Chapter 1.

Historical Background of Land

Transportation

PLTCOL MEDIE GAYAMOS LAPANGAN, JR

Introduction

This Chapter presents the historical

development of land transportation used by man.
Future traffic officers and traffic managers must
familiarize themselves with the various inventions
and innovations related to land transportation to
enable them to understand present-day traffic
problems.
Lesson 1.1

Manpower, Animal Power, and Wind Power

Transportation is the movement or conveying of persons and goods from

one location to another.

Tracing the historical development of human methods of transporting

goods and people would take a voluminous book to record all the
innovations made by man from ancient times to the present-day age. Man’s
need to travel dates back as early as the creation of human
beings. Biblical passages alleged that when Adam and Eve ate the fruit of
the forbidden tree, they were sent out by God from Paradise of Eden.

Since then, the human race expanded and our ancestors constantly
move from one place to another to enable them to survive and others for
various reasons. Other biblical passages mentioned that Moses was chosen
by God to speak to the Pharaoh, King of Egypt to let His children out of
Egypt. So, the children of Israel were gloriously brought out from Egypt to
serve God.

Soon, others became nomadic. They constantly migrate from one

place to another according to their detailed knowledge of exploitable
resources.
 The term nomad, from the Greek, “to pasture,” was originally used to
refer to pastoralists-groups that migrate in an established pattern to find
pasture lands for their domestic livestock. However, the term has since been
generalized to include all non-settled populations, of which there are three
types.
1. The first type comprises foraging populations who wander in search of their
food. It is estimated that 99% of all humanity once lived in this way.

2. The second type, the most significant numerically and historically, comprises
the pastoral nomads who move with their families, belongings, and herds of
cattle, camel, sheep, or goats through an annual cycle of pastures whose
availability is determined by the alteration of hot and cold or wet and dry
seasons. and

3. The third type comprises of gypsies, tinkers, and similar itinerants in urban
and complex societies.
 What worth noting is; how man traveled during the ancient period. It is
believed that early human beings traveled to places by foot, carrying their
loads on their backs or their heads, while others pulled crude sleds. They
used every means to make their transportation with the least time and effort.
 Various Ancient Modes of transportation:
A. Manpower.
Early man, who had no domesticated animals, carried his burdens.
More so today, manpower is important in transportation in many parts of the
world.

1. Walking (traveling by foot) – man first used the power of his own feet in
traveling while a load is either carried or dragged. Coincidentally, the
English word “pedestrian” was coined from the Latin word “pedester”
which means to travel by foot.
2. Carrying pole – in China and other parts of the Far East, the carrying
pole, balanced on one shoulder is a popular carrying device. On islands of
the Pacific, the ends of the pole are supported by two men, with goods
suspended from the pole in between.
3. Back load and tumpline – in Subtemala, pots are carried on a wooden
framework supported by a tumpline across the forehead. In Andes, the load
is held on the back by a strap passing over the chest.

4. Sled on rollers – the moving of heavy burdens was to place them on a

sledge which rested on a series of rollers.

5. Sled on runners – a simple sled, probably man-drawn was in use at the

end of the Old Stone age in northern Europe, as evidenced by fragments of
wooden runners that survived.

6. Travois – this travois, as the pole arrangement called, serves as a platform

on which the burdens are placed. The platform or cross-beam poles are then
dragged by humans or animals.
B. Animal Power
The domestication of animals greatly increased the potential power
available for transportation. Pack animals were introduced as conveyances
mainly to save labor. A man can tend several pack animals moving together,
each of which (except dogs) can carry more than he usually can.

Some of the common animals used by human beings since ancient

time:
1. Ox – cattle, which were first domesticated in Mesopotamia, were used as
draft animals to draw war chariots. In some parts of Africa, they are used as
pack animals and for riding.

2. Reindeer – these were first domesticated in Siberia at the beginning of the

Christian era. In the Altai Mountains, they were ridden with saddles.
Elsewhere, they draw sleds somewhat like the dog sleds of the Far North.
3. Dog – the first animal domesticated, is too slight to carry a heavy load. The
plain Indians sometimes packed light loads on dogs’ backs and piled goods
on a travois which the dogs dragged. In the Far North, the dog's team drawing
sleds are the chief means of transportation; and in parts of Europe, the dogs
are used to draw small carts.

4. Donkey – the first domesticated in the Middle East. Donkey caravans carry
goods between the cities of Southwest Asia and Egypt and the donkey is still
the chief beast of burden among the farmers of the Near East, the
Mediterranean Area, and Mexico, where it was introduced from Spain.

5. Llama – in Pre-Columbian America, the Llama was the only new world
animal other than the dog capable of domestication for use in transport.
6. Elephant – the Carthaginians used African elephants in their war against
Rome. In India, elephants were formerly used in war and are still employed to
some extent for ceremonial processions and big game hunting. In Burma and
Thailand, these huge animals are widely used in the lumber industry.

7. Horse – around 2,000 B.C., horse-drawn chariots appeared in southwest Asia

and 1,000 years later, the Persians arrived with cavalry which gave mobility
and power to the German tribes who invaded Europe and to the Central Asian
conqueror Genghis Khan.

8. Camel – there are two kinds of camel, the two-humped Bactrian camel of
Central Asia and the one-humped dromedary of Arabia have long been used
for transport. The Bactrian camel has plodded along the caravan routes
between China and Iran for at least 2,000 years. The dromedary, which has
less endurance but it, is a fleeter and special fast-paced riding camel, is bred
by the Arab nomads.
9. Yak – a long-haired type of cattle that lives at high altitudes on the Tibetan
plateau and is ridden and used as a pack animal at heights were horses and
ordinary animals could not survive.

C. Wind Power
The man realized the energy from the mass of moving air and learned to
utilized such powers to lift rather than to drag. This paved way to the invention
of airlifted transportation vessels.
1. Ancient Chinese Kite – kites have flown as a popular past time in the Far
East since the beginning of history. Based on a Korean tradition, the kite was
first used for transport when a Korean general employed one in bridge
building. Through a kite, a cord was conveyed across the river where heavier
ropes were fastened and finally the bridge cable.
2. Da Vinci’s Ornithopter – the great renaissance artist, scientist, and engineer,
Leonardo da Vinci, made a study of the flight of the birds and his notebooks
sketched several ornithopters (a.k.a. orthopter) which derives its principal
support and propelling from flapping wings like those of a bird.

3. Montgolfier Balloon – the Montgolfier brothers of France Joseph Michel

and Jacques Etienne have successfully released several balloons when they
proposed to use two condemned prisoners for the first ascent with passengers.
Pilatre de Rozier, a natural historian protested this and claimed the honor
himself. In 1783, he and Marquis d’ arlanoes became the first men to make a
free balloon ascent. The balloon constructed of linen and inflated with hot air
traveled 9,000 yards and remained in the air for 20 minutes.

4.Siemens’ Rocket Plane – Ernst Werner Von Siemens who later achieved
fame as an electric industrialist, in 1847 designed rocket plane which was to be
propelled by the explosive force of gunpowder.
5. Lilienthal glider – Otto Lilienthal, a German inventor who also made a study
of the flight of birds and experimented with ornithopters, going so far as to build
a model ornithopter. In 1891, he made the first of a number of glider flights
which were to exert a profound influence on the development of aviation.

6. Santos Dumont’s Airship – one of the pioneers of the lighter-than-air craft

was Alberto Santos Dumont, a Brazilian who experimented with the steam-
powered balloons in Paris. He made his first balloon ascent in 1897 and 1898
completed the construction of his first airship. In 1901, he made a 30-minute
round trip flight between St. Louis and the Eiffel Tower.

7. Wright Brothers’ Flying Machine – Orville and Wilbur Wright began

studying the problems of heavier-than-air flight. They built a biplane kite. They
flew successfully at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on December 17, 1903. By
1909, airplanes became sufficiently accepted to justify the beginning
commercial manufacture of the machine.
8. Lindbergh’s Spirit of St. Louis – following the initial flight of the Wright
brothers’ airplane, the development of aviation was rapid. The first airmail was
delivered in 1911 and World War I gave an impetus to plane design and the
training of pilots. During the 1920s, many new records were set. A feat that
particularly captured popular imagination was the first solo flight from New York
to Paris, made by Capt. Charles A. Lindbergh in May 1927 in a plane
especially built for the flight, the Spirit of St. Louis.

Air transportation offers traveling in lesser time but the cost is beyond the
reach of most common people. Not with standing the inaccessibility of most
places if traveling is done through the air even by water transportation. With no
choice left, man is left conceiving and inventing land transportation facilities.
 Lesson 1.2 – Wheeled Vehicles and Road History
A. The wheel was invented probably in Western Asia. Such invention was a
milestone and a great step forward in transportation. However, pieces of
evidence were found by archaeologists that the wheel could have been
simultaneously invented in Southwest Asia and Mesopotamia.

The wheel was perfected, crude parts and wagons began to appear in
Tigris-Euphrates valley about 3500 B.C., and later in Crete, Egypt, and China.
The wheel was one of man’s great inventions. It enabled him to transport
burdens beyond the power of man or animals to carry, drag and permitted much
greater facility of movements than the simple sled on rollers which had to be
continually picked up and moved by hands as the sledge is advanced.
B. Ancient Rome – the following are the ancient wheeled vehicles in Ancient
Rome:

1. Arcera – it had four wheels, a cover, and was generally drawn by two or more
horses. The outside consisted of unhewn boards covered by loose drapery. This
vehicle was especially used to convey the sick and infirm and was of sufficient
size to allow occupants to recline.

2. Arcima – it was a small conveyance that is large enough for only one person.

3. Basterna – it was commonly used by women when traveling and was borne
by two mules, one before and one behind each hitched to a separate pair of
shafts.

4. Benna – this four-wheeled conveyance is made of wickerwork and was of

Gallic origin. It can accommodate several persons when traveling.
5. Carpentum – used by early Romans in as early as 500 B.C. and as late as
5th century of the Christian era. It was a covered carriage with two wheels, had
seats for two or three, and was usually drawn by two mules, horses, or even
oxen.

6. Carruca – this vehicle had four wheels, with the front ones smaller than the
two behind. This had a cover and was drawn by two to four horses or mules. It
was often ornamented by carvings in bronze and ivory and by chasings in
silver and gold. Members of the imperial families were fond of traveling using
this kind of coach.

7. Carrus – a cart with two wheels and boarded sides, it was drawn by oxen or
bullocks and was mainly used by the Roman armies for the transportation of
their baggage and supplies.
8. Cisium – a light open vehicle of Gallic origin, had two wheels and room for two
persons. It also has a box or case beneath the seat, where small baggage can
be carried in. two or three horses or mules were used to draw this and because
of the lightness of this carriage this is especially suitable for rapid travels.

9. Pilentum – used chiefly by women of the upper classes. It was furnished with
cushions, had a covered top but open sides. This was also used on state
occasions by Roman matrons, priests, and vestal virgins. In this, they carried
sacred vessels and rode in processions and public games.

10. Four-wheeled plaustrum – usually employed for heavy burdens but were
also used for traveling.
11. Raeda – was common among Romans during the last century of the
republic. A commodious vehicle of Gallic origin and had four wheels, this was
used by a man when he traveled with his family because this has sufficient
room for several persons together with their luggage.

12. Sarracum - used by ancient Roman farmers as a traveling vehicle for

themselves and their families.

13. Tensa – a sacred vehicle elaborately ornamented with ivory and silver; had
either two or four wheels and was drawn by four horses. This carriage was
used during Circensian games, to carry the images of deities.

The invention of larger carriages and vehicles pulled either by human beings or
animals could be considered the basis of modern highway construction.
Lesson 1.3 – Evolution of Motor Vehicles
A. Steam Engine was perfected in the 1760’s by James Watt. The invention
provided power for many industries and factories in England.

B. By the end of 18th century, French, Scottish, and American inventors

attempted to apply the steam engine in water navigation.

1. Jacques Perier – built a steamboat in 1775.

2. Robert Fulton – launched the steamboat Clermont on the Hudson River in

1807.

3. The steamer Savannah crossed the Atlantic in 1819 and by the 19th
century, steam navigation replaced the sailing vessels.
C. Railroads – Horse-drawn wagons with wooden wheels and rails had been
used in English and European mines during the 17th century.

1. Richard Travithick - adapted the primitive steam locomotives to the mine

railway between 1797 and 1813.

2. George Stephenson – built and equipped the 32 km. Stockton and

Darlington Railway, the first public railway in the world powered by a steam
locomotive which eventually began railroad building in England.

3. The United States, although railroad began in England, was in the US

where tremendous growth in rail transport system occurred that by 1840 more
than 4,800 kms (3,000 mi) railroads were already operating in the eastern
states.
D. Significant improvement of Road Vehicle began with the adaptation of
Coach Spring about 1650.

E. In the Mid-18th century, English roads were so bad that the coaches could
average only about 4 mph (6.4 km/hr) and the mail was usually carried by boys
on horses.

F. John Palmer introduced his first fast mail coach in March 1785 and by
1800, the English coach system was in full swing.

G. The invention of Bicycle in the early 19th century served as a nursery of

automobile builders. One of the ancestors of a modern bicycle was the HOBBY
HORSE or dan horse. The wheels were made of wood, with tires of iron, and
the riders pushed themselves along with their feet on the ground.
H. Motor Vehicle – the first mode of transportation to challenge the railroads.

Some of the notable events leading to the invention of motorized

vehicles for road traffic:
1. Ferdinand Verbiest – a Jesuit Missionary in China, built the first steam-
powered vehicle around 1672 as a toy for the Chinese Emperor (Wikipedia).

2. Nicolas Joseph Cugnot (1870-71) – demonstrated his fardier a vapeur (steam

dray), an experimental steam-driven artillery tractor.

3. William Murdoch (1784) – had built a working model of a steam carriage in

Redruth.

4. Richard Trevithick (1801) – ran a full-sized vehicle on the road in Camborne.

5. Oliver Evans (1789) –was granted the first automobile patent in the United
States.
6. Francoiz Isaac de Rivaz (1806) – a Swiss engineer who built an engine
powered by internal combustion of a hydrogen and oxygen mixture.

7. Josef Bozek (1815) – a Professor at Prague Polytechnic, built an oil-fired

steam car.

8. Samuel Brown (1826) – an Englishman who tested his hydrogen-fueled

internal combustion engine by using it to propel a vehicle up Shooter’s Hill in
South-East London.

9. Walter Hancock (1838) – built and operated steam buses in London.

10. Christian Friedrich Schontein (1838) – discovered in principle the hydrogen

fuel cell (diesel), one of the technologies hailed as a replacement for gasoline as
an energy source for cars.
11. Charles Goodyear (1844) – invented the vulcanized rubber for tires.

12. Robert William Thompson (around 1845-46) – a Scottish who invented the
first vulcanized rubber tire. His invention worked well but was costly to produce.

13. Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir (1858) – also known as Jean J. Lenoir, a
Belgian engineer who developed the internal combustion engine. It was Lenoir’s
invention which is considered to be the first commercially successful of its kind.

14. Gaston Plante (1859) – invented the lead-acid battery and Anyos Jedlik
invented the electric motor in 1828 – both inventions were contributory to the
invention of electric-powered cars.

15. Lenoir’s Hippomobile (1860) – with a hydrogen-gas fueled one-cylindered

internal combustion engine made a test drive from Paris to Joinville-le-Pont,
covering some nine kilometers in about three hours.
16. Henry Seth Taylor (1867) – a Canadian who demonstrated hi 4-wheeled “steam
buggy” at the Stanstead Fair in Standstead, Quebec. The basis of the buggy, which
he began building in 1865, was a high-wheeled carriage with bracing to support a
two-cylinder steam engine mounted on the floor.

17. Siegfried Marcus (1870) – an Austrian inventor who put a liquid-fueled internal
combustion engine on a simple handcart which made him the first man to propel a
vehicle using gasoline – known as the “first Marcus car”.

18. Dr. J.W. Carhatrt (1871) – invented the first steam-powered the carriage-sized
automobile suitable for use on existing wagon roads in the United States

19. Amedee Bollee (1873) – a French who produced the first “real” automobile-self
propelled steam road vehicles to transport groups of passengers.

20. George B. Selden (May 8, 1879) – an American who filed for a patent which
included not only the engine but its use in a 4-wheeled car. He was finally granted
on November 5, 1895.
21. Enrico Bernardi (1882) – patented a 0.024 horsepower 122 cc one-cylinder
petrol motor, fitting it into his son’s tricycle, making it at least a candidate for the
first automobile, and the first motorcycle; in 1892, he enlarged the tricycle to
carry two adults.

22. Marcus (1883) – secured a German patent for a low-voltage ignition system
of the magneto type; this was his only automotive patent.

23. Edouard Delamare-Deboutteville (1884) – vehicle was patented and

trialled.

24. Karl Benz (1885) – built his first automobile in Mannheim and he was
granted a patent for his automobile on January 29, 1886. He began the first
production of automobiles in 1888, after Bertha Benz, his wife, had proved with
the first long-distance trip in August 1888, from Mannheim to Pforzheim and
back.
25. Daimler (1885) – built the first high-speed internal combustion engine.

26. John Boyd Dunlop (1887 – late 19th century) – developed the first practical
pneumatic tire (inflated with air) for bicycle and was granted a patent in 1888.

27. In 1888, marked the first production of automobiles in Germany by Karl Benz,
and in France by Emile Roger.

28. Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1889) – designed a vehicle from
scratch to be an automobile, rather than a horse-drawn carriage fitted with an
engine. They are also credited for the first motorcycle in 1866.

29. Panhard et Lavassor of France (1889) – was the first company formed
exclusively to build automobiles, which also introduced the first four-cylinder
engine.
30. In the 1890’s, the first horseless-carriage appeared in the U.S.

31. Charles and Frank Duryea (1893) – founded the Duryea Motor Wagon
Company, becoming the first American automobile manufacturing company.

32. Rudolf Diesel (1893) – a German inventor who developed the diesel
engine also known as a compression-ignition engine is an internal combustion
engine that uses the heat compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel.

33. Andrea Michelin (1895) – was the first person to use pneumatic tires on
automobile tires but not successfully.

34. Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau (Tatra) 1897 – a Czech company that produced

the first motor car in central Europe and one of the first factory-made cars in
the world, the Prasident automobile.
34. Henry Ford (1908) – introduced the Model-T, which was proved so popular
that by 1914, ford had adopted mass-production methods to meet the demand.

35. Philip Strauss (1911) – invented the first successful automobile tire with an
air-filled inner tube (interior).

36. Felix Wankel (1956) – a German mathematician, developed an advanced-

type of the engine, named after him, that operates very differently from gas and
diesel engines.

To date, man continuously manufactures large cargo trucks and buses for
mass transportation. Presently, the introduction of the Light Trail Transit (LRT),
the Metro Rail Transit (MRT), flyovers, pedestrian and vehicle culverts, rock
sheds, and other modern traffic ways contributed to the expeditious movement
of traffic users.
5. Teaching and Learning Activities

Activity:
1. Trace the historical development of human’s methods of transporting goods and people and the
historical development of motorized transportation.
2. Identify the different modes of transportation that we are using. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of the identified modes of transportation (use google.com).

6. Recommended learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.

https://youtu.be/3K6llTsZLSE
https://youtu.be/GEHGoSvGVVs

7. References
· Delizo, Darlito Bernard G (2020). Traffic Management and Accident Investigation with Practical
Driving. Third Edition. Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc. Quezon City.
· Transportation in the Roman Empire: Roads, Vehicles and Water Travel. Retrieved on June 20, 2020
from: http://factsanddetails.com/world/cat56/sub408/item2052.html
 Chapter 2. Traffic Management
Lesson 2.1 – Fundamentals of Traffic Management

Traffic Management is best understood by understanding the following commonly

used words and terminologies. Some of these are defined according to their
operational definitions” and some are defined based on their general definitions.

Arterial Highways/Roads – these are high capacity urban roads that direct
raffic from collector roads to expressway or freeways. It also refers to a highway that
s used primarily by through traffic.

Articulated Vehicle – it means a combination of vehicles comprising a motor

vehicle and a semi-trailer coupled to the motor vehicle.
Carriageway – it means the part of the road normally used by vehicular traffic. It is
also known as ROADWAY.

Collector Highway – it is also known as collector road or distributor road which

onnects lo-to-moderate highways or roads to arterial highways such as those
entering residential properties.

Cycle – it means any vehicle which has at least two wheels and is propelled
olely by the muscular energy of the persons on that vehicle, in particular through
pedals or hand-cranks.

Driver. It means any person who drives a motor vehicle or other vehicle
(including a cycle), or who guides cattle, singly or in herds or flocks, or draught,
pack or saddle animals on a road
Give Way. It means that a driver must not continue or resume his advance or
maneuver if by so doing he might compel the drivers of other vehicles to change the
direction or speed of their vehicles abruptly.

Highway. It means the entire width between the boundary lines of every way
dedicated to a public authority when any part of the way is open to the use of the
public for purposes of vehicular traffic, whether or not the public authority is
maintaining the way. Or, highway refers to any roads, streets, boulevards, or
avenues used as a public thoroughfare.

Intersection. It means any level crossroads, junction, or fork, including the

open areas formed by such crossroads, junctions, or forks.

Laden Weight. It means the actual weight of the vehicle as loaded, with the
crew and passengers on board.
Lane. It means one of the longitudinal strips from which the carriageway can be
divided, whether or not defined by a longitudinal road marking.

Moped. It means any two-wheeled or three-wheeled vehicle which is fitted

with an internal combustion engine having a cylinder capacity not exceeding 50 cc
and maximum design speed not exceeding 50 km per hour.

Motor Cycle. It means any two-wheeled vehicle, with or without a side-car,

which is equipped with a propelling engine.

Motor Vehicle. It means any power-driven vehicle which is normally used

for carrying persons or goods by road or for drawing, on the road, vehicles used
for the carriage of persons or goods. This term embraces trolleybuses, that is to
say, vehicles connected to an electric conductor and not rail-borne. It does not
cover vehicles, such as agricultural tractors, which are only incidentally used for
carrying persons or goods by road or for drawing, on the road, vehicles used for
the carriage of persons or goods.
Parked. A vehicle is said to be parked if it is stationary for the period during which
the vehicle is not limited to the time needed to pick up or set down persons or
goods.

Road. It refers to the entire surface of any street open to public traffic. It
also includes shoulders and sidewalks (DPWH, 2012). Hence, to DPWH, the
term “road” is synonymous with traffic way.
 For purposes of construction, repair, and/or maintenance, roads are classified
as:

1. National roads – these are roads/streets interconnecting provinces and/or

cities.

2. Provincial roads – these are roads/streets interconnecting municipalities

and/or cities within the province.

3. City roads – these are roads/streets interconnecting barangay within a city.

4. Municipal roads – these are roads/streets interconnecting barangays

within a municipality.

5. Barangay roads – these are roads/streets located within a barangay which

connect sitios or places within a barangay.
Road users. It shall mean any persons using the road including drivers, pedestrians,
cyclists, and commuters.

Roadway. It refers to that part of the trafficway (road0 over which vehicles
pass.

Rural roads. These are roads where the speed limit is over 60kph. Although
there are high-speed roads in the urban area, for the line marking, they are defined
as rural roads.

Semi-trailer. It means any trailer designed to be coupled to a motor vehicle

in such a way that part of it rests on the motor vehicle and that a substantial part
of its weight and the weight of its load is borne by the motor vehicle.

Shoulder. It refers to either side of the roadway, especially along highways.

