LECTURE 3 –

LOADS

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 Types of Loads
 Wave loads
 Slamming loads
 Green sea loads
 Horizontal bending & Torsion
 Transverse loads
 Wind loads
 Inertial loads
 Thermal loads

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 Types of Loads
 Wave loads
 Ice loads
 Green sea loads
 Horizontal bending & Torsion
 Transverse loads
 Wind loads
 Inertial loads
 Thermal loads

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 Types of Loads
 Propulsion train
 Wheel loads
 Internal deck loads
 Docking & Slipping loads
 Berthing loads
 Launching loads
 Grounding loads

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 Types of Loads
Collision
Towing loads
Weapon launching loads
Underwater explosion loads
Loads due to air blast
 Distant external air blast
 Internal or closed external air blast
Lifting loads

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 Wave Loads
 Traditional methods with thumb rules
 Statistical representation of sea state
& calculation
 Regular wave loading from strip
theory
 Sum of applied and internal forces
must be zero, but for individual strips
this will not b zero
 Wall sided ship

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 Traditional Method
 M =  L / 35
Z=M/
 Synthesize the structure to meet Z
required
 Scaled to give scantling of rest of the
ship
 Calculate the structural weight, add
to other known weights and distribute it
Biles coffin

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 Traditional Method
 Static balance theory
 1% probability of exceedance
 8m wave height, length same as ships
length
 Design BM
M ds M sw 1.54 M s  M sw 
M dh M sw 1.54 M h  M sw 
Mds, Mdh  Design sagging & hogging BM
Msw  Still water BM (+ve for hogging and –ve for
sagging)
Ms , Mh  Sagging & hogging BM in 8m wave
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 Strip Theory Method

Z
V F
 x, t  mz  x, t    x, t 
V x x
V mx V x L/2
x V
V j    x, t  dx
xj
x
L/2
V
M j   x  x j   x, t  dx
F ( x, t ) xj
x
x
x

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 Slamming Loads
 Loads at high frequency due to
impact between ships hull and water
surface
 Short duration high pressure pulse
 2MPa in 0.05 – 0.1 s decays in 0.2 s
 Ochi(1964) & Ochi and Motter (1973)
 To be continued

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 Slamming Loads
 Loads at much higher frequencies due
to impact between water and ships hull
 Understanding of the total problem
requires the solution of a number of
separate problems
 Slam frequency for a given seaway
 The pressure distribution along the bottom of the
ship
 Time history of pressure pulse
 Local structural response
 Complete dynamic response of the hull vibrating as
a beam
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 Slamming Loads
 Ochi(1964) bases the existence of a
slam on two conditions being met
 Relative displacement at the bow is such
that the bow emerges
 Relative velocity between the ship and the
sea is above a certain threshold value s*
 If the two events are denoted by U & V
and the draught at the forefoot is Tf then
the combined event (UV) assuming they
are independent has a probability
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 Slamming Loads
 P(UV) = P(U) x P(V)
 P(Slam) = P(U>Tf) x P(V > s* )
 In the same way as RAO can be
deduced for motions and loads, RAO can
also be found from strip theory or model
tests for the two variables Tf and s*
  Tf 2 s*2 
P ( Slam) exp      
  2mor 2m2 r  
 m0 r  Ns  Expected no
N s 1/ 2    .P ( Slam) of slams / unit time
 m2 r 
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 Green Sea Loads
 Green sea loads on the deck, forecastle
& bridge
 Combined effect of wind wave and green
sea loads to be taken
 No clear cut design procedure
 Pressure to taken as statically applied at
Bridge – 100 KPa
 Rest refer Chalmers

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Horizontal Bending & Torsion
 Caused by wave action
 Stresses due to both these responses
are very much minimum
 0.0055 LBD2 Tm for wave induced torque
by Meek et al for container ship
 Horizontal bending is usually the least
significant of wave load effect
 If there are large openings then it has to
be checked
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 Transverse Loads
 The lateral force resulting from sea
pressure
 Force is function of draught, trim, wave
characteristics and ship motion – Complex
 Two components
 A uniform pressure head of 5m dynamic
pressure from orbital motion of water
 A linearly varying head – motion of the ship
relative to the sea surface
 Larger of the two to be taken
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Transverse Loads

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 Wind Loads
 The lateral force resulting from sea pressure
 Wind load may not be significant
 As such designed for green sea loads which
are greater
 Wind loads may affect design of masts
 Rawson & Tupper (1976) 0.2V2 Pa V → m/s
 Wind speed is unlikely to exceed 50 m/s
hence worst case value of 0.5 KPa
 This is one order of magnitude less than that
due to green sea loading max 0.5 KPa
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 Inertial Loads
 Caused by the motion of heavy masses
following the motion of the hull
 Inertial force = Mass x Acceleration
 Take 1/10th highest accelerations from
response spectrum
 a1/10 = 2.55 m4r
 In early stages F = 42md/T2
 For 1T 10m fwd of centre of roll, roll period
of 10 sec and amplitude 30 F  2KN
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 Thermal Loads
 Moderate stresses caused due to difference
in temperature, material with diff coefficient of
thermal expansion
 It is seen that when a temp diff is  30 then
there is a reduction of overall hull girder
strength by 5%
 When a ship operates in such regions the
designer has to cater for this margin

