cumulative wisdom
and knowledge of a culture.
• Dialects and Accents: These variations not only reflect regional
differences but also class, ethnicity, and group identity.
• Endangered Languages: The loss of languages, often due to the
dominance of a few global languages, represents a corresponding
loss of cultural diversity.

• ***Language Revival: Efforts to revive and sustain endangered

languages are also efforts to preserve cultural identities.
Technology
• Impact on Communication: Social media and
communication technologies have created global forums for
cultural expression and debate.
• Changing Consumption Patterns: The ease of accessing
cultural products online has changed how cultures consume
music, literature, and art.
Economic and political frameworks
• Globalisation vs Localisation: There is a tension between
the globalising forces of the market and the localisation efforts
that strive to preserve cultural uniqueness.
• Cultural Policy: Governments and institutions often enact
policies aimed at protecting and promoting cultural diversity
within their jurisdictions.
• Migration policies
• Diasporas
Theoretical Frameworks for
Understanding Culture
• Structuralism
• Deep Structures: Structuralism posits that beneath the
surface of cultural practices lie deep structures that govern
human thought and social action.

• Post-structuralism
• Deconstruction: Post-structuralism challenges the idea of
fixed meanings in culture, advocating for a more fluid
understanding of cultural signs and symbols.
Multiculturalism and Cultural
Relativism
• The Rise of Multiculturalism
• Cultural Pluralism: Societies are increasingly adopting
multicultural policies that recognise and value the coexistence
of different cultures.

• Cultural Relativism
• Equality of Cultures: Cultural relativism argues against the
ranking of cultures as 'higher' or 'lower', advocating for an
appreciation of cultural diversity.
Cultural conflicts and interactions
• Research and suggest examples of both, explaining how they contribute to a
more homogenized or separated global culture.

• Argue with your classmates!

• In what ways do cultural norms shape individual
behaviour and social interaction?
• Can a culture exist without having a geographical or
territorial basis in today's digital age?
• How does cultural diversity within a country affect its
legal and political systems?
• What role does language play in the maintenance and
transmission of culture?
• How does the concept of culture intersect with
personal identity in a multicultural society?
P1A
P1B
• Evaluate the extent to which the concept of cultural relativism
presents challenges to universal human rights.

• Discuss how the rise of global communication technologies

might influence the evolution of culture according to a post-
structuralist perspective.
P3 A personal question: As an Arab-American, I try to maintain my children's ties to Arab culture and
•
the Arabic language, going out of my way to make sure that they speak Arabic fluently, and sending
them to Arabic class and attending various Arab-American community events etc...to give them a
"sense of identity". But of late I have been wondering what's the point? I have Irish great grand
parents from one side of my family, but it would seem silly for me to go out of my way to instill an
Irish identity in my kids, or to make sure that we spoke Gaelic at home. Moreover, if one them was
to marry a person of Philippino-Jewish decent, what identity are they going to instill in their
offspring? Are they going to speak Tagalog on odd days, Arabic on even days, and Yiddish on
Weekends? At some point it starts seeming pointless, why not just give up and adopt the dominant
cultural identity of the society you live in.
• Moreover, it seems immoral for me to impose on them that they marry inside the group the way
many groups do to their children in the name of protecting ethnic and religious heritage.
• On the other hand, it seems totally reasonable to me that a group which has come under severe
oppression and violence (Jews, Armenians,...) or that is so small that it is in danger of extinction
(Cajuns, many Native American Nations,...) would seek to protect itself by forcefully insuring the
perpetuation of its language and values through its children and preventing or at least minimizing
intermarriage with other groups.
• In addition to that, it seems that if the ideal American melting-pot model succeeds and gets
extended to other geographies, in a few generations humanity will end up being one uniform, boring
group with little or no cultural and genetic variation at all. Think of the number of languages that
have gone extinct just in the 20th century.
• Some might see such a unification as a positive thing (less conflict, no sectarian strife, no racism,
et....), but to me it would make for a very poor planet indeed.
Treatment of minorities and marginalized
groups under differences of culture
• The Concept of Minority and Marginalised Groups
• Marginalisation Based on Gender, Sexual Orientation, Race, La
nguage, or Ethnicity
• Dynamics of Marginalisation
• Responses to Marginalisation
• The Role of Philosophy in Understanding Marginalisation
• Challenges in Addressing Marginalisation
Major types of minorities or marginalized
peoples
• Ethnic and Religious Minorities
• Ethnic Minorities: Characterised by unique cultural practices,
languages, and beliefs. They frequently confront challenges such as
systemic discrimination, cultural assimilation pressures, and limited
political representation.
• Examples include the Kurds in the Middle East, Roma in Europe, and
the Ainu in Japan.
• Religious Minorities: Distinct in their spiritual practices from the
predominant religion of a society.
• Challenges include the risk of persecution, hate crimes, and social
ostracisation, as seen in the treatment of Coptic Christians in Egypt
or the Uighurs in China.
Major types of minorities or marginalized
peoples
• Minority Nations
• Populations with a national identity but without a sovereign state. They
often fight for self-determination and recognition of their cultural rights.
• The Tibetans in China and Scots in the United Kingdom are instances
of such struggles.
• Indigenous Peoples
• The original occupants of lands who retain distinct cultural identities
and are often marginalised by post-colonial government structures.
• Issues faced include land dispossession, denial of sovereignty, and
environmental degradation, such as the plight of the Native
American tribes in the USA.
How people are marginalized by their identity
Age