Traffic. It refers to the movement of persons, goods, or vehicles, either powered by a
combustion system or animal-drawn, from one place to another for travel. (early 16th
century. Via obsolete French trafique from Old Italian traffic, from trafficare ‘to carry on
trade’, of uncertain origin).

Traffic way. Refers to the entire width between boundary lines of every way or
place of which any part is open to the use of the public for purposes of vehicular traffic as
a matter of right or custom. It is also synonymous to the public way and road.

Trailer. It means any vehicle designed to be drawn by a power-driven vehicle and

includes semi-trailers.

Unladen weight. It means the weight of the vehicle without crew, passengers, or
load, but with a full supply of fuel and with the tools which the vehicle normally carries.

Urban Roads. These are roads where the speed limit is 60kph or less.
The Intersection

It is defined as the area embraced within the prolongation

or connection of the lateral curb lines, or, if none, then the lateral
boundary lines of the roadways of two highways which join one
another at, or approximately at, right angles, or the area within
vehicles traveling upon different highways joining at any other angle
may come in conflict. It is synonymous with crossroads, junctions,
or crossings.
Classifications of Intersections according to the number of Intersecting
Roads:
1. 3-way intersection – it is commonly known as the T or crossroad which links
three roads.

2. 4-way intersection – the most common type which involved crossings of two
roadways. It is either a regular intersection when the two roads cross
perpendicularly and it is called skewed intersection when the two roads cross at
different angles.

3. 5-way intersection – it involves the crossing of five roads. This type is the least
common.

4. 6-way intersection – it involves the crossing of three streets most often two
perpendicular roads and one diagonal road. This type is very rare.

5. Staggered intersection – it involves two successive T crossroads.

Classifications of Intersections According to Traffic Control:

1. Controlled Intersection – it is controlled by any traffic control devices.

a. Yield-controlled Intersection – it is usually controlled by a Yield sign or

Give Way sign.

b. Stop-controlled Intersection – a STOP sign is usually installed. Most

common are the two-way stops and most countries use the four-way stops or
the first-to-stop first-to-go rule.

c. Traffic Circle – traffic flow here is directed by a circle rotary island or a

runabout sign.
2. Uncontrolled Intersection – this intersection has no traffic signals or traffic
signs. The crossing is by observing the right-of-way rule.

3. Box Junction – this type generally prohibits entry unless the exit is clear.

4. Cloverleaf – a highway interchange at which two highways, one crossing

over the other, have a series of entrance and exit ramps resembling the
outline of a four-leaf clover and enabling vehicles to proceed in either
direction on either highway.
 What is Traffic Management?
Traffic Management is the application of the processes and skills in
planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, and budgeting to traffic
affairs. Traffic management also refers to the activities undertaken by a highway
transportation agency to improve roadway system safety, efficiency, and
effectiveness for both providers and consumers of transportation services. It
also refers to stationary and moving traffic, including pedestrians, bicyclists, and
all types of vehicles.
 Why Traffic Management is necessary?

In every traffic management, three elements are necessary to be considered.

These are the road (trafficway) system, road users, and the enforcement (and/or
control) procedures. Failure to coordinate these elements in a particular highway
and/or intersection may cause traffic-related problems.

With the advent of science and technology, new and modernized traffic
facilities are introduced. However, despite these modernizations, traffic
congestions persist to exist. The only way to at least cope up with the prevailing
traffic-related problems is coordinated traffic management. Traffic management is
therefore designed to make the traffic way safer for travelers, expedite the
movement of traffic, and to provide convenience to the traffic facilities’ users. In
short, traffic management aims to attain efficiency in the utilization of the traffic
way.
A. Major Causes of Traffic Congestion. Based on studies conducted by
authorities.

1. Physical Inadequacy
2. Poor Control Measures
3. Human Errors
4. Poor Maintenance
B. Specific Traffic Problems – Traffic Managers and traffic control officers
commonly encounter the following traffic-related problems:

1. Traffic Build-up-a situation where the system is affected by a significant level of

congestion would normally be associated with an irregular pattern in the
distribution of loads on wheels during the period, a low level of cars unloaded
combined with a high level of loads on wheels, which would reflect instances
where the traffic builds up in the pipeline.
2. Traffic congestions happens due to demand-supply imbalance in the
transportation network. Traffic flow slows down when the number of vehicles
travel on the road increases or the roadway capacity decreases due to various
reasons.
3. Traffic jams (snarl-up) - is a long line of traffic that is unable to travel
forward because something is blocking the road:
4. Traffic Bottlenecks - is a localized disruption of vehicular traffic on a street,
road, or highway. As opposed to a traffic jam, a bottleneck is a result of a
specific physical condition, often the design of the road, badly timed traffic
lights, or sharp curves.
5. Gridlocks - is a form of traffic congestion where "continuous queues of
vehicles block an entire network of intersecting streets, bringing traffic in all
directions to a complete standstill.
6. Traffic Accidents - is defined as when a road vehicle collides with another
vehicle, pedestrian, animal, or geographical or architectural obstacle.
C. Agencies involved in Traffic Management

1. Department of Transportation (DOTr, formerly DOTC).

2. City or Municipal Engineers Office
3. Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH)
4. Legislative (Congress/City or Municipal)
5. Philippine National Police (PNP)
6. Traffic Management Bureaus (TMBs)
7. Academic Institutions
8. Courts
9. Public Information Offices
10. Barangay Peacekeeping Action Team (BPAT)
11. Citizen Support Groups
12. TRIMP
Lesson 2.2 – The Pillars of Traffic
A. Pillars of Traffic

These are the main areas of traffic management which are also
known as the “Es” of Traffic. For a clearer understanding of the various
areas of traffic management, the following pillars are conceived.

Traffic Engineering

It is the science of measuring traffic and travel the study of the basic
laws relative to the traffic law and generation; application of this knowledge
to the professional practice of planning, deciding and operating traffic system
to achieve safe and efficient transportation of persons and goods.
Functions of Traffic Engineering:
1) Fact-finding, surveys, and recommendations of traffic rules and regulations;
2) Supervisions and maintenance to the application of traffic control device; and
Planning of traffic regulations.

Agencies and/or offices under Traffic Engineering:

1)DPWH
2)Provincial governments
3)Municipal governments
4)Chartered cities
Traffic Education

It refers to any act or process of imparting or acquiring

general knowledge on traffic or any matters relating to the use of
the traffic way or roadways. Traffic safety education is the primary
concern of traffic education in the area of accident and prevention.
The following are the agencies and offices responsible for
traffic education:

a) Schools (Public and Private). Traffic education can be carried out by imparting
the knowledge concerning traffic safety, training, and practice in the actual
application of traffic safety, and developing traffic safety morality.

1) Elementary. In this level, traffic education is focused on safety and guides

stressing traffic safety, classroom discussion of accidents, incidents and safety
rules, organizing safety patrols.

2) Secondary. Traffic education for high school students is geared toward school
safety organizations.

3) Higher education. Some colleges and universities offer and conduct courses
regarding traffic safety subjects.
a) Public Information Programs. The public should be informed on all activities
affecting the citizens and the community relating to traffic (dissemination of
information). This can be done through public information agency, newspapers,
radio and television broadcasting networks and other forms of media.

b) Citizen Support Groups. These are mostly composed of voluntary non-

government organizations (NGOs), radio communication groups, rotary
organizations, and other voluntary clubs. These organizations usually develop
citizens’ responsibilities, conduct organized educational campaigns, instill
awareness of the traffic problems, and provide information regarding major traffic
requirements and needs.
Traffic Enforcement
This field deals mostly with the implementation and enforcement of traffic
laws and rules and regulations.

The following are the various agencies/offices that are involved in the
enforcement of traffic laws:

a) Land Transportation Office (LTO). This office responsible for the

following:
1) Vehicle registration
2) Vehicle inspection
3) Drivers licensing (examinations, suspensions, and revocations)
Public to police on stolen or wanted vehicles.
a) Legislative Bodies. Included are the Senate, Congress, Provincial Boards,
and City or Municipal Councils. They are responsible for the passing and/or
amending of laws and/or ordinances.

b) Police Traffic Enforcement. This pillar is not limited to the PNP-HPG

(formerly TMG) but it includes all government personnel who are duly
authorized for the direct enforcement of traffic laws such as:

1) The Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) for the

National Capital Region.
2) Police Traffic Auxiliaries
3) LTO Law Enforcement Services/Flying Squad
Traffic Ecology or Traffic Environment

This pillar is very recent which includes the study of potentially

disastrous population explosion, changes in an urban environment due to
the scale and density of new urban concentration and new activities
carried out, air population, water pollution, and crowding, especially
transport congestion which result therein.
What are the environmental effects of the urbanization of transportation?

1) Noise. It is known that continued exposure to noise level beyond 80dBA

(decibel annually) causes loss of hearing.
2) Vibration
3) Air pollution
4) Dirt
5) Visual intrusion
6) Loss of Privacy
7) Changes in the amount of light
8) Neighborhood Severance, both physical and psychological
9) Relocation
10) Distraction during planning and construction
11) Accident Experiences
12) Pedestrian Journey
13) Congestion and other Benefits to Vehicles.
 The following are some of the proposed activities that may reduce the adverse
effect of traffic development on our ecology:

(i) Towns are better with less traffic, so long as adequate provision is made for the
mobility of workers and residents and the distribution of goods. It is of urgent necessity
the National Government develop efforts to reduce the adverse effects of motor traffic
in urban areas.
(ii) Where and when traffic congestion and its cost are served and frequent, assures
to reduce the use of private cars and goods, vehicles and to improve alternative forms
of transport should be introduced.
(iii) To limit traffic and to improve the efficiency and quality of service of buses and
transport.
(iv) The pedestrian scheme should be introduced whenever possible to improve the
environment and safety for pedestrians.
(v) The use of non-carbon emitting vehicles should be encouraged like a bicycle
whenever practical.
A motor vehicle reduction scheme should also be introduced.
a) Laws and Statutes concerning Traffic Ecology

(i) PD 1181. Providing for the prevention, control, and abatement of Air Pollution
from motor vehicles and for other purposes.
“Sec. 1 – The purpose is to prevent, control, and abate the emission of air
pollutants from motor vehicles to protect the health and welfare of the people
and to prevent or minimize damage to property and hazards to land
transportation.

(ii) Letter of Instruction No. 552. Directing the law enforcement agencies to
implement the pollution control program.

(iii) R.A. No. 8749 otherwise known as the Clean Air Act. An Act providing for the
regulation of motor vehicles emitting toxic gases like the use of the diesel and
leaded gasoline.
Traffic Economy

This is the most recent of the pillars of traffic which deal with the
benefits and adverse effects of traffic to our economy. Primarily, traffic
operation is designed to expedite the movement of traffic. However, with
the prevailing traffic congestion during rush hours in any given locality,
traffic adversely affects the economic status of the commuting public.

One aspect affecting our economy is the unending increase in oil prices in
the world market. Somehow, programs must be instituted to minimize the ill effect
of rising prices of basic commodities. Delays resulting from traffic congestion
affect not only the time of travel but the productivity of an individual as well.
Lesson 2.3 – Traffic Safety Education

What is Traffic Education?

It is the process of training road users in the avoidance and prevention of traffic-
related accidents.
It is already identified that one if not the major causes of traffic accidents are
human factors which include but not limited to ignorance, lack of skills, and/or
erratic attitude and behaviors of drivers, pedestrians, and passengers. this can be
corrected by traffic safety education.

Road Safety.
It refers to a reduced risk of accident or injury on the roads, achieved
through multidisciplinary approaches involving road engineering and traffic
management, education and training of road users, and vehicle design.
A. Factors Contributing to Accidents.
Research studies in the United Kingdom have shown that human factors
contribute to 95% of accidents, road factors to about one-quarter of a percent,
and vehicle factors to fewer than five percent.

1) Human errors include:

a. Going too fast or excessive speed;
b. Failing to give at junctions;
c. Following too closely;
d. Overtaking improperly;
e. Misperceiving or misjudging the road situation ahead;
f. The intoxication of alcohol or drug; and
g. Lack of skill
2) Road deficiencies that are the main contributory factors are:
a. Poor design of layout and control at junctions;
b. Inadequate signing, road marking, and lighting;
c. Slippery roads; and
d. Obstruction on the road such as a parked vehicles, ongoing road
construction, etc.

3) Main vehicle factors are:

a. Defects in tires, brakes, and lights;
b. Absence of non-using of seat belts; and
c. Poorly maintained motor vehicles.
B. The three (3) principles that have been emphasized as effective in the
prevention of traffic accidents are known, as the three (3) “Es” or pillars of traffic.
Recently, however, the traffic environment and traffic economy were added to
complete with the five (5) pillars of traffic.

1. Engineering (traffic engineering). Effective construction and maintenance of

traffic facilities which does not only expedite the movement of traffic but also
prevents the occurrence of traffic accidents. Successful treatments have included:

a. Changes in layout at junctions to define priorities more clearly (use of

roundabouts, or traffic circles);
b. The more widespread use of road markings to delineate traffic lanes and waiting
areas for turning vehicles;
c. Improvements in skidding resistance of wet roads;
d. More uniform street lighting; and
e. More highly visible and legible direction, information, and warning signs.
2. Education (in traffic safety). When road users are informed of the traffic laws,
rules, and regulations, accidents are likely prevented. Further, there are strong
suggestions of benefits from pre-school schemes involving parents, and from
road safety education in schools where it is an integral part of the school
curriculum. Included are:

a. The new approach to training and educating young drivers;

b. Training in hazards perception; and
c. Changing of attitudes.
3. Enforcement (of traffic rules). One of the causes accidents is the blatant non-
compliance of motorists and pedestrians to traffic laws, rules, and regulations. To
minimize the occurrence of accidents due to non-compliance with road users,
enforcement must be conducted. The following are highly recommended in areas
of traffic enforcement:

a. Strengthening and simplifying the application of the law;

b. New technology to aid enforcement;
c. Enhance publicity;
d. Education of teenagers in schools; and
e. The development of rehabilitation courses like seminars for apprehended traffic
violators.
4. Ecology/Environment. People should be educated regarding the
adverse effect of traffic on our environment that directly or indirectly
affects the population’s health.

5. Economy. People should learn also to develop schemes and/or

devices and programs that do not only lessen expenses but also
accident-free.
C. Four (4) basic types of Instruction Methods used in Driver’s education
programs.

1. Comprehensive. This method places the student into the real-life of driving
situations from the beginning.
2. Traditional Instruction. This type of instruction depends on instructor-student
communication.
3. Commentary Driving Method. The student-driver accompanied by an instructor.
As the student-driver drives, the instructor has to give a commentary on his driving-
what he sees, what he does, why he does, what he proposes to do, what others
are likely to do, etc.
4. Simulated Conditions. On and Off the Road Training. The premise of simulated
conditions training is that the relatively analogous to normal behavior. A simulator is
a static machine with all the important features of a car used in a driving method or
driving training.
D. Biorhythm.
Is the theory which asserts that man exhibits a constant variation of life
energy and mood states. Man’s theorized cycles and interpretations rhythm is
peculiar characteristics of most natural phenomena like:
1. The diurnal exchange of light and darkness.
2. The four seasons.
3. Our wet and dry season.
4. The waxing and waning of the moon.

E. Importance of biorhythm in the field of study.

It should be borne in mind that biorhythm does not predict what actually
will happen. All it does is to give us a hint on how we will tend to feel on a certain
day.
F. FIVE PILLARS OF ROAD SAFETY (Road Safety Action Plan-LTO)
Consistent with international and local road safety policies, framework and
standards, the LTO developed its road safety framework based on its mandate:

A. Qualified Drivers - Individuals with sufficient driving skills, and knowledge

on road safety and proper road courtesy, whose eligibility is determined by passing
the LTO-conducted theoretical and practical examinations. Developing qualified
drivers is an important pillar in the LTO road safety advocacy since human factor
is the major cause of road crashes;

B. Roadworthy Vehicles - Motor vehicles and its relevant parts are

compliant with national standards and international vehicle safety conventions.
Ensuring roadworthiness of vehicles decreases the likelihood of failure in vehicle
functioning, thus reduces the risk of a road crash;
C. Traffic Discipline - It is the conformity/ compliance to road traffic laws, rules,
regulations and/ or a code of behavior. Traffic discipline paves the way for order,
organization and the unhampered traffic flow;

D. Community Relations - Mutually beneficial relationship with communities in

which an organization operates. Road crashes do not discriminate the victims.
Thus, road safety is every body's responsibility. To ensure safety, the LTO must
solicit the support of everyone in the community; and

E. Legislative Initiative - The right of competent persons and institutions to

introduce for the consideration of a legislative body, or propose to enact a new
law, an amendment to or a repeal of existing legislation. While there are many
land transport and traffic laws, rules, and regulations, much is to yet to be
desired on specific enabling laws that directly address road safety. Further, with
the changing times, obsolete or laws that are no longer responsive and relevant
must either be amended or completely repealed.
Chapter 3. Traffic Laws, Rules and
Regulations and Other Related Statues

The standards of regulating movements on roads, streets and highways

are found in traffic laws, rules and regulations.

In the Philippines, the mass of traffic laws, rules and regulations have
their source in-laws, Presidential Decrees, Executive Orders, Letter of
Instructions, Administrative Orders and Implementing memoranda and other
Special Laws relative to traffic operation and traffic law enforcement. As a
traffic enforcer, it is essential that you should be familiar with these rules and
regulations.

In addition, traffic signs, pavement markings, and other control devices

are traffic law themselves. Violations of such constitute misdemeanor or
infraction in the country.
 The following are the basis for the traffic regulations and prohibitions in
the country.

1. Republic Acts (R.A.s)

a) R.A. 4136 (June 20, 1964). This is the basic law regulating land transportation
in the Philippines. It has repealed Act No. 3992 (The Revised Motor Vehicle Law).
b) R.A. No. 6539. The Anti-Carnapping Act of 1972. The Act preventing and
penalizing carnapping.
c)R.A. No. 5448. An Act imposing a tax on privately-owned passenger
automobiles, motorcycles and scooters, and a science stamp tax, to constitute a
special science fund defining the programs, projects and activities of science
agencies to be financed therefrom and for other purposes.
d) R.A. 8749. Also known as the “Clean Air Act” which regulates emission of toxic
gases of both gasoline and diesel engines and bans the use of leaded gas for
gasoline engines.
e) R.A. 8750. It provides for the attachment of seatbelts for all types of motor
vehicles and imposes penalty for the non-compliance thereof.
f) R.A. 7924. An Act creating the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority,
defining its powers and functions, providing funds therefor and for other
purposes.
g) R.A. 8794. An Act imposing a motor vehicle user’s charge on owners of all
types of motor vehicles and for other purposes. It also imposes penalties on
overloaded motor vehicles.
h)R.A. 10054. An Act mandating all motorcycle riders to wear standard protective
motorcycle helmets while driving and providing penalties therefor. It is also
known as “Motorcycle Helmet Act of 2009.”
i) R.A. 10586. An Act that penalizes persons driving under the influence of alcohol,
dangerous drugs, and similar substances, and for other purposes. It also repealed
the mandatory drug testing of driver’s license applicants. This Act is known as the
“Anti-Drunk and Drugged Driving Act of 2013.”
j) R.A. 10666. The law providing the safety of children riding on motorcycles
particularly boarding two-wheeled vehicles running faster than 60 kph on public
road. It is also known as the “Children’s Safety on Motorcycles Act of 2015.”
k) R.A. 10913. An Act defining and penalizing distracted driving. This Act is known as
the “Anti-Distracted Driving Act of 2016.”
l)R.A. 10916. An Act requiring the mandatory installation of speed limiter in public
utility and certain types of motor vehicles. This law is known as the “Road Speed
Limiter Act of 2016.”
m)R.A. 10930. An Act rationalizing and strengthening the policy regarding driver’s
license by extending the validity period of drivers’ licenses, and penalizing acts in
violation of its issuance and application amending for those purposes section 23 of
Republic Act No. 4136, as amended by Batas Pambansa Blg. 398 and Executive
Order No. 1011, otherwise known as the land transportation and traffic code.
2. Presidential Decrees (P.D.s)

a) P.D. 96. Regulating the use of sirens, bells, horns, etc., by prohibiting the
attachment of any siren, horn bell, etc. on motor vehicles which produce unusual
or startling sounds as well as blinkers and other similar devices unless the
vehicle belongs to the AFP, NBI, LTO,PNP, BJMP, Hospitals and Fire
Departments and are specially intended for use in emergencies.
b) P.D. 101. Expediting the methods of prescribing, redefining or modifying the
lines and modes of operations of public utility motor vehicles in the Philippines.
c) P.D. 207. Declaring as part of the Laws of the Philippines the Vienna Convention
on Road Traffic, Signs and Signals.
d) P.D. 612. Requiring compulsory insurance for all types of motor vehicles against
third party liability as an additional pre-requisite for registration by the LTO.
e) P.D. 1686. Imposing a tax on every motor vehicle equipped with air conditioner.
f) P.D. 1181. Providing for the abatement of air pollution from motor vehicles and
for other purposes.

g) P.D. 1605. Granting the Metropolitan Manila Commission certain powers related
to traffic management and control in Metropolitan manila providing penalties,
and for other purposes.

h) P.D. 98. Regulating the issuance of license plates of all motor vehicles.
i) P.D. 109. Modifying P.D. 98.
j) P.D. 1729. Authorizing the Bureau of Land Transportation to dispose of
impounded motor vehicles unclaimed by owners for a certain period of time.

k) P.D. 1730. Declaring the syndicated printing, manufacture, distribution,

possession or use of fake official Bureau of Land Transportation forms,
documents, plates and stickers as offenses involving economic sabotage.
3. Letters of Instruction (L.O.I.s)

a) L.O.I No. 43. Providing for the removal of impediments on roads, streets and
highways such as constructions, stalled or parked vehicles and other movable
property that obstruct free passage. This LOI abrogated city or municipal
ordinances governing the disposition of traffic on duty and municipal streets
throughout the country.
b) L.O.I. No. 112. Prohibiting freight and cargo trucks from using roads, highways
and bridges whose load capacities are in excess of specific allowable limits.
c )L.O.I. No. 229. Requiring all motor vehicle owners, users, or drivers to have in
their possession at all times while driving at least one (1) pair of early warning
device (EWD) for use when the vehicle is disabled on roads, streets and
highways or other emergencies compelling vehicle to be on stop position.
d) L.O.I. No. 716. Every motor vehicle to equip at least a pair of early warning
device.
e) L.O.I. No. 551. Directing the law enforcement agencies to implement the
Pollution Control Program.
f) L.O.I. No. 853. Calling for the National Tripartite Conference to consider the
establishment of viable labor-management relations based upon the “boundary”
system in land transportation.
g) L.O.I. No. 1009. All owners of private motor vehicles who desire to stop
operating or using their number plates and registration certificates to surrender
to BLT.
h) L.O.I. No. 1071. Owners and/or operators of motor vehicles are authorized to
pay the annual premiums for the insurance of their motor annual premiums for
the insurance of their motor vehicles on quarterly basis.
4. Department Orders (D.O.s)

a) DOTC D.O 88-305. Rules of pleadings, practice and procedure for appeals on
franchising, fare rates charges and other related matters pertinent to Land
Transportation Public Utilities.
b) D.O. 93-693. Revised Schedule of Administrative Fees and charges of the
Land Transportation Office.
5. Administrative and Special Orders

a) Administrative Order No. VIII, S-1968, LTC. Requiring the towing and
impounding of stalled motor vehicles on public highways and the imposition of
corresponding fees thereof.
b) Administrative Order No. 1, S-1973, LTC. Prescribing guidelines and
procedures in the implementation of PD N0. 96
c) Administrative Order No. 1, S-1975, LTC. Laying down specific rules of
action in the imposition of uniform fines and penalties for violation of the
provisions of R.A. No. 4136.
d) Special Order No. 101-IRM, LTC. Enumerating and identifying various city
streets where parking is prohibited.
6. Memorandum circulars

a) LTC Memorandum to All Patrol Officers, Deputies and Agents dtd 09

August 1975. Directing the motor vehicles whose loads are rice, cereals,
fertilizers and other prime commodities are not to be apprehended and stopped
on roads and highways except only in cases of serious violations.