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 Ice Loads
 Area and role to be defined clearly
 For ice breaking ships
 Pi = Po (/1000)0.2
 Po = 0.9 MPa in the bow region, 0.32 MPa at the
mid body and 0.2 MPa in the stern region
 ti = aKf[{1+(/3)2}-/3].(Pi/y)
 → aspect ratio of the plate panel
 Kf → constant 0.6 for transversely framed ships
0.7 for longitudinally framed ships
 Appropriate corrosion allowance to be added
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 Propulsion Train
 These forces are due to the thrust
transmitted from the propulsor through the
shaft to the hull
 Not very significant compared to other loads
 May be important for carrying out vibration
analysis
 Cyclic load on the hull above the propeller
due to uneven flow through propeller disc
 Cavitations and other loads

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 Wheel Loads
 Wheel loads results from vehicles on landing
ships and Ro-Ro ships as well as from aircrafts
 Consists of dead load and inertial loads
 LRS Part 3, Chapter 9 → Max Axle load and
Max individual tyre load needed
 More vehicles parked adjacent to each other,
then total load to be treated as a continuous
pressure

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 Wheel Loads
 Aircraft loads applies for both flight deck and
hangers
 Most sever load in a hanger will be the
parking load which is related to all up weight of
the aircraft
 The principle to be applied for landing areas
is that the aircraft structure will fail before
the ship
 The max load an undercarriage can apply is
known as oleo ultimate load
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 Wheel Loads
 For aircraft landing therefore, the load that
should be used is the greatest oleo ultimate load
on any undercarriage that is likely to land
 For dynamic effect this should be factored by
1.5 for stiffeners and 1.2 for plating
 For parked aircrafts the design load is based on
the AUW distributed correctly between all the
wheels
 The load on each wheel should be factored by
1.75 for aircrafts on exposed flight decks and by
1.6 for aircrafts in hanger
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 Internal Deck Loads
 Force applied to the decks by concentrate
loads, loads due to equipment, personnel etc
 Simplest way is to use an equivalent
pressure on the deck
 13 KPa for air pressure testing of
compartments
 If no pressure testing and actual data not
available
 10 KPa for workshops and offices
 5 KPa in living spaces & passageways
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 Docking & Slipping Loads
 Docking a ship on blocks imposes very high
vertical loads on the keel
 It is recommended to use a simplified
method is used whereby a line load at the keel
equal to Wc/Lc is distributed equally over the
blocks in that section
 Parabolic distribution for aft cutup overhang

 3Wo  x2 x
w  2  [2 Lo  3LG  2  2 3Lo  4 LG   4  Lo  LG ]
 4L o  Lo Lo

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Docking & Slipping Loads

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 Docking & Slipping Loads
 Loads due to side blocks and shores are
much more difficult to estimate and are
generally neglected
 Assumed that the loads will be taken directly
into transverse bulkheads in-plane
 Or the loads, when applied to the stiffened
side structure, will be less than that allowed for
during normal seaway loading
 Special cases to be tested by experiments

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 Berthing Loads
 Loads due to berthing of a ship
 Highly variable depending upon the Captain
and weather conditions
 Thumb rule is to design the 1 m strip near
the boot-top area to withstand a line load of
/800 per m length
 1m strip to be extended for large ships and
operating in different loading conditions

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 Launching Loads
 Once in a lifetime load
 To be calculated by analytical methods,
Rawson and Tupper (1976)
 Fore poppet should be carefully designed to
ensure that the high loads to be transmitted in
this area are applied to stiff structures in the
fore end
 If adequate structure is not available,
temporary stiffening may be necessary
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 Grounding Loads
 Grounding is generally an accident condition
and do not affect the structural design
 If grounding is part of operation (landing
crafts) separate calculation as mentioned in
Rawson and Tupper (1976) is to be carried out
 It is probably best to assume that all the load
is spread evenly over a single panel of plate
between stiffeners
 Factor for abrasion to be given

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 Collision Loads

 Another accident condition

 Designer need not bother about this load
 If required detailed analysis needs to be
carried out

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 Grounding Loads
 Grounding is generally an accident condition
and do not affect the structural design
 If grounding is part of operation (landing
crafts) separate calculation as mentioned in
Rawson and Tupper (1976) is to be carried out
 It is probably best to assume that all the load
is spread evenly over a single panel of plate
between stiffeners
 Factor for abrasion to be given