Sexual
Gender
orientation

Ethnicity Race

Language
Dynamics of Marginalisation
• Socially Constructed Identities: These are powerful determinants
of how groups are perceived and valued within societies.
• Power Imbalance: Marginalisation is often a result of entrenched
power dynamics, with dominant groups maintaining control over
societal resources and opportunities.
• Multiple Identities: The concept of intersectionality acknowledges
that individuals may face multiple layers of marginalisation
simultaneously.
• Institutional and Structural Factors: Institutions can perpetuate
marginalisation through policies and practices that embed inequality,
such as racially biased law enforcement practices.
Responses to Marginalisation
• Social Movements: Social movements play a critical role in
bringing about change and raising awareness about the issues
faced by marginalised groups.
• Legal Protections: Laws aimed at protecting marginalised groups
include anti-discrimination acts, equal employment laws, and
affirmative action statutes.
• International Agreements: Various international agreements aim
to set standards for the treatment of marginalised populations.
• Education of Inclusive Curricula: Education systems are
increasingly adopting curricula that recognise and value diversity,
aiming to reduce ignorance and prejudice.
Finally... what’s the philosophy in this?
• Critical Theory
• Examining Power: Critical theory philosophers explore the
socio-economic structures that lead to marginalisation.
• Theorists like Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer analyse how
culture industries perpetuate social stratification.
Feminist Philosophy
• Challenging Gender Roles: Feminist philosophy investigates the
intersection of philosophy with gender issues, questioning societal
norms and the gender hierarchy.

Postcolonial Philosophy
• Aftermath of Colonialism: This philosophy examines the lasting
impacts of colonialism on societies, which often result in the
continued marginalisation of indigenous and ethnic groups.

Ethics of Care
• Relational Ethics: The ethics of care proposes a moral approach
centred on personal relationships and empathy, promoting societal
attention to marginalised groups.
Why is it difficult to reduce marginalized
groups?
• Recognition and Representation: Achieving adequate and accurate
representation in media, politics, and culture is a significant hurdle for
marginalised groups.
• Resource Allocation: Ensuring fair distribution of societal resources
such as education, healthcare, and housing continues to be a challenge.
• Cultural Relativism vs. Universalism: The debate between cultural
relativism and moral universalism involves the challenge of respecting
cultural diversity while upholding universal human rights.
• Balancing Integration and Multiculturalism: Societies face the
complex task of integrating marginalised groups without eroding their
distinct cultural identities.
• What is the significance of 'cultural relativism' in
understanding the treatment of marginalised groups?
• In what ways do educational systems contribute to both
the perpetuation and the dismantling of marginalisation?
• How does the marginalisation of minority groups differ in
liberal democracies compared to non-democratic
regimes?
• Can the concept of 'tolerance' be problematic in the
context of multiculturalism?
• How does language serve as a tool for both
marginalisation and empowerment of minority groups?
P1A
P1B
• Evaluate the impact of social movements in achieving legal
recognition and rights for marginalised groups. Discuss with
reference to a specific social movement.