b) LTC Memorandum Circular No. 33, dated 12 September 1972. Providing

guidelines in the apprehension of illegally parked motor vehicles.

c) LTC Circular No. 15, dated 19 January 1972. Regulating and laying instruction
in the use of Special Commemorative Motor Vehicle Plates.

d) M.C. 94-199. Aide-memoir regarding retention and authority by LTO to register

motorized tricycles under R.A. 4136, and guidelines to implement devolution of
LTFRB’s Franchising Authority over TC’s per R.A. 7160 issued by DOTC.
e) M.C. 94-188. Issuance of driver’s license to disabled persons.

f) M.C. 92-146. Re-implementation of LOI 229, as amended by LOI 479 directing the
installation of early warning devices of motor vehicles.

g) M.C. 94-192. Diesel smoke emission test for motor vehicles.

h) M.C. 90-020. Directing all public land transportation service operators and drivers
to display in any conspicuous place their vehicles the authorized fare matrix for the
specific route granted them to avoid conflict.

i) M.C. 93-011. Enjoining all public utility operators to use garage instead of public
places or side streets in parking their vehicles.

j) M.C. 94-002. Sanctions on operators arising from the violations of their drivers.

k) M.C. 94-209. Clarificatory guidelines for the registration/operation of new private

vehicles particularly in the use of conduction sticker.
7. Executive Orders (E.O.s)

a) E.O. 125. Reorganizing the DOTC, defining its power and functions and for
other purposes.
b) E.O.266. Providing for two service units in the Office of the Asst. Sec. for
Land Transportation in the DOTC (Law Enforcement Service-LES and Traffic
Adjudication Service-TAS), defining the powers and functions thereof and for
other purposes.
c) E.O. 202. Creating the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory
Board (LTFRB).
d) E.O. 248. Empowering the Land Transportation Commission to control and
supervise the operations of motor vehicle driving schools.
8. Other Special Laws, Statutes, etc.

a) Batas Pambansa Blg. 344 (B.P. 344). Act to enhance the mobility of disabled
persons by requiring certain buildings, institutions, establishments and public utilities to
install facilities and other devices.
“Sec. 1, Par. 2. In the case of the parking place of any of the above institutions,
buildings, or establishments, or public utilities, the owner or operator shall reserve
sufficient and suitable space for the use of disabled persons.”
“Sec. 2. In case of public conveyance, devices such as the prominent display of
posters, stickers shall be used to generate public awareness of the rights of the
disabled and posters understanding of their special needs. Discriminating against
disabled persons in the carriage or transportation of passengers is hereby declared
unlawful.”

b) Memorandum Unnumbered dated July 13, 1992. Early Warning Device (EWD)
not a requirement for registration.
c) SC Bars Lawmen from Removing Car Plates (187 SCRA 432).
Lesson 3.2 – Important provisions of R.A. 4136

In the Philippines, Traffic Law Enforcement is governed by R.A. 4136.

All other ordinances by local government units are based on this law or act
and/or these ordinances should not contradict any provisions of said
law/act.
A. Words and Phrases Used in R.A. 4136. As used in this Act, the following
words and phrases are defined for better and common understanding:

1. Motor Vehicle. Shall mean any vehicle propelled by any power other than
muscular power using the public highways, but excepting road rollers, trolley
cars, street-sweepers, sprinklers, lawn mowers, bulldozers, graders, fork-lifts,
amphibian trucks, and cranes if not used in public highways, vehicles which run
only on rails or tracks, and tractors, trailers and traction engines of all kinds
used exclusively for agricultural purposes.
Trailers having any number of wheels, when propelled or intended to be
propelled by attachment to a motor vehicle shall be classified as separate motor
vehicle with no power rating.
2. Passenger Automobiles. Shall mean all pneumatic tire vehicles of types
similar to those usually known under the following terms: touring car, command
car, speedster, sports car, roadster, jeep, cycle car (except motor wheel and
similar small outfits which are classified with motorcycles), coupe, landaulet,
closed car, limousine, cabriolet, and sedan.

The distinction between “passenger truck” and “passenger automobile”

shall be that of common usage: Provided that a motor vehicle registered for
more than nine (9) passengers shall be classified as “trucks”. Provided further,
that a truck with seating compartment at the back not used for hire shall be
registered under special “S” classification. In case of dispute, the
Commissioner of LTO shall determine the classification to which any special
type of motor vehicle belongs.
3. Articulated Vehicle. Shall mean any motor vehicle with a trailer having no front
axle and so attached that part of the trailer rests upon the motor vehicle and a
substantial part of the weight of the trailer and of its load is borne by the motor
vehicle. Such trailer shall be called as “semi-trailer”.

4. Driver. Shall mean every and any licensed operator of a motor vehicle.

5. Professional driver. Every and any driver hired for driving or operating a motor
vehicle, whether for private use or for hire to the public. Any driver driving his
own motor vehicle for hire is a professional driver.

6. Owner. The actual legal owner of a motor vehicle, in whose name such vehicle
is duly registered with the LTO.
The owner of a government-owned motor vehicle is the head of the office or the
chief of the Bureau to which the said motor vehicle belongs.
7. Dealer. Every person, association, partnership, corporation making,
manufacturing, constructing, assembling, remodeling, or setting up motor
vehicles; and every such entity acting as agent for the sale of one or more
makes, styles, or kinds of motor vehicles, dealing in motor vehicles, keeping the
same in stock or selling same or handling with a view to trading the same.

8. Garage. Any building in which two or more motor vehicles, either with or
without drivers, are kept ready for hire to the public, but shall not include street
stands, public service stations, or other public places designated by proper
authority as parking spaces for motor vehicles for hire while awaiting or
soliciting business

9. Gross weight. The measured weight of a motor vehicle plus the maximum
allowable carrying capacity in merchandise, freight and/or passengers, as
determined by the Commissioner of the LTO.
10. Highways. Every public thoroughfare, public boulevard, driveway, avenue,
park, alley and Callejon, but shall not include roadway upon grounds owned
by private persons, colleges, universities, or other similar institutions.

11. Parking or parked. Shall mean that a motor vehicle is parked or parking if it
has been brought to a stop on the shoulder or proper edge of a highway, and
remains inactive in that place or close thereto for an appreciable period of
time.
A motor vehicle which properly stops merely to discharge a passenger or to
take in a waiting passenger, or to load or unload a small quantity of freight
with reasonable dispatch shall not be considered as parked, if the motor
vehicle again moves away without delay.

12. Tourist. A foreigner who travels from one place to place for pleasure or
culture.
B. Selected Provisions of R.A. 4136.

The following provisions of R.A. 4136 are the most common rules and regulations
violated by road users.

1. Exceeding registered capacity (overloading). Passengers, freight or cargo load of

a motor vehicle should not be more than its registered carrying capacity.
Conductors of public utility trucks or buses are held liable for the overloading of
vehicles under their charge.

All passenger automobiles for hire are required to have the registered passenger
capacity marked plainly and conspicuously on the sides thereof in letters and
numerals not less than 5 cms. in height. Motor trucks for passenger or freight,
private of for hire, shall have the registered passenger or freight gross and net
weight capacities marked plainly and conspicuously on the sides thereof in letters
and numerals not less than 5 cms in height (Sec. 33)
2. Cargo carrying devices. The construction of devices for carrying cargo at
the rear or sides of trucks may be allowed, subject to the approval of the
Commissioner, but the total net weight of the device, including cargo, must
not exceed 100kls (Sec. 32, a)

3. Riding on Running Board. It is strictly prohibited, except for conductors

collecting passenger fare (Sec. 32,c)

4. Riding on Top of the Motor Vehicle. Passengers shall not be allowed to

ride on top of motor vehicles, but baggage or freight may be carried on top
of the truck, provided that the weight thereof is not more than 20 kilos per
square meter distributed in such a way as not to endanger passengers or
the vehicle’s stability (Sec. 32,b)
5. Required Motor Vehicle Accessories. Every motor vehicle when operated on
a traffic way should have the following specified accessories (see Art. IV, Sec. 34,
par a-I of RA 4136 as appended for the specifications of these accessories);

a. Tires of MVs
b. Brakes
c. Horns
d. Headlights
e. Taillights
f. Stop lights
g. Motorcycle and other vehicle lights
h. Lights when parked or disabled
i. Windshield wiper
j. Use of red flag
k. Mufflers
6. Hitching on to a Vehicle. The following practices are prohibited:
a. Hanging on to or riding on the outside or rear end of any vehicle.
b. Holding on to any moving vehicle whether on foot or otherwise.
c. Driver allowing any person to hang on to or ride outside of or the rear end of
the vehicle (Sec. 51).

7. Driving while under the influence of liquor or other prohibited drugs

(Sec. 53)

8. Obstruction of traffic. Obstruction of traffic by operating a motor vehicle in

such a manner as to obstruct, block, or impede the passage of another
vehicle is prohibited. This prohibition applies even when discharging or
loading passengers (Sec. 54)
9. Duties od driver in case of accident. In the event that any accident should occur
as a result of the operation of a motor vehicle upon a highway, the driver shall
observe the following:
a. Stop immediately.
b. Show his driver’s license to inspecting traffic law enforcer.
c. Give his true name and address, including that of the owner of the vehicle.
d. Assist injured persons.
e. Take measures to protect belongings of passengers.
f. Report the accident (Sec. 55)

10. When could a driver leave the area of accident without being held for Hit-
and-Run?
a. His life is in imminent danger of being harmed by other person/s by reason
of the accident;
b. He surrenders to proper authority;
c. He summons the assistance of a physician or nurse to aid the victim.
Lesson 3.3 – Registration of Motor Vehicles

R.A. 4136, mandates that all motor vehicles shall be registered by its
owner before the designated District Offices of the Land Transportation
Office. Law enforcement officers should keep themselves abreast with the
proper procedures of registering motor vehicles for them to easily identify
unregistered motor vehicles or motor vehicles having expired registrations.
On the other hand, motor vehicle owners as well as drivers should be aware
of the provisions on motor vehicle registration to avoid unnecessary delays
and penalties whenever registration-related apprehensions occur.
A. Classification of Registered Motor Vehicles

1. Private (not for hire). These are motor vehicles used for the personal
use of their owners.

2. Public Utility Vehicles (PUV a.k.a. for hire). These are registered
primarily for the conveyance of passengers and other commercial goods,
i.e., passenger jeepneys, taxi cabs, etc.

3. Government. These are motor vehicles owned by government offices

and are used for official purposes only.

4. Diplomat. These are issued to foreign diplomats and consuls assigned

in the Philippines.
B. Plate Numbers.
Upon registration, motor vehicles are assigned with plate numbers. The letter and
numeral prefixes as well as the assigned colors are based on the date and place of
registrations and purpose of the registered motor vehicle.

1. Private or not for hire MVs – Green with white background, on newer vehicles, the
first letter usually indicates the region where the vehicle is registered. For example,
beginning with “N”, the vehicle is registered in the National Capital Region (NCR). For
the new series (2014 to present), black symbols on white background with holograms
and bar codes.

2. Public Utility Vehicles or for-hire MVs – Black with yellow background usually
begin with either the letter “N” or “P” or “T” or “U” in NCR. Since 1995, they always have
either “V” “W” “X” or “Y” in the middle of the letter block. Older license plates starting
with “N” and “P” may have other letters in the middle of the block, although the “V” “W”
“X” “Y” letters are also present (from late 70s NVA-101 to early 1995 NYZ-999). For the
new series (2014 to present), black symbols on yellow background with holograms and
bar codes.
3. Government MVs – Red (maroon) with white background – usually starts with letter
“S.” For the new series (2014 to present), red symbols on white background with
holograms and bar codes and the agency/office indicated.

4. Diplomatic or other exempted MVs – Blue characters on a white background plates

reserved for diplomats, embassy and consulate officials, country ambassadors and
some expatriates such as scientists and researchers at the International Rice
Research Institute (IRRI), in the form of five or six digits. For the new series (2014 to
present), blue symbols on white background with holograms and bar codes.

a. Ambassadors’ plates are always “1000” and have the country they represent at the
bottom of the plate. These plates have a small decal on the bottom left part with a
“CM.”
b. 1001-9999; a small decal on the bottom left part displayed as “DC” for “diplomatic
corps”
10000-25999; embassy vehicles – a small decal on the bottom left part displayed as
“OEV” for “other exempted vehicle”. For the new series symbols on a light blue
background with holograms and bar codes.
5. Trailers – these have yellow or green plates that mostly have either “U” (private) or
“Z” (for hire) in the middle of the letter block.
6. Electric Vehicles – orange plates are used (white symbols on orange
background).
7. Motorcycles – private motorcycles have green characters on a white background
with the letters “MC” stamped on the upper left-hand corner next to the registration
sticker. Usually in the format AA 1111, but with the rise in the number of motorcycles
on the road, the 1111 AA format has also come into use.
8. Tricycles – private has green characters on a white background with the letters
“MC” stamped on the upper left-hand corner next to the registration sticker. This is
very rare since tricycles are usually bought for for-hire. For the public utility “TC”
stamped on the upper right-hand corner next to the registration sticker.
9.Department of Tourism (DOT) accredited vehicles – these are usually tour
buses and airport taxis which are issued with plates that look similar to those of
private vehicles, but have yellow highlights mixed with green color and share the
same first letter of current PUVs plates. A must special sticker indicating that they
are DOT-accredited is placed on the rear windows.
10. Optional Motor Vehicle Special Plates (OMVSP) – a project of the LTO
since 2004, in the form of 3-letter-number. e.g. DGD 24

11. Personalized (Vanity) Plates – anyone desiring to have his own

personalized must consider the following:

a. Uniqueness – the plate does not have a registered duplicate anywhere

else in the Philippines.
b. It should not have the same format as government vehicles.
c. Price –
1) Premium edition (ex. 111 ABC) – Php 15,000.00
2) Select Edition (ex. JOEDET) – Php 10,000.00

12. Commemorative plate – These special plate numbers are issued for
specific purposes such as fund-raising for government projects and programs.
C. Dimensions and Medium
1. Tagalog: plaka which measures 390x140 mm

2. Characters are stamped on an aluminum plate which is then applied with

reflectorized paint.

3. Previously, numerous watermarks of the Land Transportation Office (LTO) logo

as well as a small logo of the plate manufacturer were stamped on the plate which
was replaced in 2003 with reflectorized, printed color sticker of the statue of Jose
Rizal.

4. In 2008, all plates are produced by a sole, privately funded manufacturer in

Manila.
5. Slogan on the bottom plate usually reflects the goals campaign of the
incumbent President which was began under President Fidel V. Ramos.
a. Fidel V. Ramos – “Philippines 2000”
b. Gloria Macapagal Arroyo – “Matatag na Republika” (Strong Republic)

6. Until 2004, plates also bore the word “Pilipinas” at the bottom.

7. Common Inscription

a. PILIPINAS (the most common inscription; 1981-1995, 2001, 2002-

2003, 2004-present)
b. PHILIPPINES 2000 (1995-2000)
c. ANGAT PINOY 2004 (“Raise Pinoy 2004”, 2000-2001)
d. PERLAS NG SILANGAN (“Pearl of the Orient”; 2001-2002)
e. MATATAG NA REPUBLIKA (2003-2013)
8. Typeface. Numerous typefaces are used but the current typeface was first
implemented in 1981 which is loosely based on the Australian license plate system
with some slight variations on the font design since then.

9. 2014 series plate numbers. It consists of three-letter and four numeric plate with
the region of registration inscribed below.

ABI 1234
Region 1

10. 2018 series plate numbers. It retains the three-letter and four-numeric plate
and the removal of the region of registration.

NAV 2832
 D. Geographical designations of Plate Numbers.
Geographical designations of registered motor vehicles can be determined by
the beginning letter.
“A” – Region I (Ilocos Region) and COR (Cordillera Region)
“B” – Region II (Cagayan Valley Region)
“C” – Region III (Central Luzon Region), Superseded by “R” in 2003
“D” – Regions IV-A (CALABARZON) and IV-B (MIMAROPA), superseded by “V” in 2000.
“E” – Region V (Bicol Region)
“F” – Region VI (Western Visayas Region)
“G” – Region VII (Central Visayas Region), superseded by “Y” in 2004
“H” – Region VIII (Eastern Visayas Region)
“J” – Region IX (Zamboanga Peninsula) and ARMM
“K” – Region X and XIII (Northern Mindanao and CARAGA)
“L” – Region XI (Davao Region)
“M” – Region XII (SOCCSKSARGEN)
“N” – NCR, 1981-1982, 2009-2010 (with increments of “I”, “O”, and “Q”)
“P” – National Capital Region, 1982-1991, 2010-2011 (with increments of “I”, “O”, and “Q”
“R” – Region III (Central Luzon Region), overflow series for private since 2003.
“S” – Government owned (Red Plate) vehicles.
“T” – National Capital Region, 1991-1995, 2011-2012 (with increments of “I”, “O”, and “Q”)
“U” – National Capital Region, 1995-1997, 2012 to present (with increments of “I”, “O”, and “Q”)
“V” – Regions IV-A (CALABARZON) and IV-B (MIMAROPA), overflow Series for private since
2000.
“W” – National Capital Region, 1997-2001.
“X” – National Capital Region, 2001-2005.
“Y” – Region VII (Central Visayas Region), overflow series for private since 2004.
“Z” – National Capital Region, 2005-2009.
E. Approximate Year of Issuance
1. National Capital Region

1981 – NA, NB, NC, ND, NE, NF, NG, NH, NJ, NK, NL, NM, NN, NP, NR, NS
1982 – NT, PA
1983 – PB, PPC, PD
1984 – PD, PE, PF
1985 – PF, PG
1986 – PH
1987 – PJ
1988 – PK, PL
1989 – PM, PN, PP
1990 – PR, PPS, PT
1991 – TA, TB, TC
1992 – TD, TE, TF
1993 – TG, TH, TJ, TK, TL
1994 – TM, TN, TP, TR, TT
1995 – UA(A-B), TS, UA(C-onwards), UB, UC, UD, UE
1996 – UF, UG, UH, UJ, UK, UL, UM, UN
1997 – UP, UR, US, UT, UU, WA, WB
1998 – WC, WD, WE, WF
1999 - WG, WH, WJ, WK, WL
2000 – WM, WN, WP, WR
2001 – WS, WT, XA, XB
2002 – XC, XD, XE, XF, XG
2003 – XH, XJ, XK, XL, XM
2004 – XN, XP, XR, XS
2005 – XT, ZA, ZB, ZC
2006 – ZD, ZE, ZF, ZG
2007 – ZH, ZJ, ZK, ZL
2008 – ZM, ZN, ZP, ZR, ZS
2009 – ZT, N-(I), N-(O), N-(Q), NI
2010 – NO, NQ, P-(I), P-(O), P-(Q), PI
2011 – PO, PQ, T-(I), T-(O), T-(Q), TI
2012 – TO, TQ, UI, U-(I)
2013 – UO
NOTE:

I,O and Q are previously not used to avoid confusion with the numbers “1” and
“0”. But with the exhaustion of the “Z” series in 2009, they are already used by
reverting to the old “N” series.

A new serial scheme is implemented using these characters, instead of the third
letter coming into series (e.g. after ZZZ-999 has been reached, ZAB-101) the middle
letter is the one being replaced (e.g. after NAI-999 series has been exhausted, NBI-
101 will follow).

After all possible combinations with I, O and Q as third letter for the same
starting letter have been used, I, O and Q are used as middle letters and the third
letter is being replaced (e.g. after NZQ-999 has been used, NIA-101 will follow), if
the reverted letter is exhausted (e.g. after PQZ-999 has been used, TAI-101 will
follow).
2. Provincial Plate Numbers

“1980’s”

REGION I/CAR - AA, AB, AC (A-N)

REGION II - BA, BB (A-N)
REGION III - CA, CB, CC, CD, CE, CF, CG, CH, CJ (A-E)
REGION IV - DA, DB, DC, DD, DE. DF, DG (A-V)
REGION V - EA (A-U)
REGION VI - FA, FB, FC, (A-S)
REGION VII - GA, GB, GC, GD (A-D)
REGION VIII - HA (A-M)
REGION IX /ARMM - JA
REGION X/XIII - KA, KB
REGION XI - LA, LB, LC (A-E)
REGION XII - MA (A-W)
“1990S”

REGION 1/CAR - AC (P-onwards), AD, AE

REGION II - BB (P-onwards), BC
REGION III - CJ (F-onwards), CK, CL, CM, CN, CP, CR (A-E)
REGION IV - DG (W-Z), DH, DJ, DK, DL, DM, DN, DP, DR, DS,
DT
REGION V - EA (V-Z), EB, EC
REGION VI - FC (T-onwards), FD, FE
REGION VII - GD (E-onwards), GE, GF, GG, GH, GJ, GK
REGION VIII - HA (P-onwards), HB
REGION IX/ARMM - JA (W-Z), JB
REGION X/XIII - KB (M-onwards), KC
REGION XI - LC (F-onwards), LD
REGION XII - MA (X-Z), MB
“2000S”

REGION I/CAR - AE, AF (A-D)

REGION II - BC, BD, BE
REGION III - CR (F-onwards), CS, CT, RA, RB, RC, RD, RE,
RF, RG, RH, RJ
REGION IV - VA, VB, VC, VD, VE (A-E)
REGION V - EC, ED
REGION VI - FE, FF, FG (A-M)
REGION VII - GL, GM, GP, GR, GS, GT, YA, YB, YC, YD, YE,
YF, YG, YH
REGION VIII - HB, HC
REGION IX/ARMM - JB, JC, JD
REGION X/XIII - KC, KD, KE
REGION XI - LD, LE, LF, LG, LH
REGION XII - MB, MC, MD, ME
“2010-2013”

REGION 1/CAR - AF (E-onwards)

REGION II - BE
REGION III - RK, RL, RM
REGION IV - VE (F-onwards), VF
REGION V - ED
REGION VI - FG (N-onwards), FH
REGION VII - YH, YJ, YK
REGION VIII - HC, HD
REGION IX/ARMM - JD, JE
REGION X/XIII - KE, KF
REGION XI - LH
REGION XII - ME, MF
F. Schedule of Registration.

Registration of motor vehicles should be done annually which follows the

numerical suffixes of their plate numbers.

Weekly Deadline
Last Digit of Plate Middle Digit of Plate
(working days of the month
Number Number
only)
1 – Jan 6 – Jun 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 - Feb 7 – Jul 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
3 – Mar 8 – Aug 7 8 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
4 – Apr 9 – Sep 9 0 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
5 – May 0 - Oct 29 30 31
Note: Vehicles may be registered one month in advance of weekly deadline. For
motorcycles, use the 3rd digit.

1. Old designed license plates: sample plate number – TNG 984

The above motor vehicle shall be registered in April every year because the last
digit is “4” and the day of registration falls in April 15-21 since the middle digit is “8”.