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 Towing Loads
 Only on emergency
 As a general rule it is appropriate in design
to apply a load to the structure equivalent to
30% above the proof load of the cable or the
cable breaking load, which ever is lesser, thus
ensuring that components fail notionally in a
logical order
 Structure supporting the towing fairlead must
be designed to appropriate resultant load

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 Lifting Loads
 This is a sever load condition
 Can be calculated using simple beam theory
from the position of the lifting points and
vessel condition
 Shear force at the lifting points may
dominate the structural design rather than the
maximum bending moment
 Local stress concentration near the lifting
eyes needs to be checked

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 Weapons Launch Loads
 Impulsive load
 Recoil effect
 Blast
 Missile efflux pressure
 Recoil effect
 Gun and mortar recoil will be found in
documentation
 In assessing the response, the load must be
taken to be periodic and ideally a dynamic analysis
of the supporting structure to be undertaken
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 Weapons Launch Loads
 Recoil effect
 For initial design purpose it is sufficient to use an
approximate ‘dynamic load factor’  resonance
 Provided the natural freq. of the supporting
structure is more than four times the firing rate and
at least 50% higher than the freq. derived from the
time to max force, then a DLF of 1.6 will be
adequate
 If the gun is mounted immediately above a
bulkhead then the structural response freq will be
much higher  DLF  1.2 may be used
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Weapons Launch Loads

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 Weapons Launch Loads
 Blast Load
 Transient overpressure, value should be
available in the weapon documentation
 The pressure will act only for a time of the order
of 10ms (structure will not be able to respond)
 Sufficient to design to an equivalent static
pressure of 25% of the peak blast pressure
 If curves not available then
Pg = 2MPa{(1+cos)2/(d/b)1.5}
b  bore of the gun,
d  distance from the muzzle of a point at which the
pressure Pg is required on the structure on a line at angle 
  angle to the CL of the barrel
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 Weapons Launch Loads
 Missile Efflux
 Can be predicted by considering the rate of
change of momentum of the efflux where it strikes
the structure under consideration
 For practical purpose, it is sufficient to design for
the thrust averaged over a cone of semi angle 3
and the resultant equivalent static pressure
 Pm is Pm = 1.5(Tm/Ai){sin /(sin  + tan  cos
)}
 1.5 is dynamic load factor, Tm is the thrust acting
at an angle  (25 <  < 90) to the structure over
an area Ai and  is the efflux cone semi angle
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 Air Blast Loads
 Distant External Air Blast
 Two main phases
 The diffraction loading phase, during which
the incident blast front reflects and diffracts
around the target causing intense impulsive
loading
 The drag phase, during which the air behind
the blast front causes high, long duration
aerodynamic forces on the targets

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 Air Blast Loads
 Distant External Air Blast
 A spherical shock front propagates from the
point of burst and carries with it peak
overpressure which decays behind the front to
a pressure P(t)
 t    at 
p (t ) Pso  1    exp   
 td   td 
 td+  The positive duration of the pulse
 a  The decay coefficient which varies from
0.1 – 10, 1 for nuclear blast and 3 for fuel air
blast
 Pso and td+ are blast characteristics
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Air Blast Loads

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 Air Blast Loads
 Distant External Air Blast
t s 3S c / U U U o 1  6 Pso / 7 Po 
Ps  p (t s )  CD q (t s )

 ts  The duration of the peak

 U  Velocity of the shock front
 Sc  Height or the half breadth of the
deckhouse, whichever is smaller
 Uo & Po speed of sound and ambient
pressure
 CD  The drag coefficient of the structure
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 Air Blast Loads
 Distant External Air Blast
 The resulting peak reflected pressure Pr against
solid objects is between two and eight times the
value of Pso for a shock front striking a surface
normal to its direction of travel
Pr 2 Pso 7 Po  4 Pso  / 7 Po  Pso 
q (t ) Q 1  t / t d   exp  2at / t d  
Q 2.5 Pso 2 / 7 Po  Pso 

q(t)  dynamic pressure

Q  Peak dynamic pressure
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 Air Blast Loads
 Distant External Air Blast
 The side and top faces of a structure do not see
the reflected pressure peaks and therefore their
pressure time histories for a structure of length Ls is
as shown

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 Air Blast Loads
 Distant External Air Blast
 It should be noted that the drag coefficient for
the top and sides of a structure the drag
coefficient is negative, reducing the total load in
the drag phase
 Deckhouse sides should be examined against
the more stringent case of front loading
 Deckhouse tops should be loaded as shown
in previous fig
 For the rear face the loading is similar, except
that there is a time delay of (Ls+4Sc)/U as the
pressure builds up
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Air Blast Loads

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Air Blast Loads

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