• Analyse how the concept of intersectionality can deepen our

understanding of the experiences of marginalised groups.
Tolerance
• Tolerance is the capacity or practice of recognising and
respecting the beliefs or practices of others.
• Tolerance in Historical Context: Rooted in religious liberty,
the concept gained prominence during the Enlightenment,
advocating for the peaceful coexistence of differing beliefs and
ideas.
• Tolerance involves forbearance, which implies a degree of self-
restraint or patience in not exercising power or enacting
prohibition against what is disapproved of.
The Philosophical Underpinnings
of Tolerance
• John Locke’s Perspective: Advocated for religious tolerance
with the view that coercing religious uniformity would lead to
more social disorder than allowing diversity.
• Voltaire’s Advocacy: Argued for tolerance on the grounds of
humanity and the fallibility of human judgement.
The Multidimensional Scope of
Tolerance
• Cultural Tolerance: The recognition and acceptance of
different cultural norms and practices.
• Religious Tolerance: Pertains to allowing religious
expressions and beliefs to flourish without interference.
• Political Tolerance: The degree to which individuals are
willing to extend civil liberties and rights to political opponents
and groups with different views.
Tolerance as a Virtue and a
Political Principle
• Liberal Democracies: View tolerance as essential for the
protection of individual rights and the functioning of a diverse
society.
• Tolerance goes beyond mere endurance; it encapsulates
respect and a recognition of the fundamental right to be
diverse.
The Limits and Critiques of
Tolerance
• Karl Popper's Paradox of Tolerance: Popper highlighted
that if a society is overly tolerant towards intolerance, the
conditions for tolerance itself may be eroded.
• Tolerance implies a hierarchy where one group 'allows' another
to exist, which critics argue does not foster equality but rather
reinforces the majority’s power over the minority.
Tolerance and Minority Groups
• Substantive Equality: Tolerance might stop short of ensuring
actual equality for minority groups, as it may only serve to
perpetuate a lower status under the guise of peaceful
coexistence.
• Critics argue that mere tolerance entrenches the status quo
and inhibits active integration or valuing of minority cultures
equally.
Examining the Adequacy of
Tolerance in Practice
• Equality through tolerance often fails to translate into equal
citizenship as it can be superficial, not addressing deeper
systemic inequalities.
• Social Justice: Tolerance must be coupled with active
measures to combat systemic injustices that marginalise
minority groups.
The Role of Tolerance in
Governance and Policy
• Multicultural policies often embed the concept of tolerance to
prevent discrimination and conflict, focusing on minimising
friction rather than enhancing understanding.
• Such policies may struggle to reconcile the tension between
freedom of expression and the protection of minority groups
from hate speech or discriminatory practices.
Tolerance, Education, and Social
Cohesion
• Education systems are instrumental in cultivating a tolerance
that is active and informed, introducing children to societal
norms that value diversity.
• Discussions about tolerance in education raise questions about
whether it promotes true intercultural understanding or simply
prepares individuals to endure diversity without deeper
engagement.
Tolerance in the Age of
Globalisation
• Globalisation intensifies the intersection of cultures, which
necessitates a more dynamic and interactive form of
tolerance.
• Global tolerance is challenged by the need to respect cultural
diversity while upholding universal human rights standards.
Diverse Perspectives on Tolerance
• Feminist scholars scrutinise tolerance for potentially masking
gender oppression and maintaining patriarchal structures.
• Postcolonial critiques focus on how the Western narrative of
tolerance may inadvertently patronise or diminish non-Western
cultures.
Tolerance and Equal Citizenship
• True equality demands not just tolerance but equal
representation, opportunity, and participation in the public
sphere for all citizens, regardless of their minority status.
• Legal frameworks and social institutions must embody this
inclusive principle to achieve a society where tolerance
transitions into equality.
Tolerance as a Foundation for the
Future
• The future of tolerance lies in addressing and dismantling
power imbalances and the legacies of cultural hegemony.
• An inclusive society that values diversity must evolve from a
foundation of tolerance to one of equality, justice, and mutual
respect.
• In what ways might the promotion of tolerance conflict with
other political or social objectives, such as national security or
social cohesion?
• What is the role of the state in promoting tolerance among its
citizens, and what measures can be taken to enhance it?
• How can individuals practise tolerance in everyday life to
contribute to a more harmonious multicultural society?
• Can 'tolerance' be considered a moral virtue in philosophy, and
how does it compare to other virtues such as justice or
benevolence?
• How does the concept of 'tolerance' differ from 'acceptance' in
the context of multicultural societies?
P1B
• Evaluate the statement, "Tolerance is an inadequate
framework for achieving substantive equality within a
multicultural society."

• Discuss the role of education in transforming the concept of

tolerance from passive coexistence to active engagement and
mutual respect in a multicultural society.
P3
• The concept of ‘good governance’ first gained prominence as a standard
upon which donor agencies conditioned their aid to recipient
governments. It then expanded to be a general measure of country
development. Today, some political scientists take it to name a
fundamental normative ideal against which all governments should be
assessed, related to but distinct from other ideals such as ‘legitimacy’,
‘justice’ or the ‘social good’. Others vehemently reject such pretensions.
• However, an increasing anxiety about the quality of government
institutions and apparent declining popular support for them across the
world does seem to demand an answer, if there is one, to the question:
what is ‘good’ governance’? With notable exception, philosophers have
largely stood back from such debates.
• This is despite the fact that ‘good’ governance appears to bear its
normative concern on its face. Taking up this opportunity, in this paper, I
shall argue that a philosophical perspective on the concept of good
governance yields a novel conception.
End