2. New designed license plates: Sample plate number – NAV 2832.

The above motor vehicle shall be registered in February every year because the
last digit is “2” and the day of registration falls in February 1-7 since the second to the
last digit is “3”.

3. two-wheeled vehicles (old): Sample plate number – DD 2425.

The above motor vehicle shall be registered in May every year because the last
digit is “5” and the day of registration falls in May 1-7 since the middle digit is “2”.
4. two-wheeled vehicles (new): Sample plate number – VD 72468.
The above motor vehicle shall be registered in August every year because the
last digit is “8” and the day of registration falls in May 8-14 since the middle digit is “6”.

5. Optional Motor Vehicle Special Plate (3 alpha characters and 2 numeric

characters): Sample plate number – IAN 86.
The above motor vehicle shall be registered in June every year because the last
digit is “6” and the day of registration falls in June 15-21 since the middle digit is “8”.
G. Letter of Prefixes on Plate Numbers. The letter
prefixes indicate:

1. Place of initial registration of the motor vehicle;

2. Year of initial registration and the possible year model of the registered motor
vehicle could be determined from the order of the letter prefixes, i.e., the higher the
letters the later the year of registration and year model of the motor vehicle.

Example: Vehicle 1 - PLT 255 Vehicle 2 - TNU 636

Between the above motor vehicles, Vehicle 1 was registered earlier than Vehicle 2
and possibly, Vehicle 2’s model is later than Vehicle 1.
H. Protocol Plate Numbers.
These are special plate numbers for high-ranking government officials as
manifestation of courtesy towards them or their respective positions or offices. These
plates are blue D or DD plates reserved for the top government officials of the Republic
of the Philippines.

1 - President
2 - Vice President
3 - Senate President
4 - Speaker of the House of Representatives
5 - Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
6 - Cabinet Secretaries
7 - Senators
8 - Representatives (Congressmen)
9 - Associate Justices of the Supreme court
10 - Presiding Justice and other Justices of the Court of Appeals, Solicitor-
General (OSG formerly 13)
11 - Chairman of the Commission on Elections
12 - Cabinet Undersecretary
13 - None currently
14 - Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines and Chief of the
Philippine National Police
16 - Regional Trial Court Judges
17 - First Level Courts (Metropolitan Trial Court, Municipal Trial Court,
Municipal Trial Court in Cities and Shari’ah Circuit Courts), added by Memorandum
Order No. 297 signed by President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo on March 2, 2009.
Lesson 3.4 – Provisions on Driver’s Licenses

Driving a motor vehicle in the Philippines as in other countries is NOT a right but a
privilege granted by the Philippine Government through the LTO based on Republic
Act 4136 and Batas Pambansa Blg. 398. Further, it is a privilege which may be
suspended or revoked.

Driver’s License. A document issued to a qualified driver who possesses the

statutory qualification as provided therefore. It is also a public document which has the
legal presumption of genuineness (CCC Insurance Corp. vs. Court of appeals, 31
SCRA 264).
A. Duty to Procure License.

Sec. 19 of R.A. 4136 states that no person shall operate any motor vehicle without
first procuring a license to drive for the current year. To be effective in the hands of its
holder, it must not be delinquent, invalid, suspended or revoked and should be
carried at all times and shall be authorized by R.A. 4136 to inspect the same.
B. Confiscation of Driver’s License.
Sec. 29 of R.A. 4136 mandates that a driver’s license may be confiscated for
violations of R.A. 4136, the rules and regulations issued by the Commissioner and of
local traffic rules and regulations.

When a driver’s license is confiscated for any reason, the traffic enforcer must,
however, issue a receipt (Temporary Operator’s Permit -TOP) which is good for 72 hours
within which the driver may continue to operate his vehicle. Failure to settle the case
within 15 days will cause suspension or revocation of the license.
 C. Types of Licenses, Procedures and
Requirements.
A driver is licensed by the LTO as proof of proficiency in driving his knowledge of
road rules and regulations while operating a motor vehicle. Upon proving hi proficiency
and knowledge, he will be issued a document in the form of the following licenses:

1. International Driver’s License. Bonafide tourists and transients who are duly
licensed to operate motor vehicles in their respective countries may be
allowed to operate motor vehicles during their stay but not beyond 90 days of
their sojourn in the Philippines. After ninety days, any tourist or transient
desiring to operate motor vehicles shall pay fees and obtain and carry a
license as hereinafter provided (Sec. 21, R.A. 4136)
2. Military Driver’s License. Enlisted personnel of the AFP operating motor vehicles
owned by the government shall be licensed in accordance with R.A. 4136 but no license
or delinquency fees shall be collected thereof.

All licenses so issued shall bear the words “FOR GOVERNMENT VEHICLES ONLY”
plainly marked or stamped in red inks across the face thereof. A Military Driver’s License
does not authorize the holder to operate a privately-owned motor vehicle (Sec. 20, R.A.
4136).

3. Professional Driver’s License. This license is issued to a driver or paid for driving or
operating a motor vehicle whether private use or for hire to the public. Any person
driving his own motor vehicle for hire is a professional driver (Sec. 3, e, R.A. 4136). To
easily distinguished, the word “professional” on the license is red-highlighted.
4. Non-Professional Driver’s License. This kind of license is issued to owners of
privately-owned motor vehicles or those not for hire or paid for driving (Effect of Sec. 3e,
RA 4136). To easily distinguish this license from professional license, the word “Non-
professional” is green-highlighted.

5. Student Driver’s Permit. This kind of document is issued to persons who desire to
learn how to drive. A student driver cannot operate a vehicle unless accompanied by an
instructor who may either be a licensed professional or non-professional driver (Sec. 30,
R.A. 4136)
D. Validity or Expiration of License.
1. Student driver’s permit – 12 months or 1 year.

2. Non-professional and Professional Driver’s Licenses and

Conductors’ License – 5 years as per R.A. 10930 and LTO
Administrative Order 2016-034.

3. International Driver’s License for Tourists – 90 days but can be

renewed.

E. Conductors’ License.
Conductors of public utility vehicles are also mandated to procure their
licenses from the LTO.
F. Qualifications and Requirements.

A. Qualifications (Student Permit)

1. Must be at least seventeen (17) years old;

2. Must be physically and mentally fit to operate a motor vehicle;
3. Must be able to read and write Filipino, English or the applicable local dialect;
and
In addition, for foreigners, the applicant must be eighteen (18) years old and
must have been in the Philippines for at least one (1) month with proof that
he/she will stay in the country for at least one (1) year from date of application.
B. Documentary Requirements:

1. Duly accompllshed Application for Driver's License (AOL);

2. Original and photocopy of birth certificate duly authenticated by National Statistics Office
(NSO);

3. If below eighteen (18) years of age, original copy of parental/guardian's consent with
original and photocopy of one (1) valid government issued Identification Card containing
the signature of the consenting parent/guardian.

4. Medical Certificate issued· by any licensed practicing physician stating that the applicant
is physically and mentally fit to operate a motor vehicle or otherwise stating his/her
impairment; and

5. In addition, for foreigners, original and photocopy of passport with entry date of at least
one (1) month and visa duration of at least one (1) year from date of application, or if born
in the Philippines, present original and photocopy of birth certificate duly authenticated by
the NSO.
A. Qualifications: (Non-Professional)

1. Must be at least eighteen (18) years old;

2. Must be physically and mentally fit to operate a motor vehicle;
3. Must be able to read and write Filipino, English or the applicable local dialect;
4. Must be a holder of a valid SP issued at least thirty (30) days prior to the
application; and
In addition, for foreigners. the applicant must have been in the Philippines for at least
one (1) month with proof that he/she will stay in the country for at least one (1) year
from date of application.
B. Documentary Requirements for the Issuance of a New NPDL/Conversion:

1. Duly accomplished Application for Driver's License (AOL);

2. Valid SP issued at least thirty (30) days from date of application;

3. Medical Certificate issued by any licensed practicing physician stating that the applicant is
physically and mentally fit to operate a motor vehicle or otherwise stating his/her impairment;
and

4. In addition, for foreigners, original and photocopy of passport with entry of at least one {1)
month and visa duration of at least one (1) year from date of application, or if born in the
Philippines, present original and photocopy of birth certificate duly authenticated by the NSO.
In the event that the applicant is a holder of a valid Foreign Driver's License, the applicant
may present the original and photocopy of Foreign Driver's License, if not in English
language, original and photocopy of official English translation from the local Embassy
issuing country, instead of an SP.
A. Qualifications: (Professional Driver’s License)

1. Must be at least eighteen (18) years old;

2. Must be physically and mentally fit to operate a motor vehicle (or work, in the case of
applications for Conductor's License);

3. Must be able to read and write Filipino, English or the applicable local dialect;

4. For RC 1, 2, 4 and 6 -Must be a holder of a valid SP issued at leas.t six (6) months prior to
the application For RC 3, 5, 7 and 8 -Must be a holder of a valid NPDL issued at least one
(1) year prior to the application or POL holder with RC 1,2 ,4 and 6 for a period of at least six
(6) months prior to the application;

5. Must not have been cited for two (2) or more counts of reckless driving during the period
of validity of his/her existing license; and

6. In addition, for foreigner, the applicant must have been in the Philippines for at least one
(1) month with proof that he/she will stay in the country for at least one (1) year from date of
application and is allowed to work herein.
B. Documentary Requirements for the Issuance of a New PDL or Conductor's
License/Change Classification from NPDL to PDL:

1. Duly accomplished Application for Driver's License (AOL);

2. For RC 1, 2, 4 and 6 -Must be a holder of a valid SP issued at least six (6) months prior to the
application For RC 3, 5, 7 and 8-Must be a holder of a valid NPDL issued at least one (1) year prior
to the application or POL holder with RC 1,2,4 and 6 for a period of at least six (6) months prior to
the application;

3. Medical Certificate issued by any licensed practicing physician stating that the applicant is
physically and mentally fit to operate a motor vehicle (or work, in the case of applications for
Conductor's License);

4. Clearance that the applicant has not been convicted of any offense involving moral turpitude or
reckless imprudence resulting from reckless driving from all the following: a. National Bureau of
Investigation (NBI}; and b. Philippine National Police (PNP);

5. In addition, for foreigners, original and photocopy of passport with entry of at least one (1) month
and working visa duration of at least one (1) year from date of application, or if born in the
Philippines, present original and photocopy of birth certificate duly authenticated by the NSO.
G. Drivers’ Examination. All drivers’ license applicants must obtain the passing score as
follows:

1. The written examination. All written examinations will contain questions concerning proper
driving procedures, road rules and regulations, emergency procedures, etc. number of
questions will be as follows:

a. Non-professional license – 40 questions

b. Professional license – 60 questions

Examinees will have to pass the written examination with the following marks:

a. Non-professional – 30 out of 40 questions

b. Professional – 45 out of 60 questions

Before each examination, a DRIVING SKILL RATER will provide a 30 minute lecture
about traffic rules and other driver information as a “review” for the applicants.
2. The Road Test. The actual road test will be undertaken under the auspices of a DRIVING
SKILL RATER.
During the road test, the applicant will be rated according to his proficiency on the following
aspects:
a. That the applicant is aware of and capable of performing a check on the primary
components of the vehicle such as the engine, the tires, the battery, lights, windshield
wipers, brakes, transmission and clutch, etc..
b. Proper use and correct positioning of the hands on the steering wheel.
c. Proper engine control and use of the gear shift lever and the foot pedals.
d. Proper speed control and observance and practice of road discipline.
e. Proper knowledge and interpretation of road signs and markings.
f. Proper turning procedures.
g. Proper backing procedures.
h. Proper parking procedures.

The applicant will be credited with a score of 100 points at the start of the road test. Each
infraction or unsatisfactory performance will be listed down on a ROAD TEST SCORE
SHEET and the corresponding deductions made at the end of the test. Passing grade will
be 70 points or a total possible deduction of 30 points.
H. Mandatory Drug Test.

It is mandatory to all drivers’ license applicants except for student drivers’ permit to pass
a drug test conducted by duly LTO accredited drug testing centers. (Repealed by R.A.
10586)

I. Drivers’ Restriction Code.

When the driver is issued a license the driver’s restriction code is indicated as follows:

1. Motorcycles/Motorized tricycles
2. Vehicle up to 4500 kgs Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW).
3. Vehicle above 4500 kgs GVW
4. Automatic clutch up to 4500 kgs GVW
5. Automatic clutch above 4500 kgs GVW
6. Articulated vehicle 1600 kgs GVW and below
7. Articulated vehicle 1601 up to 4500 kgs GVW
8. Articulated vehicle 4501 kgs & above GVW
9. Disabled (Old) – no longer existing because disabled individuals are now called differently-
abled persons.
J. Drivers’ Condition. The condition for driver’s license holder while
operating a motor vehicle are indicated as follows:

1. A – wear eye glasses

2. B – drive only with special equipment for upper limbs
3. C – drive only with special equipment for lower limbs
4. D – daylight driving only
5. E – accompanied by a person with normal hearing
Lesson 3.5 – Basic General Rules of Road Use and Conduct

The traffic rules in the Philippines are based entirely on the general rules of road
use and conduct which also include the general prohibitions and restrictions. Chapter
IV, Articles I to V of the R.A. 4136 comprehensively discuss the traffic rules observed in
the Philippines.

A. Speed Limit and Other Rules on Speed.

Any person driving a motor vehicle on a highway shall drive the same at a careful and
prudent speed, not greater nor less than is reasonable and proper, having due regard for the
traffic, the width of the highway, and of any other condition then and there existing; and no
person shall drive any motor vehicle upon a highway at such speed as to endanger the life,
limb and property of any person, nor at a speed greater than will permit him to bring the
vehicle to a stop within the assured clear distance ahead.
 Passengers
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE SPEEDS Motor trucks and buses
Cars and Motorcycle

1. On open country roads, with no

"blinds corners" not closely bordered 80 km. per hour 50 km. per hour
by habitations.

2. On "through streets" or
boulevards, clear of traffic, with no " 40 km. per hour 30 km. per hour
blind corners," when so designated.

3. On city and municipal streets, with

light traffic, when not designated 30 km. per hour 30 km. per hour
"through streets".

4. Through crowded streets,

approaching intersections at "blind
corners," passing school zones,
20 km. per hour 20 km. per hour
passing other vehicles which are
stationery, or for similar dangerous
circumstances.
 1. Maximum allowable speeds. The maximum allowable speed shall be in accordance with
the preceding paragraph and for the specific speed limits on specifics sections of highways,
see Chapter IV, Sec. 35, par b of RA 4136.

2. Exception to the speed limit. The rates of speed hereinabove prescribed shall not apply to
the following:

a. A physician or his driver when the former responds to emergency calls.

b. The driver of a hospital ambulance on the way to and from the place of accident or
other emergency.
c. Any driver bringing a wounded or sick person for emergency treatment to a hospital,
clinic, or any other similar place.
d. The driver of a motor vehicle belonging to the Armed Forces while in use for official
purposes in times of riot, insurrection or invasion.
e. The driver of a vehicle, when he or his passengers are in pursuit of a criminal.
f. A law enforcement officer who is trying to overtake a violator of traffic laws.
g. The driver officially operating a motor vehicle of any fire department, provided that
exemption shall not be construed to allow useless or unnecessary fast driving of drivers
aforementioned.
 3.Uniform Speed Limits throughout the Philippines. No provincial, city or municipal authority
shall enact or enforce any ordinance or resolution specifying maximum allowable speeds
other than those provided by RA 4136.

B. Lateral Placement.
Lateral placement means the proper positioning of the motor vehicle while traversing on a traffic
way or while on parked.

In the Philippines, unless a different course of action is required in the interest of the
safety and the security of life, person or property, or because of unreasonable difficulty of
operation in compliance herewith, every person operating a motor vehicle or an animal-drawn
vehicle on a highway shall pass to the right when meeting persons or vehicles going the same
direction, and when turning to the left in going from one highway to another, every motor vehicle
shall be conducted to the right of the center of the intersection of the highway.

For the pedestrians, they should walk on side streets to the left facing the oncoming
traffic. On the other hand, motor vehicles should be parked only on designated areas and so
properly parked without encroaching the parking stall or space of another vehicle.
Proper positioning while traversing.
Parallel Parking Proper placement while parked diagonally
C. Overtaking and Passing.
 In overtaking another vehicle, a driver should pass at a safe distance to the left of the
vehicle being overtaken and shall resume driving on the right side of the road only after
passing clear of the overtaken vehicle.

1. Exception.

On the highways with two or more lanes where traffic goes in one direction,
another vehicle may be overtaken on the right (Sec. 39, R.A. 4136)

2. Driver to give way to overtaking vehicle.

The driver of a motor vehicle about to be overtaken must give way to the
overtaking vehicle and shall not increase his speed until the overtaking vehicle has
fully passed by (Sec. 40, R.A. 4136)
3. Restrictions on overtaking and passing.

To avoid accident or any unusual incidents, overtaking and passing on the following places
are restricted (Sec. 41, R.A. 4136)

a. To the left side of the center line of a highway in overtaking another vehicle proceeding in
the same direction, unless such left side is clearly visible, and is free of oncoming traffic for a
sufficient distance ahead to permit safety overtaking.

b. When approaching the crest of a grade, nor upon a curve in the highway, where the
driver’s view along the highway is obstructed within the distance of five hundred feet ahead,
except on a highway having two or more lanes for movement of vehicles in one direction.

c. At any railway grade crossing, nor at any intersection of highways, unless such
intersection or crossing is controlled by traffic signal, or a traffic officer.

d. Between any points indicated by the placing of official temporary or caution signs
indicating that men are working on the highways.

e. In any “no passing or overtaking zone.”

D. Right of Way.

This principle refers to the legal or customary precedence (priority in place or time) which
allows one vehicle to cross or pass in front of another. The concept of the right of way is important
to understand since the law never really grants the right of way. The law simply states when the
right of way must be yielded. Right of way can be used when the law permits its use by requiring
that others yield the right of way to you. Failure to yield the right of way leads to crashes in all
states. There are some ways for you to reduce this probability when you are driving however
safemotorist.com).
1. Rules on Right of Way. Sections 42-44, of
RA 4136 provides for the rules on giving the right
of way.

a. In case of two vehicles approaching or

entering an intersection at the same time, the
driver of the vehicle on the left shall yield the
right of way; however, the driver of any vehicle
traveling at an unlawful speed forfeits this right
(Sec. 42).
b. In the case of a vehicle approaching but
has not yet entered the intersection, its
driver shall yield the right of way to vehicles
already within such intersection or turning
therein to the left across the line of travel of
the first mentioned vehicle (Sec. 42, b).

c. In case of a vehicle on a highway

within a business or residential district,
its driver shall yield the right of way to
pedestrians crossing the highway
within q crosswalk except at
intersections where traffic is regulated
by a peace officer or a traffic signal. If
there is no crosswalk, pedestrians shall
yield the right of way to vehicles on the
highways (Sec. 42, d).
2. Exceptions to the Right of Way Rule. Right-of-way rules do not apply in the case:

a. Of a vehicle entering from a private road or drive. The right of way is in favor of all vehicles
utilizing the highway (Sec. 43).

b.The driver of a vehicle upon a highway shall yield the right of way to police or fire department
vehicles and ambulances when such vehicles are operated on official business and the drivers
thereof sound audible signal of their approach.

c.The driver of a vehicle entering a “through highway” or a “stop intersection” shall yield the right of
way to all vehicles approaching in either direction on such “through highway.”
E. Starting, Stopping or Turning Rules.

The driver of any motor vehicle on a highway, before starting, stopping or turning from a direct
line, shall first see that such movement can be made safely; and if any pedestrian is affected by
such movement, he shall give a clearly audible signal by sounding the vehicle’s horn.

1. When other motorists are affected. Whenever the operation of any other approaching
or following may be affected by such movement, the driver making the movement shall give a
signal to the other driver/s of his intention to make such movement (Sec. 44, a).

2. Hand signal. The required signal shall be given by means of extending the hand or arm
beyond the left side of the vehicle or by an approved mechanical or electrical signal device (Sec.
44, b).
3. Making a right turn (normal procedures). The following are the rules to be observed in
making a correct turning to the right from a four-lane street to a four-lane street.

a. Signal your intention to turn right with your turning signal light or a hand signal at least
100 ft before you intend to make your turn.
b. Stay on the right lane of the road.
c. NEVER make a right turn from left lane.
d. At an intersection with a red traffic light, make a right turn ONLY after coming to a
full stop to make sure that no vehicle is coming from the left.
e. If there is a sign prohibiting a right turn unless the light is GREEN, DO NOT turn
right while the RED LIGHT IS ON.
4. Making a Left Turn (Normal procedures). Motor vehicles intending to turn left from a four-lane
street to four-lane street should observe the following procedures:

a. Signal your intention to turn left with your turning signal or a hand signal at least 100 feet before
you intend to make your turn.
b. Stay on the left lane of the road.
c. NEVER make a left turn from the right lane.
d. At an intersection with a traffic light, vehicles GOING STRAIGHT have the right of way. Wait for
them to pass first before you turn left.
e. At an intersection with a traffic light, make a left turn only when the green light is on or when there
is a left turn light.
5. Making a U-turn on a Two-lane Road (normal
procedure). Following is the recommended
procedure in making a U-turn on two-lane road.

a. Make a right turn signal at least 100 ft. before you

start moving to the right side of the road.
b. Stay as close to the right side as possible. Come
to a complete stop if necessary. Check behind you
for traffic. Also check for oncoming traffic on the
other lane.
c. Once all traffic has passed you, initiate your U-
turn. See to it that you can make it in one “sweep”. If
you have a long vehicle, look for an intersection or a
wide section of the road to make a U-turn in.
d. At this point, you should be making the U-turn if
you know the turning radius of your vehicle.
e. Do not move immediately to the middle of the
road. Keep to the right side until you have increased
your speed sufficiently to move to the middle of the
lane.
6. Making a U-turn on a Four-lane highway (normal
procedure). Following is the correct procedure:

a. Check for traffic behind you and indicate your

intentions with a left turn signal. If no fast vehicles, stay
on the left lane.

b. Clear the “other side” for oncoming traffic and initiate

your turn as soon as it is clear. Do not come to a
complete stop. Straighten out on the right lane and begin
gaining speed.

c. As soon as you have reached a relatively safe speed,

signal your intention to move to the fast lane with a left
turn signal.

d. Move to the fast lane as soon as you are fast enough

to hold up traffic moving in the same direction.
F. Pedestrian’ Rights and Duties.

Pedestrians have the right to occupy or pass on spaces or portions of traffic way
allocated for them like crossing on pedestrian lanes and passing on the sidewalks or
catwalks. In addition, pedestrians, as part of the traffic system, their fundamental duty is to
observe and obey all traffic rules and regulations. Motorists should also know the rights of the
pedestrians so that they will not be using the portions of the traffic way allocated for the
pedestrians for parking purposes.

G. General parking rules and similar regulations.

Motor vehicles should park only on areas specifically designated for parking. All
accidents are not cause while vehicles are being driven. A parked vehicle may create an
accident, kill someone or destroy property. Before leaving your vehicle, set the brakes, put
the gear in low or reverse or park position and remove the key. This will prevent your car from
rolling down an incline and will also prevent cars from pushing your car.
1. Parking on cities. In cities and towns, unless otherwise directed by a city or municipal
ordinance, motor vehicles will be parked parallel and within 12 inches of the curb. For
additional pre-caution while parking, observe the following:

a. Downhill with or without curb - turn wheels to right.

b. Uphill curb – turn wheels from curb (to left).
c. Uphill without curb – turn wheels to curb.
2. Parking on a highway. On rural roads, pull entirely off pavement to park. Whenever
practicable, turn on your parking lights.

3. Parking prohibited in specified places. No driver shall park a vehicle, or permit it to stand,
whether attended or unattended, upon a highway in any of the following places and at any place
where official signs have been erected prohibiting parking.

a. Within an intersection.
b. On a crosswalk.
c. Within six meters of the intersection of curb lines.
d. Within four meters of the driveway entrance to and fire station.
e. Within four meters of a fire hydrant.
f. In front of a private driveway.
g. On the roadway side of any vehicle stopped or parked at the curb or edge of the highway.
h. At any place where official signs have been erected prohibiting parking.
Chapter 4. Traffic Control
LESSON 4.1: FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC CONTROL

Traffic Control. Generally, it refers to procedures, devices, and communication systems that
help vehicles and vessels safely share the same roads, rails, waterways, or air space. Traffic
control establishes a set of rules and instructions that drivers, pilots, train engineers, and ship
captains rely on to avoid collisions and other hazards. Safe travel for pedestrians is an additional
goal in highway traffic control.

A. As Applied to Land Transportation. A system of traffic engineering, employing prescribed

traffic rules and regulations and devices such as signals, and markings, to relieve vehicular
congestion and air pollution, and to promote safety and pedestrian mobility, usually in heavily
populated urban areas.

B. Control Techniques. Following are the comprehensive systems used:

1. access-road meters to monitor and control motorway;
2. closed-circuit television surveillance to detect quickly any deterioration in traffic flow; and
3. emergency services to provide aid in case of accident and injury.
C. Other traffic-control techniques include:
1. the use of one-way streets,
2. enforcement of traffic flow regulations,
3. channelization (building traffic islands, turning lanes and so on), and
4. the use of traffic signals.

D. Highway Traffic control. Motorist depend on traffic control devices to avoid collisions and
travel safely to their destinations.

1. Traffic Signs. Traffic signs are the most extensively used form of traffic control in the United
States. More than 55 million traffic signs in the nation’s roadside. They provide information about
speed limits and road conditions. They direct traffic along certain routes and to specific destinations.
By using signs, traffic control planners tell drivers what to do, what to watch for, and where to drive.

2. Pavement Markings. Pavement markings separate opposing streams of traffic and direct
vehicles into proper positions on the roadway. For example, pavement markings delineate turn lanes
at intersection and establish no-passing zones. White and yellow paint is customarily used for
pavement markings. Reflective devices are more visible at night and are used in some locations to
mark lanes and other significant places on the road.
3. Traffic-Signal. Traffic signals are installed to permit safe movement of vehicles and pedestrians at
busy intersections. The light signal is probably the most easily recognized traffic control device. At a
busy intersection in a large city, a traffic signal may control the movements of more than 100,000
vehicles per day. Traffic signals direct streams of vehicles and pedestrians when to go, stop, or
proceed with caution. The signals increase the traffic handling capacity of most intersections. They
can work independently on timers, or connect to computer-controlled system that operates over
several intersections.

4. Priority Control. In one of the oldest method of traffic control, one form of transportation is given
priority by restricting or banning other forms of transportation. In the 1 st century BC, Roman Emperor
Juluis Caesar banned wheel traffic from Rome during daytime, which allowed pedestrians and horse
riders to move freely around the city. Some modern cities ban or restrict truck travel through certain
neighborhoods.

5. Restraints. As an alternative to banning traffic, traffic control planners use devices to discourage
heavy use of route. Island built in the centers of intersections force drivers to proceed slowly. Speed
bumps discourage high-speed commuting through residential neighborhoods. Concrete median strips
prevent vehicles from making turns except at intersections.
Bus-lanes and high occupancy vehicles (HOV) lanes exist in many urban areas. Only
specified types of vehicles, primarily those carrying several occupants’ vehicles, primarily
those carrying several occupants, can use these lanes. By giving priority to high occupancy
vehicles, transportation planners encourage carpooling and reduce congestions.

6. Restraints. As an alternative to banning traffic, traffic control planners use devices to

discourage heavy use of a route. Island built in the centers of intersection force drivers t
proceed slowly. Speed bumps discourage high-speed commuting through residential
neighborhoods. Concrete median strips prevent vehicles from making turns except at
intersection.
LESSON 4.2. TRAFFIC SIGNS
Traffic Signs, like traffic signal lights and road markings are used to convey quickly and
accurately the wide range of information needed by road users, particularly vehicle drivers, and to
promote a safe and efficient use of the road system.

Traffic Signs refer to any device mounted on portable support whereby a message is
conveyed by means of words or symbols officially installed for the purpose of regulating, warning, or
guiding traffic. Traffic signs are installed to serve the following functions:
1) to control traffic,
2) to safeguard the flow of traffic,
3) to expedite traffic, and
4) to guide traffic and motorists.

Standardization of traffic signs shall conform to the standards set forth in the erection and
display of standard road signs and markers as prescribed by the DPWH as to shape, color,
dimension, shape, size, height, letterings or symbols.
 Traffic signs shall be installed only under public authority or by the official having jurisdiction for
that purpose, and it shall not bear any commercial advertisement.

A thorough knowledge of traffic signs, signals, road and pavement markings is necessary to
all drivers. Every motorist must be able to recognize and obey them without hesitation even with the
absence of traffic police officer.

A. Historical Background.

In Britain, early sign post was erected by private individuals at their own expense. In 1648,
parishes were required by law to place guidepost at crossroads. In 1733, these and mileposts were
required to be erected and maintained by Turnpike Trusts. The Motor Car Act of 1903 made local
authorities responsible for placing certain warning and prohibitory signs.

With increased international travel after World War II, discussions took place in the United
Nations (UN) on the introduction of international traffic signs. However, it was not until 1965 that
United Kingdom (UK) signs were changed to conform to the European system. In 1995, it was
estimated that there were 2, 500,000 signs and signals, 850, 000 road markings and 7,000,000
road studs on the roads in England alone.
 On the other hand, the United States (US) adopted the signs in the 1970s and developed a set
of national standards for sign, color, shape, and usage.

On June 6, 1973, the Philippines through P.D. 207 declared as part of the laws of the Philippines
the UN Vienna Convention on road traffic, signs, markings and signals. The participating countries of
this convention have agreed to accept the system of traffic, road signs, signals and symbols and
road markings described in said convention and to adopt the same to facilitate international road
traffic and to increase road safety.

B. International Traffic Signs.

As explained in the Vienna convention, the system of signs and signals which it has prescribed
is based on the use of shapes and colors, characteristics of each class of sign, and whenever
possible on the use of graphic symbols rather than inscriptions with few exceptions one of which is
the STOP sign of the United States.

These basic sign shapes are:

1. Round and red sign: regulates the movement of turning and passing traffic regulations;
2.Round black yellow signs: a warning that you are approaching a railroad crossing;
3.Equilateral triangle red signs: a sign at the intersection directing drivers to yield the right-of-
way to vehicles in the road being crossed;
4. Eight-sided (octagonal) red and white stop sign: the most popular and understood sign by all
tongues and colors; and

5. Triangle red and black sign: approaching a danger zone, hill, slope, winding road, and others

C. Classification of International Traffic Signs.

1. Danger Warning Signs. These signs are also known as “caution signs.” These signs have an
equilateral triangular shape with one side horizontal and having red borders.
 These are signs intended to:
a. warn motorist of approaching hazardous road conditions,
b. seek caution for the approaching road hazards, and
c. call the reduction of speed.

2. Regulatory Signs. These are signs which impose legal restrictions applicable at particular
location usually enforceable in the absence of such signs. These are intended to:
a. inform road users of certain laws and regulations, and
b.special obligations, instructions, or prohibitions which they must comply with and
violations of which constitute misdemeanor.

Regulatory signs are usually round in shape with the exception of “Stop Signs” and “Yield
Signs”. These signs are further classified into two:

a.prohibitive and restrictive signs, and

b.mandatory signs.
3. Informative Signs. These signs are also known as “guide signs”, or “direction signs.” The
rectangular shape white-colored on blue background is used for informative signs. Green
background is usually used for route markers and destination signs. Informative signs are
intended to:

a.guide motorists along established routes,

b.inform the motorists of the proper roads, and
c.help motorists along the way in the simplest and direct method.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRAFFIC SIGNS IN THE PHILIPPINES
The following are classification of Road signs based from Department of Public Works
and Highways (DPWH) Road Safety Manual 2012 and as cited by the Land Transportation
Office in their website.

Road signs in the Philippines are regulated and standardized by the

Department of Public Works and Highways. Most of the signs reflects minor influences from
American and Australian signage, but keeps close to the Vienna Convention as an original
signatory.

I.Regulatory signs
Regulatory signs indicate the application of legal or statutory requirements, for
example, obligation to give way at intersections, control of parking of vehicles, and speed
limits. These signs require driver's compliance.
A. Priority signs
B. Direction signs
A. Restrictive signs
D. Speed Signs
E. Miscellaneous Signs
II. Warning signs
Warning signs are used to warn motorists of potentially hazardous conditions on or
adjacent to the road.

A. Horizontal Alignment Sign

B. Intersection and junction Sign
C. Road Obstacle Signs
III. Guide or information signs
Guide or information signs inform road users about the direction and distances on the
route they are following.
A. Advance Direction Signs
B. Intersection Direction Sign
C. Reassurance direction signs
LESSON 4.3: TRAFFIC SIGNAL LIGHTS

These refers to any power operated traffic control device by which traffic is warned or
directed to take some specific actions. Traffic light signals are used to control traffic at
junctions and also to stop traffic to provide safe crossing points for pedestrians and cyclists.

A. Rationale. Regulating traffic flow at intersections and road crossings is just a matter of
alternating the GO and STOP signal so that every driver gets his "fair share". As a result of
this, traffic lights were invented to relieved the traffic policeman of the mechanical duties of
alternating traffic to make everybody happy.
B. Problems Concerning Traffic Lights.

1.A society that has little or no respect for traffic laws will have a hard time respecting the
advantages that a traffic light can offer specially when there are no traffic enforcers around.
Sadly, to say, Filipino society is one of those in which respect for traffic laws needs tremendous
improvements.

2.When a traffic light suddenly becomes inoperative, very seldom does order and a sense of
discipline prevail. It always ends up as a massive free for all.

3.Not only drivers are guilty of disobeying traffic lights but PEDESTRIANS have a habit of turning
DON'T WALK signs into WALK signs effectively STOPPING traffic that should really be GOING.

4.Even if there are traffic enforcing officers present, they very seldom do anything about
pedestrians swarming around in droves, holding up traffic.
C. Classifications of Traffic Signal Lights.

1. Traffic Control Signals. These are signal lights designed primarily to control and regulate traffic
flows. Traffic control signals are devices placed along, beside, or above a roadway to guide, warn,
and regulate the flow of traffic, which includes motor vehicles, motorcycles, bicycles, pedestrians, and
other road users.

2. Special Pedestrian Signals. Pedestrian signals help pedestrians cross at intersections with traffic
lights. The signal for pedestrians to walk is a white walking symbol. Pedestrians who have already
begun to cross when the hand signal appears, should go as quickly as possible to a safe area. While
they are crossing, pedestrians still have the right-of-way over vehicles. These signal lights provide
regulation for pedestrians like the “WALK” and “DO NOT WALK” signal lights.

3. Train Approach and Gates Signals. These are usually installed on road-rail intersections
designed to inform motorists of any approaching train on the intersection.

4. Other Special Traffic Signals. These are installed on traffic ways where special regulations are
emphasized like “YIELD TO VEHICLES COMING FROM THE LEFT”, and other similar regulations.
 Traffic Signal Systems.

1. The Fixed-time System. A traffic control signal by which traffic is alternately

commanded to stop and permitted to proceed in accordance with predetermined time
schedule.

2. Progressive System. These are signals at successive intersections along the artery
are timed to change from red to green at staggered intervals, permitting a vehicle that
maintains a constant speed to proceed without interruption under normal circumstances.

3. Computerized Control of Signal Networks. Signal changes are not predetermined,

but are ordered by the demands of traffic and are directed by computers that operate on the
basis of traffic information relayed from vehicle sensors on the streets.
D. Specific Meaning of Traffic Lights.

1. Steady Red
a) STOP at the designated line.
b) Vehicles will be crossing from the "other side".
c) Expect pedestrians to cross at the pedestrian lane.
d) Unless specified, you can TURN RIGHT after a FULL STOP to clear traffic coming from the
left.

2. Steady Green
a) It is the turn of the vehicles on the other side to STOP.
b) Pedestrians are not allowed to cross the pedestrian lane in front of you.
c) Unless specified, you can move up to the middle section of the intersection and make a left
turn when clear.
d) Vehicles GOING STRAIGHT have the right of way.
e) DO NOT ANTICIPATE A GREEN LIGHT.

3. Steady Green Arrow

a) GO
b) Vehicles turning left can do so.
c) On coming straight traffic is still RED to give way for the vehicles turning left.
d) DO NOT ANTICIPATE A GREEN ARROW.
4. Steady Yellow
a) PREPARE TO STOP
b) It is the turn of the vehicles on the other side and will be given the GO signal shortly.
c) DO NOT BEAT A YELLOW LIGHT.

5. Flashing Red
a) This is the same as a STOP SIGN.
b) STOP at the designated line.
c) Vehicles will be crossing from the "other side".
d) Expect pedestrians to cross at the pedestrians’ lane.
e) PROCEED WHEN CLEAR.

6. Flashing yellow
a) This is the same as a YIELD SIGN.
b) Proceed through the intersection with CAUTION.
c) You have the right of way over a flashing RED LIGHT.
Vehicles on the other side will proceed after coming to a FULL STOP.

7.Steady Green and Steady Left/Right Arrow.

a)Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the left lane can make a left turn.
b)Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the right lane can make a right turn.
c)The RIGHT GREEN signal might or might NOT have a road sign disallowing a right turn while the RED light
is ON.
TRAFFIC SIGNAL BLACKOUT—If all traffic signal lights are not working because of an
electrical power failure, you must stop at the intersection and then proceed when you know
other turning and approaching vehicles, bicycles, or pedestrians have stopped. A blacked-
out traffic signal works the same as a four-way stop intersection.
LESSON 4.4. PAVEMENT MARKINGS AND MARKERS
A. Pavement Markings.
These pertain to all lines, patterns, words, colors, or other gadgets except signs set into the
surface or applied upon or attached to the pavement or curbing or to objects within or adjacent to
the roadway, officially placed for the purpose of regulating, warning or guiding traffic.

They are in the form of lines, symbols, messages or numerals, and may be set into the surface
of, applied upon, or attached to the pavement. In some cases, pavement markings are used as a
supplement to other traffic control devices, such as traffic signals and road signs. It guides traffic or
gives advance warning or may impose restrictions supported by traffic regulations
B. Types of Pavement Markings and Markers.

1. Pavement Markings. These are the lines usually white and yellow or a combination of yellow and
white officially set on the roadway as separation for motor vehicles traveling in the opposite direction
or the same direction in case of two-lane one-way street, two-lane two-way street or four-lane two-way
street.

2. Curb Markings for Restrictions. These are markings placed on the curbs or edges of the traffic for
restriction or for parking regulation purposes.

3. Object Markings. These are markings placed on objects on the road or beside the road like humps,
rocks or similar hazardous objects on the side of the road.

4. Reflectorized Markings. These are markings or gadgets designed to reflect and become
luminous when hit by vehicles’ headlight. These are placed or installed in the middle of the roadway
to supplement separation lines or on object at the side of the roadway which are too near or within the
road pavement itself.
C. Specific Meaning of Pavement Markings.
Pavement markings vary depending on the traffic
regulations in its location or depending on the road or
traffic condition.

1. Solid white shoulder line. This denotes the

edge of the roadway. Any asphalt or concrete surface
beyond this line should not be used during the normal
operation of your vehicle.

2. Diagonal white lines. An area filled with

diagonal white lines and bordered by solid white lines is
not considered part of the roadway, and vehicles are
expected to stay off unless there is an emergency. These
areas are often used to ease the flow of traffic where
roads diverge or intersect.
3. Broken white center line or lane divider. This
denotes the center of a two-lane road, or marks
the division between lanes on multi-lane roads. It
is a reminder to stay in your lane. Straddling the
line is illegal and punishable under the law. As the
line is “broken,” however, this means it is legal to
cross it when overtaking or changing lanes. Bear
in mind that vehicles continuing in a straight line
within their lane automatically have right of way,
so wait your turn.

4. Solid white center line. This is often

used to divide traffic on a two-way multi-
lane road. As this is a solid line, you are
discouraged from overtaking over it unless
the way is absolutely clear.
5. Solid white double center line. You are
forbidden from overtaking over this line, but
you may make left turns over it, provided
the way is clear. Remember, however, that
oncoming traffic still automatically has right
of way.

5. Solid yellow double center line. As we

noted a while back, this line indicates that
it is unsafe to overtake at any time. It is
often found around blind curves or in areas
where fast-moving two-way traffic meets on
an undivided road.
6. Mixed center line/solid yellow with
broken yellow or white line. This
indicates that only one side can overtake--
the side with the broken line. This is often
found entering curves where the view is
obstructed coming from one direction, but
is clear from the opposite side.

7. Solid white lane divider. These are

often found near intersections, and are
reminders to stay in lane. As a practice, if
you're turning at an intersection, it's best to
get into the turning lane 50m before the
intersection, while the lane divider is still
broken.
8. Directional arrows. When combined with solid white
lane dividers, they indicate which directions you are
allowed to go within a lane. If the arrow points forward
only, you cannot make a turn from that lane. If it points
forward and to the side, you can either go straight or turn.
If it points only to the side, you must turn within that lane.
Ignoring these arrows might just get you a ticket, or
worse, get you into an accident.

9. Broken blue lane divider. This

indicates the motorbike lane along major
thoroughfares. The broken line indicates
that you can move into and out of it, but the
lane is preferentially for motorbikes.
10. Solid yellow lane divider. This
indicates the bus lane on EDSA, but can
also be used to indicate bicycle lanes in
some areas. Bicycle lanes may also be
indicated by solid white lines on the side of
the road.

11. Broken yellow lane divider. This

indicates areas where you can merge into
the bus lane in preparation for turning off
EDSA.
12. Mixed double lane divider/solid
yellow with broken yellow or white line.
This indicates that traffic on the solid yellow
side cannot cross lanes, while traffic on the
other side may do so if the way is clear.
This is often used where smaller arteries
merge into main roads or where feeder
roads merge onto the highway.

13. Rumble strips. These tightly spaced

horizontal white lines not only give your
car's suspension a bit of a workout, they
also indicate hazards ahead, such as
dangerous curves or merging traffic.
 14. Solid white horizontal line. This
indicates where you must stop at a
stoplight or stop sign.

15. Zebra crossing. This indicates a

pedestrian crossing zone. Stopping over
this at a red light is a traffic violation, so
make sure to pay attention to those light
timers!
16. The yellow box. This box indicates the part of the intersection that must--by law--be kept open
at all times. Even if you have a green light, if the traffic is stopped on the other side ahead, it's best
to wait until there's enough space for you to clear the yellow box. Even in the absence of a light, the
yellow box must be kept clear.
LESSON 4.5. TRAFFIC ISLANDS

A. Traffic Islands Defined. These are areas within the roadway constructed in a manner to
establish physical channels through which vehicular traffic is guided.

Traffic Island can be a physical structure or a painted object found on roads and roadside.
The primary purpose of a traffic island is better & orderly flow of traffic. These are also referred to
as channelizes as these “channelizes” the traffic plying on the road. These may be raised
structures made up of concrete or a physical structure in form of boards, barricades, traffic cones
etc.

It can also be regarded as a physical barrier various shapes for channeling the flow of
tragic and reducing the number of conflict points. Their proper placement is of great importance
and is a must know for a town planner as it plays an important role in transport planning.When
traffic island is much longer in length than width then they are instead called traffic medians (a strip
in the middle of a road) serving the function of divider over a much longer distance
Tra
Functions of Traffic Islands.

1) segregate pedestrians and vehicles; and

2) control streams of traffic in order to minimize conflict, expedite traffic flow or
increase safety.
Classifications of Traffic Islands.

1. Pedestrian Island (Pedestrian Barriers).

These are constructed between the pedestrian
sidewalk and the road pavement to prevent
pedestrian from using the roadway in passing
and likewise to prevent motor vehicles from
using the sidewalk for parking and passing
purposes.

2. Traffic Islands. These are the raised portion

in the middle of the traffic way constructed to
separate the streams of motor vehicles
traversing on opposite directions and at the
same time preventing motorists from using the
opposite lane for overtaking. Traffic islands are
further sub-classified into three (3):

a. Division Islands. These are constructed

primarily to divide the streams of the motor
vehicles.
a. Channelizing Island. These are constructed b. Rotary Islands. These are constructed along
to channelize or direct the flow of traffic. intersections or “rotundas” for purposes of turning-around.
There functions are:

1) prohibit pedestrians from crossing major thoroughfares

at points where such crossing are exceptionally
hazardous,
2) minimize imprudence and delays to vehicular traffic,
and
3) channelize and control pedestrians.
 Chapter 5: Traffic Supervision and Accident Investigation
Lesson 5.1: Traffic Law Enforcement

Traffic Law Enforcement action is part of enforcement involving the arrest, issuance of
Temporary Operator’s Permit (TOP) or Inspection Report Summons, or warning of any person
who is believed to have violated a law, ordinance, or regulation pertaining to the use of traffic
roads.

Rationale. Traffic enforcement action may prevent such violation from endangering
persons, property, or inconveniencing other users of traffic users of traffic roads, prevent
continued violation, or discourage future repetition.

As a traffic law enforcer, he must decide the kind of action he will take in case he has
knowledge of any violation. Drivers are guided more by the enforcement actions of traffic law
enforcers than by the way the law is written. It is therefore important that traffic enforcers should know
what to do and be consistent in their actions so that drivers may know exactly what to expect. Further,
consistency of traffic enforcers in the enforcement of traffic laws builds respect and compliance with
the law.
A. Scope of traffic law enforcement. The range of action of traffic law enforcement includes but not limited
to the following:

1. The action taken by the police and the court to compel obedience to traffic laws and ordinances regulating
the movement and use of motor vehicles for the purpose of creating a deterrent to unlawful behavior by all
potential violators.
2. Enforcement of traffic legislation is an area of activity aimed at controlling road users, let behavior by
preventive persuasive and punitive methods in order to effect a safe and efficient traffic movement; and
3. It applies to all statutes, ordinances and legally authorized regulations relating to the use of street and
highways and operation of motor vehicles.

B. Two major functions of Traffic Law Enforcement. For more effective traffic law enforcement and more
specific roles in enforcement, the function is divided into the following:

1. Police Traffic Law Enforcement. This function includes the enforcement of traffic laws deterrent to law
violations, special assistance to prosecutors and courts and incidental service to highway users. Usually
these are the responsibilities of traffic enforcers like members of the PNP-TMG and the LTO Law
Enforcement Service (LES).
2. Court Traffic Law Enforcement. One part of traffic law enforcement is performed by the court through
PRSOSECUTION, ADJUDICATION and PENALIZATION of cases. These actions are usually undertaken by
any of the regular courts where traffic cases fall under their jurisdiction and the Traffic Adjudication Service
(TAS) of the LTO.
C. Three important Goals of Enforcement Activities. For more specific actions, enforcement
activities aim:

1. To increase safety level – enforcement effort should be directed towards the reduction of
accidents or minimizing their effects.

2. To increase traffic efficiency – when traffic violators are reduced particularly those related to
traffic obstruction through an effective enforcement, there will be free-flow of traffic.

3. To insure harmonious and comfortable environment – when there is an increase safety level
and increase traffic efficiency, traveling is more comfortable and luxurious and it may reduce chaotic
situations in the traffic way.

D. Major elements of traffic enforcement system. In the pursuit of effective traffic enforcement,
three elements are involved. Removing one of the elements or any of the elements, enforcement is
not complete.

1. Enforcement System.
2. Road Users System (Traffic Way User).
3. Road System (Traffic System).
E. Five (5) Essential Steps in the Enforcement Process.
1. Detection (of violation").
2. Apprehension.
3. Prosecution.
4. Adjudication.
5. Penalization.

F. Reasons for Violation of Traffic Laws.

1. physical disabilities or infirmities
2. ignorance of traffic
3. lack of training and experience
4. wrong attitude towards driving
5. drivers of public utility vehicles for increased compensation
6. driver's apathy towards signs, signals and markings
7. influential person violate because they feel they are exempted from punishment

G. Considerations that act as deterrents to motorist and pedestrians.

1.fear of fine or punishment
2.loss of driving privilege
3.possibility of being involved in accident
positive area of good citizenship doing what is right and setting an example
H. Kinds of Enforcement Action.
1. Traffic Arrest. It is an enforcement action which consists of taking a person into custody for the purpose of holding or
detaining him to answer a charge of law violation before a court.

a) When a traffic violator can be arrested?

(1) offense committed is serious
(2) detention is necessary to avoid continued violation
(3) there is reasonable doubt that the violator will not appear in court

b) Arrest, how made? In general, arrest is made by any of the following:

(1) by an actual restraint of the person to be arrested, or
(2) by his submission to the custody of the person making the arrest.

c) Use of force in arresting.

No violation or unnecessary force shall be used in making an arrest and the person arrested shall not be subjected to any
greater restraint than is necessary for his detention.

d) Arrest in Traffic.
In arresting a traffic violator, the traffic enforcer must consider the following:
(1) An arrest can be effected even without warrant if the offense is committed in the presence of an arresting officer.
(2) The officer making an arrest must intend to take the violator into custody for the purpose of bringing him before a
court.
(3) Detention of the arrested person may take place.
(4) Officer making an arrest must act under legal authority when taking the arrested person into custody.
(5) The person being arrested must understand that he is being arrested.
(6) The purpose of arrest is to bring a suspected violator before a court to answer a charge of violation.
e) Recording the Data of Arrest.
(1) Date/time of Arrest.
(2) Place of Arrest.
(3) The common name of the offense for which the person is arrested.
(4) The full name of the arrested person, his home address, his business address and his telephone number.
(5) Physical description of the arrestee, including his date of birth, nationality and marital status.
(6) Name of witnesses to the arrest.
(7) Name and badge number of arresting officer.

f) When taking a person into custody. The arresting officer when taking a person into custody must consider the following:
(1) The possibility that the person you are arresting may attempt to injure or kill you or escape in your custody.
(2) Inform him that you are placing him under arrest.
(3) Explain to him why you are placing him under arrest.
(4) Reasonable search may be carried out in connection with lawful arrest.

g) When transporting arrested person. The arresting officer should observe the following guidelines in transporting arrested
person:
(1) If your unit is equipped with radio, request for transportation unit and maintain custody of your prisoner until it
arrives.
(2) Give instructions to the transporting officer about the place where the arrestee is to be delivered.
(3) Have the necessary information and instructions written out so that the transporting officer will not err in the
delivery.
(4) In certain conditions, direct the arrested person to drive his own vehicle to your headquarters and follow him
with your police mobile.
However, if the driver is not in good condition or the vehicle is in bad shape, let someone drive the vehicle to the
headquarters.
h) Warrant less Arrest or Citizen’s/Civilian Arrest. Oftentimes, arrest in traffic is made right after the commission of the
traffic violation. Hence, traffic enforcers should know the following rules to be observed in arresting a person without
warrant of arrest as stipulated by paragraphs a-c, Sec. 6, Rule 113, Rules of Court:

(1) When in the presence of the arresting officer, the person to be arrested has committed, is actually committing, or
is about to commit an offense.
(2) When an offense has in fact been committed, and the arresting officer has personal reasons to believe that the
person to be arrested has committed it.

2. Traffic Citation. This is a means of having violators appear in court without physical arrest. To ensure that an
apprehended traffic violator will appear to the court or to the roper authority, the traffic officer should confiscate the
violator’s driver’s license and issue Traffic Citation Ticket (TCT) in some cities and municipalities, United Ordinance
Violation Receipt (UOVR) among LGUs in Metro Manila, Temporary Operator’s Permit (TOP) in cases of RA 4136, or
Traffic Violator’s Receipt (TVR) in cases under the MMDA.

a) Apprehension.
(1) You may confiscate the driver's license or certificate of registration of the vehicle for any violation of the
RA 4136 and its rules and regulations, City and Municipal Ordinances.
(2) Fill out the blank spaces of TOP/or TCT forms in order to provide a detailed report of apprehension for
the information, guidance and reference of all concerned.
(3)Advise the violator to report within 72 hours, but not less than 24 hours to give allowance for proper
transmittal from receipt thereof to appropriate offices.
b) Where the violator should report?
(1) Traffic Court, if in Manila and for violation of the City's Traffic Ordinance.
(2) City/Provincial Prosecutor, if in other chartered cities or provincial capitals without traffic courts, for
violations of local traffic ordinances.
(3) Municipal Court, in its municipalities, for violation of local traffic ordinances.
(4) LTO Central Office (TAS) for Metro Manila or its counterparts [REGIONAL TRAFFIC ADJUDICATION
SERVICE (RTAS)] for violation of the Land Transportation and Traffic Code (RA 4136), and its rules and in
the provinces regulations.

c) How to use the TOP, the TCT, and the TVR? These are official documents designed for various purposes,
namely:
(1) as a receipt for the confiscation of a vehicle or the driver's license or the CR/OR of the vehicle.
(2) as a temporary permit to operate motor vehicles for 72 hours without extension from the time of confiscation
or apprehension (in case of TVR in Manila, 7 days).
(3) as an official for of judicial or administrative citation to facilitate action on the case for which it is issued.
(4) record for disposing a case cited therein either administratively or judiciary.
(5) a receipt for release of the confiscated items after adjudication and termination of the case.

d) Preparation of the Information/Complaint.

Within your tour of duty, prepare information or complaint by filling up the TOP for processing of all traffic
apprehensions at the appropriate office.
e) Filing of Information/Complaint. Within 24 hours from the time of apprehension, file the complaints,
together with the confiscated items, with the Clerk of Court or Provincial Prosecutor or the court having
appropriate jurisdiction as previously stated. Table below shows the summary steps followed in traffic
citation.
Kinds of Place of Period of Where to What should What will Period of
Violation Violation Filling-up Report(Violato the violator? happen? Reporting(Violator)
TOP/TCT/T r)
VR
RA 4136 NCR w/in 24 LTO-MainTAS Pay the fine or Paid fine, DL is 3 - 5 days
hours plea not guilty returned. If not,
summon P. Ofcr
Provinces - do - LTO-RTAS - do - - do - 3 days or 72 hours
outside NCR
Local Traffic NCR - do - Traffic Court (if - do - - do - 3 - 5 days
Ordinances any)/Prosecuto
r’s Office
Chartered cities - do - Traffic Court (if - do - - do - 3 days or 72 hours
outside NCR any)/Prosecutor

Municipalities - do - Prosecutor/ - do - - do - 3 days or 72 hours

Municipal Court
f) Preliminary findings and disposition of License. Within 72 hours or three (3) days from the filing of the case
with the respective traffic enforcement offices, the hearing authority shall make immediate preliminary findings on the
basis of police or complaining witnesses reports as to whether or not there is an imperative necessity of withholding
the driver's license confiscated.

(1) Should there be no such necessity, he shall promptly order the return of the confiscated license to the owner
without prejudice to re-calling said license.
(2) Where the violator fails to appear before the court or the investigating official concerned, his license or permit
shall be forwarded to the LTO for its suspension or revocation pursuant to Sec. 29., RA 4136.

g) Records of court proceedings.

(1) When the violator appears in Court 15 days and pleads guilty, the Clerk shows the fine schedule and the
violators pays the fine at the Treasurer’s Office, receipt of which is shown to Clerk of Court who records the same
on the TOP, and his license, if cleared for release, is now returned to the driver.
(2) If the violator appears after 15 days, his license is forwarded to the LTO for suspension or revocation; he shows
his TOP copy to the LTO for proper disposition of his license. Clerks of Courts, in every case, should
inform the LTO and/or the apprehending officer of the final disposition of the case.
(3) The violator appears in court and desires not to plead guilty to the charge, the Clerk of Court sets the date of
hearing and notifies the accused accordingly and sends a corresponding subpoena to the apprehending
officer for his appearance.
(4) When the accused is found not guilty after trial, his license, if in the possession of the Court or of the LTO, shall
immediately be returned to him unless there is any other legal ground for its suspension or revocation.
3. Traffic Warning. This is an enforcement action which does not contemplate possible assessment of
penalty by the court or otherwise as a result of warning alone.

There are three types of traffic warning:

(1) Visual Warning – this is usually used when you have observed a minor violation but are more importantly
occupied at a moment.
(2) Verbal Warning – this is a form of safety education. Tell the driver/violator that he violated a law and
explain the hazards of such violations.
(3) Written Warning – this is a combination of verbal warning and citations.

I. Decision Enforcement. In determining what enforcement action to be taken, whether you arrest, cite or warn
the apprehended violator, consider the following:

1. Degree of violation;
2. Accuracy of observation;
3. Traffic and weather condition;
4. Evidence gathered;
5. Whether a new law or not; and
6. Continuous or momentary actions, a factor in some type of violations.
J. Pursuit in Traffic Enforcement. Pursuit is a part of routine enforcement activity performed by police and is
used when a violating driver is detected.

1.When to pursue?
When a violator fails to stop on signal, your normal reaction is to pursue the violator until you apprehend
him.
When deciding to pursue, the following should be taken note:
a)Pursuit must be tampered with common sense and foresight of like hazards.
b)better judgment is used in deciding to lose a traffic violator who can be apprehended at another time
than giving great risk to yourself, your vehicle and other drivers.
c)Pursuit requiring high speed operation of police vehicle may be justified in certain circumstances such as
in the apprehension of a driver endangering the lives of motorists, pedestrians, and others through
operation which can be classified as other than reasonable and proper which is dangerous and
negligent
d)Types of serious violation is an important factor in deciding to pursue:
(1)Non-hazardous violations.
(2)Hazardous violations:
(a) Driving while under the influence of liquor;
(b) Reckless driving; and
(c) Driving on excessive speed.
e) Consider the following when pursuing hazardous violators:
(1) A violator of this nature is likely to have little concern for other drivers at their safety.
(2) Successful flight from identification and apprehension is usually his only concern.
(3) Be prepared for acts of this type of violator which could give him an advantage while interfering with
your pursuit and successful apprehension.

f) Consider your driving skill and experience.

(1) Manipulative skills
(2) Recognizing road and traffic conditions that may hinder your pursuit.
(3) Defensive driving

g)Resisting distraction. You should know what evasive actions will permit you to avoid or escape unfavorable
traffic conditions.

2.Pursuit Techniques. The officer should know the ff:

a)His limitations and strength in driving a patrol vehicle under normal conditions.
b)Good driving combined with effective techniques will help to minimize the dangers involved in pursuit in high
speed.
c)Normal driving skill is not automatically improved by wearing a police uniform, nor by having a police car to
operate.
3. Identification of Pursued Vehicle.
a. When alone, use a clipboard with attached paper and pencil. Anchor the clipboard by sitting on part
of it so that notes can be written without looking down.

b. Post a list of wanted persons or vehicles on a "hot sheet" within easy viewing range while in driving position

c. Identify the violator's vehicle for later identification, particularly when pursuit is lengthy, interrupted or
abandoned, or in case you are injured by the violators.

d. The registration plate is very important and accurate method of establishing identity of a vehicle is also
important. Train yourself to observe complete license plate number at a glance.

e. Record the registration number as soon as possible, and check it against your "hot sheet.”

4. Itemized Identification Features of the Vehicle.

a. COLOR – black, red maroon
b. YEAR OF MANUFACTURE – learn to identify the year model of a vehicle, i.e., “2020”.
c. MAKE - Honda, Toyota, Mitsubishi, Isuzu, etc..
d. BODY TYPE - p-up, wagon, 4dr sedan, truck, etc..
e. LICENSE PLATE NUMBER
f. OUTSTANDING FEATURES AND ACCESSORIES – wide racing stripe, crumbled fender, damaged
door, etc.
UNUSUAL FEATURES OF THE DRIVER OR PASSENGERS – clothing, air glasses, etc.
5. Keep Headquarters Advised. Through the dispatcher about the progress of the pursuit operation.
a) It is your duty to apprehend violators as soon as possible. Radio contact with HQs aids in
accomplishing this objective by alerting other patrol units in the area.
b) While in pursuit, use your radio whenever necessary and advisable. If forced to abandon pursuit and
there is no radio available, use any nearest telephone.

6. Stopping and approaching a violator. It is completed when you have stopped the violator’s vehicle and move
to the place where you will begin to talk to the driver. The following should be observed:
a) In stopping a violator, it must be done in safety to you, the driver you stopped, to other road users.
b) Approach the violator preferably on the left side from the rear and be alert for the unexpected.

K. Officer-Violator Relationship. The first reminder for an officer in traffic enforcement is to establish PLEASANT
RELATIONSHIP with offending motorists or pedestrians thru:

1.The appearance of your uniform, equipment and person which will create the violator’s impression of you. A neat,
clean uniform properly worn and well-groomed person will create a good impression.

2.While talking with the violator, observe the following:

a. Get your emotions under control.
b. Advise the nature of the alleged violation in a manner that he can fully understand.
c. Allow the violator to talk and explain his side.
d. Be courteous and business-like.
e. Request compliance. Use requesting words such as “May I,” "Please" and "Kindly".
f. Avoid telling the driver what not to do.
3. Never open your conversation in a sarcastic or derogatory way. Avoid such opening as:
a. Don't you know--?;
b. Who do you think are--?;
c. Where do you think you are going---?;
d. What's your hurry ?

4. Being alert at all times for the unexpected, approach the violator with these cases:
a. Take time to get ready to talk the violator.
b. Know what you are going to do and say.
c. Have any equipment you will need such as flashlights, clipboard, or citation pad.
d. Review the facts which led you to your stopping the violator before you begin to talk.
e. Decide what enforcement action you are going to take before you approach the violator.

5.In requesting for the DL or vehicle registration certificate (CR), observe the following:
a.Do not put your head or arms in the car windows.
b.While waiting for the license, ask the driver, "What is your name, Sir?".
c.Never accept anything other than the papers requested.
d.Ask the papers being requested be removed from the billfold or other container.
e.Have the driver hand the requested papers to you outside the window.
f.Establish the identity of the driver and check the entries of both the license and the registration papers
for any possible fraud, or false identities or falsifications.
g.Do not return the driver's license and CR until you are about to terminate the interview.
6. Terminating the contact:
a. Explain to the driver what action he must take. Tell him when and where he must appear.
b. Don't discuss probable bail or probable penalties with the violator.
c. Avoid any naughty suggestion.
d. When you are certain the driver understands what he should do, close the interview by:
(1) Thanking the driver for his cooperation; (1) Explaining how he may avoid further difficulty.
e. Help the driver get safely through the traffic.
f. When the violator leaves, don't follow him immediately.

L. Road Check. This is another enforcement activity where it involves the conducting of actual inspection of
vehicles, and motorists on the road.

1. Objectives of road check.

a) faulty vehicle equipment
b) registration and licensing violations
c) intoxicated drivers
d) the load or cargo of commercial transportation vehicle for load weight

2. Considerations to be taken when conducting road check:

a) minimum delay to motorist
b) thorough checking procedure
c) protection/safety of both motorist and officers
d) timing, location and frequency
LESSON 5.2: TRAFFIC DIRECTION AND CONTROL

Intersection Defined. As applied to a street or highway means the space occupied by two
streets at the point where they cross each other.

Police Traffic Direction. It is defined as telling drivers and pedestrians when, how and where
they may or may not move or stand at a particular place, especially during emergencies or period of
congestion.

A. Who are tasked to direct and guide traffic? In the Philippines, traffic officers are usually deputized
by the Land Transportation Office who normally comes from:
1. the PNP-TMG,
2. police auxiliaries,
3. MMDA Traffic Management Section, and
4. in some places, volunteers coming from barangay security forces and other civic
organizations.
B.Directing and Guiding Traffic.

1.You are expected to indicate to the road users how, when, and where they may move.

2.To do this, use a type of sign language which shall be clearly understandable to all persons you will
be directing.

3.Traffic Direction Officers must use uniform gestures and signals.

4.When directing traffic, you first want drivers and pedestrians to recognize that you are the officer
who will tell them what to do.

5.Normally, this is in the center of the intersection. Stand as though you mean business. Stand
straight with your weigh equally distributed to each foot.

6.When you are not signaling, let your hands fall at your sides. When you authorize vehicles to
move, do not face them. Stand so that your side is toward the oncoming vehicle.
C. Suggested Methods of Directing and Guiding Traffic.

1. Use hand signals to designate decisions to motorists and pedestrians.

2. Supplement the arm/hand signals with a whistle:
a) one long blow to STOP.
b) two short snappy blasts for GO.
c) three blasts to be used for assistance.
1. If two or more officers are assigned in one intersection, only one makes the
decision, while the other take theirs from him.
2. To stop a moving lane, point at the car you intend to stop and give the driver the
opportunity to stop
3. The hand signal should be made with the arm extended and the palm facing the
person or vehicle to be stopped.

D. Night Control of Traffic.

1. When light is sufficient, work as in day time.

2. If light is not sufficient, use flashlight by:
a) To STOP, direct the flashlight in line of the vision and move back and forth.
b) To START, use the same motion as in daylight except with flashlight.
c) Supplement the actions with whistle.
E. Hand Signals.

The signals may be modified also by the traffic direction officer as it deemed necessary so that motorists
may clearly understand the decision of the traffic officer especially during night time. In addition to hand
signals and blowing of the whistles, flags with varying colors (usually red and green) are used to
supplement the signaling.

Fig. 1 fig. 2 fig. 3

Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8

Fig. 9 Fig. 10
1. This is the most common traffic hand signal. It aims to stop vehicles coming from front.

2. This traffic hand signal aims to stop vehicles approaching simultaneously from front and behind.

3. This traffic hand signal aims to allow vehicles coming from right and and turning right by stopping traffic
approaching from the left.

4. This traffic hand signal aims to beckon the vehicles approaching from right (vehicles from the right must go
forward).

5. This traffic hand signal aims to beckon the vehicles approaching from left (vehicles from left must go forward).

6. This traffic hand signal aims to stop vehicles approaching from left and waiting to turn right.

7. This traffic hand signal aims to stop vehicles approaching from behind.

8. This traffic hand signal aims to stop vehicles approaching from right to allow vehicles from the left to turn
right.

9. This traffic hand signal aims to close or stop all vehicles (all directions).

10. This traffic hand signal aims to beckon vehicles from front (vehicles from front must go forward).
LESSON 5.3: TRAFFIC PATROL

Traffic Patrol. This refers to the observation of road conditions, the behavior of the drivers and other
users of vehicles for the purpose of traffic supervision and law enforcement and providing authorized traffic-
connected services to the public.

A. Types of Traffic Patrol.

1) Line Patrol. This involves observation either in moving or stationary observation at a certain route or point of
a major street in a city. Usually, this is done by foot patrol officers.
2) Area Patrol. This involves observation either by moving patrol or observation in a certain area which included
a number of streets, roads or sections of a highway. Area patrolling is usually the job of mobile police officers as
well as those motorcycle cops.

B. Types of Stationary Observation.

1) Conspicuous Observation. Stationary observation in which observer remains in full view of traffic
conditions. Here, the traffic patrol officer is situated in any place where he could be seen by all traffic users.
2) Visible Observation. Stationary observation in which the observer is in full view but so located, for
example, at side street, so as to require effort on the part of traffic users to discover the observer.
Concealed Observation. Stationary observation in which the observer is not visible to persons using ordinary
power of observation form from the roadway being observed.
C. Deterrent to violations and dangerous driving.
1) Detecting and apprehending violators.
2) Observing and reporting traffic conditions.
3) Observing and reporting road conditions, including view obstruction which needs attention.
4) Providing certain services to the public.
5) Handling emergencies as they arise and keeping traffic flow smoothly.

D. Deterring Drivers from Violating. The effect of traffic law enforcement on the behavior of the motorist
drivers depends upon what they think the police will do or the reputation of the police for action.
1) Be sure you are seen by other motorists while taking enforcement actions.
2) Be in full view while simply patrolling or inspecting.
3) Leave the area and proceed to another area after you have taken enforcement action.
4) In order to achieve a deterrent in law enforcement, apply selective enforcement.
5) Enforcement action should be taken at once among habitual violators.

E. Deter Violator for Unsafe Driving. Be alert for potentially hazardous drivers. His action may not be
illegal, but may serve as road hazards that need to be cautioned.
F. Example of Actions and Conditions which may Need Close Watching:
1) Driving extremely at low speed.
2) Slow moving vehicles in left or "high speed" lanes.
3) Racing motor sliding stops, jumping starts, and the like.
4) Excessive maneuvering such as backing up four or five times to get into a parking space.
5) Pulling to curb lane at traffic signal.
6) Having turn signals on when not attempting to turn.
7) Waving in roadway.
8) Failing to slow for an intersection with obstructed view.
9) Passing or attempting to pass several cars in a bunch.
10) Suddenly turning off at approach of police vehicle.
11) Teen-age groups at night particularly when in two or more vehicles.
12) Damage or dressed up vehicles.
13) Faulty or obscured license plates.
14) Unlighted parked cars with motor running.

G. Detecting and Apprehending Violators. It is the main job or duties of traffic patrol officers.

H. Observing Traffic Conditions. As traffic patrol officer, you are the eyes and ears of the department when on
traffic patrol.

I. Road Intelligence. Unusual points of serious congestion must be noted. You may observe an unusual amount
of delay at a certain intersection each morning and when you learn the cause, be sure to report the situation at
once to your superior officer.
J. Patrol Assignment. You may be assigned to either area or line patrol, or you may have instructions to use a
combination. For example, you may patrol a certain street noted for excessive accidents in a line at specific
times. The following are some guidelines when assigned in traffic patrol unit.
1) Be familiar with the street lay out in your area.
2) Familiarize yourself with the places where congestion is likely.
3) Apply selective enforcement if area is too large to cover.
4) You may be permitted to leave your assignment when pursing violators.
5) Sometimes you will be required to depart momentarily from an intersecting street rather than always
approaching it from the street which you are patrolling.

K. Patrol Tactics and Techniques. When multiple patrol units are used, special tactics are possible. Examples of
these are following:
1) When one unit overtakes a group of vehicles, the other unit brings up the rear of the group. If one or more
drivers in the group think that they can no longer be observed since they have been passed by the first patrol unit,
they feel free to violate. The following patrol unit observes and apprehends the violators.
2) When an entire column of vehicles must be stopped, one unit stays at the rear while the other overtakes the
leader, thus neatly battling the entire group. If two vehicles are racing, or if two violators separate, the paired
patrol units can separate for individual pursuit.
Another advantage of working together is that officers can protect each other. Except for special purposes or
occasions, patrol unit works independently so that more areas can be covered.
L. Steps to Take in Cases of Special and Unusual Situations.

1) What to do in case of abandoned motor vehicle? Abandoned vehicles may be classified into two categories:

a. unattended due to mechanical defects:

(1) verify and check on the ownership of the vehicle, and
(2) if possible, advise the owner to relocate the vehicle to a much safer place.
a. abandoned by carnappers or hold-up men:
(1) get the plate number and other data of the vehicle;
(2) make a report TRAFCOM or traffic police unit;
(3) make possible steps to inform the owner about his vehicle;
(4) bring the vehicle to the TRAFCOM or traffic police impounding area and conduct a Technical Inspection Report in
the presence of the alleged owner;
(5) advise the owner to present all pertinent papers of the vehicle;
(6) if there is violation of RA 6539, note its violation and together with the Technical Inspection Report, submit it for
investigation; and
(7) finally, submit a duly accomplished spot report.

2) What to do on stalled or bogged down motor vehicles.?

Check the defect or condition of the vehicle;
a) Ensure the safety of vehicles and persons involved;
b) If practicable, push the vehicle to the road shoulder, or avail wreckers;
c) Advise owner to avail the services of repairman, and
d) Provide early warning devices (EWD) or any lantern.
3) How to handle traffic jam.
a) Determine the cause of the traffic jam;
b) If caused by vehicular accident, conduct fast, immediate but complete investigation and remove
vehicles involved at the scene of accident;
c) If caused by mechanical trouble, assist motorist to push or move the vehicle;
d) Establish yourself and conduct systematic traffic direction; and
e) Observe if the flow of traffic became smooth, if not, refer back to letter "a" above.

4) In case of vehicle cannibalization.

a) Determine the vehicle parts that were stolen;
b) Take down the name of owner, description of the vehicle, and location of the incident;
c) Look for clues that may establish identity of the perpetrators or their modus operandi;
d) Interview witnesses and owner to get a general picture of the situation prior to the incident;
e) Prepare a spot report and submit it to the nearest TRAFCOM Unit; and
f) If further investigation is necessary, the vehicle may be impounded for safekeeping.
LESSON 5.4: TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

Traffic Accident Investigation. Generally, to know what question to ask and what to look for, you must
have some fundamental bearing on accidents and their causes. When you speak of traffic accident, everybody
knows what you mean - SOMETHING WENT WRONG on the highway, either a wrecked car, somebody injured
or possibly killed.

A. What Traffic Accident Investigation Determines.

1. WHAT happened?
2. WHO and WHAT was involved?
3. WHERE did it happen?
4. WHY did it happen?
5. HOW did the accident occur?
6. WHEN did the accident happen?

B. Purposes of Traffic Accident Investigation.

1. Everyone involved is curious about the causes and circumstances of the accident.
2. Police are also interested in finding out whether there is enough evidence of law violation in the accident to
take enforcement action.
3. Claims attorneys and adjusters want to determine negligence on the part of the drivers involved in the
accident so that damage claims can be properly adjusted.
4. Officials and other want specific information about accidents to know how to prevent future accidents.
C. Common Words and Phrases Used in Traffic Accident Investigation.

1. ACCIDENT. It is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces unintended injury, death, or
property damage.
2. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT. An accident involving travel transportation on a traffic way.
3. MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENT. Refers to any event that results in unintended injury or property damage
attributable directly or indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or its loads. Includes:
a) Accidental injury from inhalation of exhaust gas;
b) Fires;
c) Explosion;
d) Discharge of firearm within the motor vehicle while in motion;
e) Collision between a MV and a railroad train or street car on stationary rails or tracks; and
f) Failure of any part of the motor vehicle while the vehicle is in motion.

Excluded are:
g) Collision of a motor vehicle with an aircraft or water-craft in motion;
h) Injury or damage due to cataclysms (flood or sudden physical change on earth surface); and
i) Injury or damage while the motor vehicle is not under its power, is being loaded on or unloaded from
another conveyance.
4. Motor Vehicle. Every device which is self-propelled and every vehicle which is propelled by electric power
obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not operated upon rails.

5. KEY EVENT. An event on the road which characterizes the manner of occurrence of a motor vehicle traffic
accident.

6. DEBRIS. Refers to the accumulation of broken parts of vehicles rubbish, dust and other materials left at the
scene of the accident by a collision.

7. SKID MARKS. These are marks left on the roadway by tires which are not free to rotate, usually because
brakes are applied strong and the wheels locked.

8. TRAFFIC UNIT. Any person using a traffic way for travel, parking or other purposes as a pedestrian or driver,
including any vehicle, or animal which he is using. It applies also to:
a) Pedestrians;
b) Cyclists;
c) Street cars;
d) Horse-drawn (animal-drawn) vehicles;
e) Farm tractors; and
f)Other road users in almost any combination.
Example: A traffic accident could involve a cyclist and a pedestrian.
9. HAZARDS. This is generated when a critical space-motion relationships between a traffic unit and another
object develops due to the movement of either or both.
Example: A curve in the path is a hazard. Another traffic unit in the path is also a hazard.

10. SAFE SPEED. The speed adjusted to the potential or possible hazards or the road and traffic situation
ahead. It is determined by the road rather than the particular driver of a vehicle.
Example: A curve ahead is a hazard and a safe speed for it is a speed at which it can be taken comfortably.

11. STRATEGY. It is the adjusting of speed, position on the road, and direction of motion, giving signals of
intent to turn or slow down, or any other action in situations involving potential hazards.

12. TACTIC. It refers to any action taken by the traffic unit to avoid hazardous situations like steering, braking,
or accelerating to avoid collision or other accident.

13. IMPACT. It is the striking of one body against another or a collision of a motor vehicle with another motor
vehicle.

14. CONTACT DAMAGE. Damage to a vehicle resulting from direct pressure of some foreign object in a
collision or roll over. It is usually indicated by situations, rub-off of material or puncture.

15. FACTOR. Any circumstance contributing to a result without which the result could not have occurred or it
is an element necessary to produce the result, but not by itself sufficient.
16. PRIMARY CAUSE. A misnomer loosely applied to the most obvious or easily explained factor in the cause
of an accident or the most easily modified condition factor.

17. CAUSE. The combination of simultaneous and sequential factors without any one of which result could not
have occurred.

18. ATTRIBUTE. Any inherent characteristics of a road, a vehicle, or a person that affects the probability of a
traffic accident.

19. MODIFIER. A circumstance that alters an attribute permanently or temporarily.

D. Kinds of Traffic Accidents.

1. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident. Any accident occurring on a traffic way involving persons using the
traffic way or travel or transportation, but not involving a motor vehicle in motion. Ex. Pedestrian and cyclist in a
traffic way.

2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident. Any motor vehicle accident which occurs entirely in any place other
than a traffic way. Ex. Accident on a private driveway.

3. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident. Any motor vehicle accident occurring on a traffic way. Ex. Collision between
cars on highway.
E. Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident According to Key Event.

1. Running off road. This is usually characterized by a motor vehicle falling on the roadside or on a cliff along
mountainous roads.
2. Non-collision on road. This does not involve any collision. Ex. Overturning.
3. Collision on road.
Examples of this are motor vehicles colliding with:
a) Pedestrian;
b) Other motor vehicle;
c) Parked motor vehicle;
d) Railroad train;
e) Bicycle;
f) Fixed object; and
g) Other objects

F. Classification of Accidents According to Severity.

a) Property Damage Accident
b) Slight.
c) Non-Fatal Injury Accident.
d) Less Serious.
e) Serious.
f) Fatal.
G. Causes of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents.
1. Simultaneous Factors:
a) Road conditions;
b) Drivers attitude or behavior.
c) Weather condition

2. Sequential Factors:
a) Speed is greater or less than safe; and
b) Defective vehicle.

3. Operational Factors:
a) Road hazards; and
b) Driver's non-compliance to traffic laws, rules and regulations.

4. Perception Factors:
a) Driver's inability to react promptly to a situation; and
b) Driver's faulty action to escape collision course.

When all possible causes of an accident have been grouped together by an investigating officer and he believes
the accident would not have occurred if any one of these causes did not exist, then the investigator may have identified the
combination of factors causing the accident.

On-the-scene reconstruction of a traffic accident relates accident causation to direct causes for summary police
action and to direct, mediate and early causes for ongoing studies of high-frequency accident locations and future
research and analysis.
H. Chain of Events in a Vehicular Accident. It refers to a series of an expected events leading to damage or
injury. One event usually leads to another so that the series can be spoken of as a "chain of events.”

1. Perception of Hazard. It is seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the usual or unexpected movement or
condition that could be taken as sign of the accident about to happen
2. Start of evasive action. It is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from a collision course or otherwise
avoid a hazard.
3. Initial Contact. It is a first accidental touching of an object collision course or otherwise avoid a hazard.
4. Maximum Engagement. It is greatest collapse or overlap in a collision. The force between the traffic unit and
the object collided with are greatest at maximum engagement.
5. Disengagement. It is the separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object with which it has collided. The
force between the object ceases at this time.
6. Stopping. This is when the traffic unit/s involved come to rest. It usually stabilizes the accident situation.
7. Injury. It is receiving bodily harm. This event does not necessary occur after the accident but within any of the
chain of events.
8. Other events that may occur during an accident.
a) Point of Possible Perception. The place and time of which the hazard could have been perceived by
a normal person. It precedes actual perception and is the beginning of perception delay.
b) Point of no Escape. It is that place and time after or beyond which the accident cannot be prevented
by the traffic unit under consideration.
c) Perception Delay. The time from the point of possible perception to actual perception.
d) Final Position. It is the place and time when objects involved in an accident finally come to rest
without application of power.
I. Who conducts the traffic accident investigation? The police officers assigned in the field or highways
upon learning of an accident usually responds and conduct initial inquiries. However, police stations
normally have designated traffic accident investigators. In major traffic accidents involving numerous
victims, the local traffic investigator shall immediately inform the nearest PNP-HPG which shall then take
lead in the investigation under Special Investigation Task Group (SITG) which shall be activated to manage
the case (PNP Field Manual on Investigation of Crimes of Violence and Other Crimes, 2011). When the
proper crime scene processing is necessary, the traffic investigators may also ask assistance of the Scene
of the Crime Operation Team.

J. Five (5) Levels of Activity in Accident Investigation.

1. Reporting. This involves basic data collection to identify and classify a motor vehicle, traffic and
persons, property and planned movements involved.
2. At-Scene Investigation. This level involves all action taken by the investigator at the scene of the crime
or accident.
3. Technical Preparation. This involves delayed traffic accident data collection and organization for study
and interpretation.
4. Professional Reconstruction. This involves efforts to determine from whatever information is available,
how the accident happened.
5. Cause Analysis. This last level usually involves final analysis on the causes of accident which are bases
for the prevention of similar accident.
K. Steps Taken by the Police During Traffic Accident Investigation.

1. Step One. Upon Learning of the Accident.

a) Ask first: (1) When did the accident happen?; (2) Exactly where was it?; (3) How bad was it?; (4) Did you see
the accident happened? (5) Where can you be reached?

b) Decide whether to go to the scene: (1) Will scene have been cleared by the time of arrival?; (2) Is it in
investigator's area?; (3) Should headquarters be informed or consulted?

c) Then find out, if necessary: (1) Is traffic blocked?; (2) Has ambulance been called?; (3) Has wrencher been
called?; (4) Was fire apparatus called?

2. Step Two. Start for the Scene. With two way radio, you can do two things while on the way.
a) Choose Best Approach, Consider: (1) Time; (2) Possible traffic jams; (3) Possible route of driver involved
and (4) Probable situation at scene.
b) Drive Safely. If you get involved in accident yourself, then other units must be used.
c) Be Alert for Cars Leaving the Scene: (1) As possible witnesses or hit and run drivers; & (2) Records
registration numbers of any likely looking vehicles.
d) Get Equipment Ready for Use. So far as practical while on the way.
e) Look for Conditions confronting a Driver Approaching Scene: (1) Low visibility view obstructions; & (2)
Traffic control devices.
f) Note Hazards to approaching Traffic: (1) Drop helper to direct traffic if necessary; & (2) Look for physical
evidence. Have it guarded until it can be examined, collected or located.
1. Step Three. Upon Arrival at the Accident Scene.
a) Select parking place carefully:
(1) Is it safe?; (2) Will it block traffic?; (3) Can headlight illuminate scene?
b) Care for injured:
1) Stop arterial bleeding;
2) Call for help if necessary;
3) Help injured from cars safely;
4) Protect injured from exposure;
5) Ask for emergency assistance from bystanders from anywhere.
c) Look over bystanders and others:
1) Look for drivers;
2) Look for possible witnesses;
3) Look for volunteers who will help you;
4) Get them under control.
d) Have Emergencies Under Control:
1) Have spilled gasoline guarded;
2) Look for fire and electrical hazards;
3) Look for traffic hazards;
4) Put out flares;
5) Ask helper to direct traffic;
6) Keep bystanders off roadway;
7) Request help from headquarters if needed.
e) Locate drivers:
1) Consider possibility of hit and run accident;
2) alert headquarters.
f) Measure location of short lived evidences.
g) Arrange for clearing roadway.
h) Delay removal of vehicles except to aid injured.

1. Step Four. When Emergency is Under Control.

a) Preliminary questioning of drivers:
1) Who was driving each vehicle?;
2) Note unpremeditated statement;
3) Look for signs of nervousness, confusion and intoxication.
b) Gather clues for identifying hit and run cars:
1) Question other witnesses especially bystanders in hurry to go;
2) It needed, get signed statement at once from why who may be hard to find later.
c) Examine drivers conditions:
1) Get specimen for chemical test; and
2)Question about trip plan for possible fatigue.
d) Question drivers carefully:
1) Check license and record data from it;
2) Verify and identify address;
3) Check registration and record data;
4) Verify ownership and correct address;
5) Get step by step account of what driver saw and did.
e) Position and condition of vehicles:
1) Lights and light switches;
2) Gear position and tires;
3) Mark position of MVs if it must be removed;
4) Unusual thing inside the vehicles.
f) Form preliminary opinion as to how accident occur.
g) Photography:
1) Photograph skid mark and location of vehicles and
2) Mark skid mark location for later measurement.
h)Record place to which injured persons or damage vehicles were or will be taken.
5. Step Five. After Getting Short-live Evidence.
a) Get additional evidence:
1) Make test skids;
2) Decide whether proof of violation is sufficient for arrest;
3) If so, make arrest or issue citation;
4) Get additional formal statements, from witnesses remaining at the scene and
5) Have road clear if traffic is obstructed.
b) Suggestion to drivers, if necessary:
1) How much accidents can be avoided in the future; and
2) Tell drivers what reports they must make and dismiss them.
c) Approach the scene by path of each traffic unit involved. Look for:
1) View obstructions;
2) Traffic control devices, etc.;
3) Probable points of perception and
4) Road surface conditions.
d) Complete examinations of vehicles.
e) Locate key event of accident.
f) Make additional photographs of:
1) Vehicle damage;
2) View obstruction;
3) Pavement's conditions; and
4)Control devices, and general view, etc.
g) Establish exact location of accident and record it.
h) Measure for scale diagram if location is hard to reach.
i) Review notes of evidence or testimony:
1) Get additional facts at scene and
2) Identify all notes with places and time.
j) Clean up location or arrange to have it done.
k) Report to headquarters by radio or telephone.

6. Step Six. After Leaving the Scene:

a) Get medical report on injured persons from doctor or hospital.
b) Question drivers or witnesses: At hospital or home if not adequately questioned; and Take
needed additional statements.
c) Notify: Relatives of dead or injured; and Owner of vehicles.
d) Have specimens analyzed if were taken for chemical or laboratory test.
e) Have photograph developed, get prints if needed for report.
f) Complete the report of the accident: Have copies made if necessary; File report and copies; and
Complete factual data on investigation report if not completed at scene.
g)Decide whether analysis of accident is warranted by the time available for making it.
h)Reconstruction of the accident:
1)Estimate speeds of vehicles involved;
2)Draw scale diagram;
3)Analyze angle of collision;
4)Get technical help if necessary, and
5)Summarize opinions.
i) Present case summary to a lawyer.
j) Complete report or investigation.
k) Submit to superior for approval.
l) Inform other Agencies or departments of any condition at the scene which needs attention for safety.

7. Step Seven. If Case Goes to Court:

a) Find out what the prosecutor wants further to develop evidence.
b) Return to the scene if necessary for the following:
1) Additional photographs of general scene and long-lived evidence;
2) Measure for scale diagram for use in court; and
3)Locate additional witnesses and review their testimony.
c)Locate also, if necessary:
1)Relatives and friends who can confirm activities before the accident;
2)Technicians who developed pictures, made chemical tests, etc.; and
3)And expert who can help.

d) Have enlargement made of any photo needed in court.

e) Enlarge scale diagram made for court use.
f) Pre-trial conference with prosecution.
g)Insure that subpoenas are issued.
h)Testify in court.
i)Organize papers and file permanently.
Insure that the disposition of case is recorded in drivers’ record and other reports.
K. The Traffic Accident Investigation Report (TAIR).
1) Uniform traffic Accident Reporting System.
2) Preparation of Traffic Accident Report:
a) By a competent bonafide traffic accident investigator.
b) Requirements for an investigator in the submission of report such as evidence
gathered, diagrams, sketches as well as sworn statements of witnesses.
c) TAIR will be accomplished in five (5) copies for the:
1) Court or Prosecutor's Office;
2) TRAFCOM or Traffic Division;
3) Investigator;
4) Insurance company of Party-involved #1; and
5) Insurance Co. of Party-involved #2.
L. Sample of Traffic Accident Investigation Report Form.

PC/INP Form ________________________________________ FILE

NR_____________________________
________________________________________

TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION REPORT

I.
WHERE: ..........................................................................................................................................................................
................................................
(Near/Km Post Nr) (Near Intersection/landmark)

...........................................................................................................................................................................................
.................................
(Hwy/St/Rd) (Dist/Bo) (Mun/City)
(Prov)

II.
WHEN: .............................................................................................................................................................................
..............................................
(Day of Week) (Date) (Time)
III. WHAT:
 Vehicle 1 Vehicle 2
TYPE: ........................................................................................... …............................................................................................
Make and Model........................................................................... .................................................................................................
Plt Nr. Decal Nr............................................................................. …… ……………………………................................................
Classification & Place of Issue.................................................... ………………….......................................................................
Driven by...................................................................................... …………………………. ............................................................
Address........................................................................................ ................................................... .........................................
Occupation.................................................................................. ................................................... .........................................
Driver’s Lic. Nr............................................................................. .................................................................................................
Nationality./.................................................................................. ………………………................................................................
Age.............................................................................................. …………..................................................................................
Sex & Status................................................................................ .………………………................................................................
Driving experience....................................................................... ……….......................................................................................
Vehicle owner ............................................................................. ………… .................................................................................
Address...................................................................................... ………………………………………………………………………..
Reg. Cert. Nr. & File Nr ............................................................. ………………………………………………………………………
Estimate Damage....................................................................... ………………………………………………………………………..
VI. WHAT DRIVERS WERE DOING:
1 2 (Check appropriate boxes)
1. ð ð Going straight 10. ð ð Backing
2. ð ð Turning right 11. ð ð Evading vehicle
3. ð ð Turning left 12. ð ð Evading pedestrian
4. ð ð Making U-turn 13. ð ð Evading animal
5 ð ð Slowing 14. ð ð Evading object
6. ð ð Abrupt stopping 15. ð ð Overtaking
7. ð ð Stopped 16. ð ð Parked
8 ð ð Entering parked position 17. ð ð Others (specify).................................
9. ð ð Leaving parked position

VII. WHAT PEDESTRIAN OR ANIMAL WAS DOING

1. ð Crossing between intersection 11. ð Along roadway outside sidewalk
2. ð Crossing at intersection 12. ð Along roadway without sidewalk
3. ð Crossing upon signal 13. ð Standing in safety zone/island
4. ð Crossing against signal 14. ð Getting on vehicle
5. ð No signal 15. ð Getting off vehicle
6. ð Crossing at pedestrian lane 16. ð Evading other vehicle
7. ð Crossing without pedestrian lane 17. ð Pushing cart/wagon
8. ð Coming from behind moving vehicle 18. ð Pulling cart/wagon
9. ð Coming from parked vehicle 19. ð Vending on road
10. ð Along roadway on sidewalk 20. ð Others (specify).....................................................
VIII. CONDITION OF MOTOR VEHICLE
1 2
1. ð ð No defects noted 9. ð ð Tail lights out
2. ð ð Brakes defective 10. ð ð Brake lights defective
3. ð ð Headlights glaring 11. ð ð Signal lights defective
4. ð ð Both headlights insufficient 12. ð ð Steering mechanism defective
5 ð ð Both headlights out 13. ð ð Windshield wipers defective
6. ð ð One headlight insufficient 14. ð ð Defective tires
7. ð ð One headlight out 15. ð ð Others (specify).................................
8 ð ð Tail light/s insufficient

IX. VIOLATIONS INDICATED:

1 2
1. ð ð Disregarding traffic signs and signals 9. ð ð On wrong side of road
2. ð ð Weaving in-and-out of traffic 10. ð ð No right of way
3. ð ð Exceeding lawful speed 11. ð ð Dangerously loaded
4. ð ð Unsafe passing between intersection 12. ð ð Under the influenced of intoxicants
5 ð ð Unsafe passing in hill/curve 13. ð ð No valid driver’s license
6. ð ð Operating defective vehicle 14. ð ð No driver’s license
7. ð ð Failure to signal 15. ð ð Others (specify)..................................
8 ð ð Hit-and-run

X. CONDITION OF DRIVER OR PEDESTRIAN:

1 2
1. ð ð Absolutely normal 5. ð ð Had been drinking liquor
2. ð ð Physical defects (eyesight..........) 6. ð ð Was absolutely drunk
3. ð ð Sick or ill 7. ð ð Others (specify)..................................
4. ð ð Apparently sleepy
XI. VISION OBSCURED BY:
1 2
1. ð ð Tress, plants, crops, etc. 6. ð ð Moving vehicle
2. ð ð Building, house, fence, etc. 7. ð ð Its own cargo
3. ð ð Hillcrest, embankment 8. ð ð Rain
4. ð ð Signboards 9. ð ð Falling objects
5. ð ð Parked vehicle 10. ð ð Others (specify)..................................

XII. ROAD CHARACTER, SURFACE: XIV. WEATHER CONDITION, DAYLIGHT CONDITION:

1. ð Straight road 1. ð Concrete 1. ð Fair 1. ð Sunny
2. ð Curve 2. ð Asphalt 2. ð Cloudy 2. ð Dim (cloudy)
3. ð Level road 3. ð Gravel 3. ð Foggy 3. ð Dark-moonlight
4. ð Dip 4. ð Sand 4. ð Stormy 4. ð Dark-artificial light good
5. ð Hillcrest 5. ð Earth 5. ð Rainy 5. ð Dark-artificial light poor
6. ð Upgrade 6. ð Coral 6. ð Smoky 6. ð Darkness
7. ð Downgrade 7. ð Windy

XIII. ROAD CONDITION, WIDTH, LANES: XIV. POINT OF IMPACT:

1. ð No defects noted 1. ð Dry 1 2
2. ð Lanes marked 2. ð Wet 1. ð ð Front end 7. ð ð Front left side
3. ð Defective shoulder 3. ð Muddy 2. ð ð Right front 8. ð ð Center left side
4. ð Loose material on surface 4. ð Dusty 3. ð ð Left front 9. ð ð Rear left side
5. ð Holes, deep ruts 5. ð Under construction 4. ð ð Front right side 10. ð ð Rear end
6. ð Opposing lanes separated 6. ð Others (specify) 5. ð ð Center right side 11. ð ð Right rear
6. ð ð Rear right side 12. ð ð Left rear
XVII. BRIEF NARRATION:

Sample:
That on or around 1520H June 2020 a Red Hyundai Elantra with plate number TMG225 coming from the direction of Cauayan City and driven
by one “Juan Dela Cruz y Pedro” collided with a black Nissan Terra with plate number ABC 322 coming from the direction of Rizal Avenue and driven by
one “Juanito Miguel y, San Pedro causing damage to both motor vehicles and head injuries on Juanito Miguel.

(Other facts may be included in this portion)

XVIII. CASUALTY LIST:
legend: K-killed; SI-Serious Injury; SPI-Slight Phy Inj.; D-Driver; Pd-Pedestrian; Ps-Passenger

NAME SYMBOL ADDRESS AGE SEX

HOSPITAL TAKEN
1. ................................................................. ..................................... 2. .................................................................
.....................................
3. .................................................................
XIX. WITNESSES: NAME ADDRESS
1. .......................................................................................................................................................................................................
2. .......................................................................................................................................................................................................
XX. ACTION TAKEN: ..............................................................................................................................................................................
XXI. RECOMMENDATION: ......................................................................................................................................................................
XXII. STATUS OF CASE: ..........................................................................................................................................................................
XXIII. REPORTED BY: ...............................................................................................................................................................................
XXIV. INSURANCE COVERAGE DATA: Veh 1 Veh 2
Insurance Company and Policy Nr. and Sticker Nr. ........................................................... .........................................................
................................................................................ ............................................................ .........................................................
Certificate of cover Nr. ........................................... .................................................... .........................................................
Date Issued/Period Covered ................................... .................................................... .........................................................
XXV. ENCLOSURES ....................................................... ................................................... .........................................................
XXVI. INVESTIGATED OR PREPARED BY: .................. ............................................................ .........................................................
(Office) (Print name and sign)
LESSON 5.5: HIT-AND-RUN INVESTIGATION

The objectives of the investigation of a motor vehicle accident involving the flight of one of the participants
in two fold: responsibility must be determined and the identity of the driver of the vehicle who fled the scene
must be established.

A. Hit-and-run Cases Defined. Evading responsibility is a term commonly applied to a traffic accident in which a
driver fails to comply with any of the duties required by Sec. 55 of RA 4136.

Drivers can only leave the are of accident if the driver:

1) is imminent danger of being seriously harmed by any person or persons by reason of the accident;
2) reports the accident to the nearest officers of the law; or
3) driver has to summon a physician or nurse to aid the victim.

B. Reasons of Apprehending and Prosecuting Hit-and-Run Drivers.

1) Injury might have been lessened or death prevented if the driver had promptly sought help;
2) Compensation of injuries, death or property damage for the victim/s;
3) Deter other would be hit-and-run offenders; and
4) Secures increased public support.

C. Two Important Considerations.

1) The driver who flees is not necessarily the driver responsible for the accident. His reasons maybe are: he may be
wanted for another crime, or intoxicated, or without a valid license, etc.
2) The suspect may report that his motor vehicle was sideswipe or hit by an unknown vehicle or to report that his
vehicle was stolen.
D. Elements of Hit-and-Run.
1) Suspect driving the vehicle at the time of the accident.
2) Suspect was involved in an accident resulting in death, personal injury or damage to property.
3) Suspect failed to perform his responsibilities stated in Sec. 55 of R.A. 4136.
4) Suspect had knowledge of the accident. Note the following:
a) Physical evidence may prove the vehicle figured in the accident.
b) Extent of damage to vehicle. Extensive damage to vehicle would preclude allegation of
lack of knowledge and If suspect refrained from using his MV for several days since the
accident.
c) Guard against claims that the vehicle was stolen to evade responsibility.

E. The Hit-and-Run Operator.

1) Categories based upon possible psychological explanations for their motivation of flight:
a) Apprehensive-panic-drive, fearful driver:
1. intoxicated drivers;
2. without license;
3. no insurance;
4. his companion in the car is not his/her mate;
5. stolen car;
6. stolen goods in car;
7. leaving scene of another crime;
8. fleeing crime scene or wanted for crime
b) Projectionist-projects guilt. One who blames the other driver.
c) The sneak operator. This type involves minor property-damage-only accidents and usually thinks that
2) Classes of Hit-and-Run Drivers:
a) Drunk drivers.
b) Criminals fleeing from the scene of the crime.
c) Improperly licensed drivers, or drivers with no license or with revoked or expired license.
d) Drivers who fear publicity and prosecution.
e) Ignorance of the accident.
f) Driver who flees in panic.
g) Drug addicts.
h) Insurance or financial reasons.
i) Juveniles.

F. Preliminary Steps in Hit-and-Run Investigation.

1) Refer to checklist on Accident Investigation.
2) Obtain the best possible descriptions of the car and driver.
a) from partial descriptions given by witnesses.
b) Get the license plate and any unusual features of the vehicle.
c) Concentrate on the car's description first.
d) Dispatch initial description and all subsequent information to the HQs and to police agencies.
e) Try to determine the damage to the fleeing car.
3) Appeal for information through local newspapers, radio, T.V., etc.
4) Carefully search the hit-and-run scene for physical evidence (debris).
a) Request laboratory study of evidence.
b)Watch out for the possible return of the hit-and-run driver to the scene of the accident.
5) The Victim
a) Check his clothing; other parts of his body for possible transferred evidence.
b) If the victim is killed, get samples of uncontaminated blood, hair and skin from him.
c) Collect and preserve for laboratory examination, the clothes, shoes, and other items he was wearing at
the time of the accident.

G. Follow-up Investigation.
1) Interview persons living along the route taken by the hit-and-run driver; also operators of filling stations
and garages.
2) Canvass parking lots and other filling stations and garages.
3) Return to the accident scene at the same time on subsequent days and on the same day of the following
weeks to obtain additional witnesses such as delivery men operating on scheduled routes.
4) Follow-up phone calls to garages and dealers of auto parts.
5) Continue appealing for information through the press, radio and TV.

H. Search for Suspect Car.

1) Look for physical evidence, such as latent fingerprints, pieces of clothing, marks, damaged parts, hair,
blood, etc. which will identify the car as that involved in the hit-and-run accident.
2) Search the undercarriage of the suspect car. Determine also if there is indication of disturbance in the
grease or dirt adhering to it.
3) Make a careful investigation for replaced parts.
I. Interview of Suspect. When the suspect is apprehended:
1) Obtain a signed statement if you can.
2) Get a full account of suspect's whereabouts and write it down just in case he refutes in later.
3) Approach and apprehend the driver of the suspect car as soon as his identity and whereabouts are
ascertained.
4) Place the driver in a defensive position by properly directed questions upon approach
LESSON 5.6: SKIDMARKS: AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

Skidmarks. The sudden application of brakes which results in the locked wheel condition places such a great
pressure between the brake shoe and the brake drum that the frictional force at this point becomes greater than the
frictional force between the tire and the road surface. When this condition exists, the wheels skid.

A. Skidmarks as a Tool in Traffic Accident Investigation.

1) One of the main reasons for studying and measuring skidmarks at the scene of a traffic accident is to
get some idea how fast the car which left these marks was going prior to the accident.
2) Estimates of speed based on skidmarks sometimes lead to convictions in connection with an accident.
On the other hand, knowing how to estimate speed correctly may help to keep an innocent person from being
convicted.
3) For example, skidmarks 80 feet long were measured at an accident scene. A test skid made 20 miles
per hour showed 20 feet long skidmarks.
4) It was argued in court that with skidmarks 20 feet long from a speed of 20 miles per hour, the car must
be going 80 miles per hour to leave 80 feet skidmarks. The driver was unjustly convicted. His actual speed was
more nearly half of that, or 40 miles per hour.
B. Other Tire Marks.

1) Centrifugal skid mark. A marking on a roadway left by a rotating tire and wheel of a speeding vehicle on
a curve when the speed of the vehicle is above the critical speed of the curve and the centrifugal force
entirely or partially overcomes the friction between the mass of the vehicle and its tires and the surface of the
roadway.

2) Impending skid marks. Marks caused by the forward rotation of the wheels being slower than the
forward movement of the vehicle. The shadowy beginning of a skid mark along the approach path of the
vehicle is the impending skid mark (a.k.a. as tire shadow marks), while the darker markings are the skid
marks which begins in the impending skid mark and ends at the point of collision or position or final rest.

3) Yawn mark. A scuffmark made while a vehicle is yawning the mark made on the road by a rotating tire
which is slipping in a direction parallel to the axle of the wheel.

4) Skip mark. A braking skid mark interrupted at frequent regular intervals; the skid mark made by a
bouncing wheel on which brakes keep the wheel from turning. Compare with gap skid.

5) Gap skid. A braking skid mark which is interrupted by release and reapplication of brakes or which
terminates by release of brakes before collision.
C. Other Marks and Impression Left by a Motor Vehicle either on the Road Surface or on the Other
Motor Vehicle.

1) Ruts. A sunken track worn by a wheel, as in road; hence, a groove forming a path for anything.
2) Gouge. A groove made by a hard part of a motor vehicle to another car after side-sweeping each
other or it may be left on a road surface by a motor vehicle which over turned then slid on the road
surface.
3) Paint Strips. When a vehicle collided with other object, it sometimes transfers its paint to the other
object.

D. Skidmarks as Evidence in Accident Cases.

1) Aid in determining the speed of the car prior to the accident or collision.
2) It will show if the vehicle was traveling in the wrong distance or on the wrong side of the road.
3) It will indicate if the driver failed to observe the right of way.
4) It will also show if the driver did not obey a traffic signal.
E. Skidmarks Do Not Show All of the Speed. They show only how far the car would have had to slide to stop in the
distance shown by skidmarks.

Evidence of additional speed. A car is somewhat going faster and often faster is calculated from skidmarks because in
addition to losing speed is sliding the distance shown by the skidmarks, the car losses some of its speed on one or more of
the following ways:
1) Sliding with one or more wheels before any skidmarks begin to appear.
2) Braking without skidding.
3) Dragging the car as it hits some object.
4) Damaging other cars or objects.
5) Sliding other cars or objects along the way.
6) Vaulting or bouncing up into the air.

F. Estimating the Approximate Speed of MV in Case Skid Mark is Absent. In many accident of course, other evidence of
terrific speed is the WRECKAGE (EXTENT OF DAMAGE), but there are no skidmarks at all because brakes were not put
on hard enough to lock the wheels. The following guides the investigator:

1) In an accident in which brakes are put on just before contact of vehicles, the skidmarks maybe only two or three feet
long and therefore, show a speed of only five or six miles per hour. Whereas, the wreckage tells us that the total speed
may have been ten times as great.
2) In accident in which most of the speed is lost in skidding, the speed calculated from skidmarks may come close to
showing how fast the car was actually going. Accidents involving pedestrians are the most common ones of this kind.
3) In any accident in which great damage was done will skidmarks show more than small part of the speed, often a very
minor part of it; but if the skidmarks have been rightly identified and measured, it can be said that the car was going faster
than the speed calculated from the skidmarks, much faster if there was considerable damage.
G. Things that Determine Skidding Distance.
1) Speed itself is by far the most important.
2) Slipperiness of the pavement.
3) Grade or slop of the road whether road up or down.

H. Other Factors that Affect the Skidding.

1) Brake Pedal Pressure.
2) Weight of the Car.
3) Tire Thread.
4) Air Pressure.
5) Tire Material.
6) Road Surface.
7) Direction of Slides.
8) Temperature of the Air and the Road Surface.
9) Against Head Wind.
10) Downhill/uphill

I. Speed Estimates. Generally, you do not have to consider those minor factors in establishing speeds from
skidmarks. Because the minor factors are neglected, we can not calculate speeds precisely. We only estimate
them. Some of the minor factors would tend to give a higher speed and others a lower speed, and they would partly
balance or cancel out.
Sometimes all of the factors tend to give a high estimated speed. In this connection, the skidmarks do not show all
of the speed and therefore, the probable actual speed is still greater than your estimate.
J. Facts Needed.
1) Length of Skidmark.
a) Be sure they are skidmarks - not just tire marks.
b) Did all wheels slide or just some of them? It makes little difference if tire is sliding forward or sidewise.
c) Are there any gaps in the skidmarks? Be sure there are gaps caused by a release of brake pedal
pressure and not skids caused by bounced.
d) What is the length of each skidmarks around any curves; it may not make straight from beginning to the
end in the shortest line. You may want to consider two separate lengths for each Skid mark. One of these
is based on the part of the Skid mark you can positively identify. It gives you speed which will be minimum
beyond reasonable doubt. The others is a possible Skid mark which will give you a more likely speed. The
first is all you can use in court, the second is often much useful in figuring out just what did happen in the
accident.
e) Use the length that the wheel skids, not the tire skid. Dual tires which leave two marks are considered
as one wheel, and the skid mark length is counted if either tire on the wheel leaves this mark.
f) There are two ways of figuring the length of a slide if all on the same kind of pavement. These are:
1. Straight Line. A slide is considered straight if both rear-wheel skidmarks do not go off to one
side of the front wheel skidmarks.
a. Use the length of the longest Skid mark left by any wheel minus gaps in it. This
method is possible because all wheels slide about the same distance.
b. If one wheel does not slide as far as the others, still it was about to slide when the
others began. The drag on the pavement by this wheel is about the same just before it
begins to slide as when it is actually sliding. It may even be greater.
c. Therefore, we are usually safe in saying that all wheels are dragging as much as if
there were sliding wheel skid applies to motorcycles, trucks, truck and trailer
combinations, and buses as well as ordinary motor vehicles.
2) Spin. A slide is considered a spin if both rear wheel skidmarks do get off to one side of the front wheel
skidmarks.
a. Take the length of each skidmarks minus gaps. Add the Skid mark length for all wheels and divide the
numbers of wheels.
b. This method is necessary in the case of the spins, because some of the wheels slid much farther than
others; that is, one end of the car may practically stand still while the other sweeps around it.
c. Use this method only when there is about the same weight on front and rear wheels; that is usually for
ordinary cars, motorcycles, and light trucks with trailers or heavily loaded trucks having duel tires on the
rear wheels. Uneven weight with a spin is a situation which requires special calculations.
d. These methods gives you a figure for the sliding distance of the vehicle. It is not necessary to compute it
more accurately than to the nearest foot. For this length you may have two figures, one a positive distance and
one a possible distance.

g)Unfortunately, many investigations are carelessly made. For example, investigators may:
1.Fail to show whether all wheel slid.
2.Fail to include in the sliding distance a skid shown by a shadow as well as that more clearly shown by the
smear of the hot tire.
3.Neglect to note whether they are gaps in any of the skidmarks.
4.Show only an overall length without separate measurements for each wheel. This usually includes the
wheel base of the car with the result that the sliding distance appears to be length longer than it really is.
5.Fail to note whether the skidmarks are straight or a spin.
6.Measure straight across from beginning to the end of a curve skidmarks rather than around its length.
h) If the facts are not all there, assumptions should have to be made about the distance the car slid. For
legal purposes, you may assume only what may be true beyond reasonable doubt. Hence, poor observations
and measurements often leave you little value to go on.
i) Nevertheless, reasonable assumptions regarding conditions which more definitely observed in
investigations may be very helpful in coming to a conclusion about what probably happened.

2. Coefficient of Friction or Drag Factor. It is the measurement of the maximum frictional resistance of
pavements. It is equal to the force exerted when the wheels are skidding divided by the weight of the car.
Slipperiness of surface must also be known in order to calculate speeds from skidmarks. We tell what this
slipperiness by a number, usually decimal less than 1.00. When any object is sliding, the surface it slid on
puts a friction drag on sliding tire that slows the car. A slippery movement creates a small friction drag and an
abrasive pavement a big drag. If we divide the amount of friction drag in pounds by the weight of the car in
pounds, we get the number that describes the slipperiness.
a. Principle of Computation. For example, the drag of the pavement on the sliding tires of an automobile is 3,000
lbs.. The automobile weights 4,000 lbs.. The number representing the slipperiness of the pavement, or its friction
drag, is then 3,000 divided by 4,000 or 0.75.

1.This slipperiness number is called technically the “COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION.” You can measure the drag
factor of a pavement by making a test skid which tells how far a car slides on that pavement while stopping from
a known speed.

2.If we let "S" stand for the speed in miles per hour from which the test skid is made and "D" the distance in
feet that car slides in coming to stop, then the drag factor, which we call "F", the formula will be:
F = S2
30(D)

3.The "30" is the formula because speed is given in miles per hour and the distance in feet (transformation of
feet per second to miles per hour) and it is constant.

4.Thus, to find slipperiness number, F, we multiply this speed by itself and then divided by 30 times the stopping
distance. You do not need to carry the division out more than two places to the right of the decimal point.
b. Applying the Principle. On a test to measure pavement slipperiness, a car was stopped in 40 ft. from 30 miles
per hour.
1. Substituting these numbers for the letters, we will have:

S2 302 900
F = ---- = ----- = ------ = 0.75
30D 30(40) 1,200

2. It is very important that the test skids to measure pavement slipperiness be correctly made. You are unlikely
to do it right without special instruction or experience.

3. At least two skids are desirable. Compute the slipperiness separately for each. Unless these are within 0.05
each other friction calculated from any of several test skids made on the same paving. This is necessary if you
want to be sure beyond reasonable doubt of calculated speeds.

4.Test skids using the same car that was in the accident are the best.
3. Grade or slope (Gradient). It refers to the degree of inclination either uphill or downhill.
a) It is measured usually by less than 1.00. The measure of the grade is the number of the feet that the road rises
or falls for each feet of the horizontal distance.

b) To find it, divide the vertical rise or fall by the horizontal distance.

horizontal distance
f = ----------------------
vertical rise or fall

4. Reaction Time. This is the distance traveled before applying the brakes. It is computed by:

a. Divide seconds in an hour (3,600) into feet in a mile (5,280) = 1,467.

b. To determine distance you will travel in one second, multiply 1.467 (1.47 or 1.50) times the speed at which you
are traveling.

c. Time to get foot off the accelerator and slam it on the brake is 3/4 of a second on the average. The age of the
driver should be considered.

d. X speed = length in feet covered before brake works for you.

5. Brake Tests.
a. In most states (US), a vehicle traveling at 20 mph must stop within the following minimum distances:
1. Two-wheel brakes-foot pedal: vehicle should stop within 45 ft.
2. Four-wheel brakes-foot pedal: vehicle should stop within 30 ft.
3. Hand brakes: vehicle should stop within 75 ft.
b. Brake tests should not be conducted when the road surface is wet.
c. Use of Decelerometer. These are devices which hold their readings and indicate on a clocklike face
braking efficiency of the car being tested.

K. Procedure Followed by the Philippine National Police (PNP).

1. The officer submits as evidence in a case the measurements of the skidmarks and the Court interprets the facts
in the light of other evidence.
a. Some courts require the assistance of an expert.
b. Measurements should be accomplished by two men.
c. Sketches and photographs with measurements indicated should be made soon after the accident.
2. Some police departments have their officers skid a vehicle to a stop from the legal speed limit, if this can be done
safely, and compare the skidmarks with those in the accident.
3. Some would draw conclusions from tests based on physical calculation.
4. Measurement of Skidmarks.
a. Should meet legal standards. Officers measuring the skidmarks and the distances to embankment or
other fixed constructions should verify each other's measurements.
b. Evidence should be presented to show that the skidmarks were made by the suspect car.
c. Witnesses should testify in court.
L. Basic Principles in Calculating Speeds from Skid marks.

1. Energy and vehicle speed. An automobile moving at any speed possesses energy. As the speed of the vehicle
increases, the resulting energy developed is said to increase as the square of the ratio of the increase in speed.
Examples:

20 kph = 40 30 kph = 90 40 kph = 160

2. Stopping a Motor Vehicle. Whenever a moving vehicle is stopped, the energy which it possesses at that time must be
expended or spent. It is only when most or all of the vehicle's energy is expended through skidding of tires that a fairly
accurate calculation may be made of the vehicle's speed before the accident.

3. Test Runs. It is often necessary to conduct one or more test runs, using the vehicle involved in the accident or, if it
cannot be driven, another vehicle of similar characteristics may be used.
a. Conditions should be the same as those existing when the accident occurred (road, weather).
b. Conduct tests on the same road surface and in the same direction.
c. The vehicle's speedometer should be checked.
d. A speed consistent with safety, such as 20 or 30 miles per hour, should be selected.
e. Brakes should be applied suddenly and as hard as possible.
f. The length of each skid mark should be measured.
g. If a brake detonator is available, the total braking distance should be accurately determined using such
equipment, either mechanically or electrically operated.
h. Generally, it is advisable to conduct two or three tests at the selected speed. The longest braking distance, that
which favors the defendant most, is generally used in the calculation.
i. It may be advisable to have the driver of the accidents vehicle drive the car in the test runs.
M. Speed Calculation. When a vehicle is stopped solely by skidding, it is possible to calculate the speed of the vehicle at
the beginning of the skid by using the formula based on the principle that the skidding or braking distances vary as the
square of the speed.

1. Formulas Used in Finding Speed Estimates.

a. S = 5.5 Ö DF= (speed on a level road) b. S = 5.5 Ö DF (+/- f) = (up or downhill)

S2
c. D = -------- = skidmarks
30F

S2
d. F = --------- = Drag Factor

30D

2. Where:
S = speed (mph); F = coefficient of friction (drag factor); f = grade (1,2,4) or super elevation; D = distance (feet)

2. When accident vehicle cannot be driven. When the vehicle is damaged so badly that it cannot be driven, part of the
vehicle's energy is expended in damaging the car and the object struck.
1) A calculation of speed from skidmarks left under these circumstances gives a speed based only on the amount of energy
expended in the skidding.
2) Consequently, the resulting speed value may be considerably less than the actual pre-accident speed, since it is not
possible to determine how much farther the vehicle would have skidded had there been no collision.
N. Sample Problems. A driver of a Toyota Tamaraw FX while traversing down along Marcos Highway suddenly steps on
the brake when a young boy ran across the vehicle’s path. In the process, the vehicle skidded before hitting the boy.
When the skid mark was measured, it yield 55 ft. long markings. Applying the formulas for speed calculations, find for the
approximate speed of the Toyota Tamaraw FX before it skidded if:

1) the skid mark of the motor vehicle when tested at 30 mph is 35 ft. and
2) the vertical fall of the highway is 1.5 ft.. The solution will be:

1. Compute first for the Drag Factor. Use the figures used during the test skid:
S2 302 900
F = ----- = ------- = ----- = .86
30 (D) 30 (35ft) 1050
2. Calculate for the gradient because the highway is down hill:
horizontal distance 1 ft.
f = -------------------- = ------- = .67
vertical fall 1.5 ft.

3. Compute the speed by using the formula for downhill.

S = 5.5. Ö DF (+f)
4. Substitute the figures:
S = 5.5. Ö (55ftx.86)+ .67
S = 5.5. Ö 47.3 + .67
S = 5.5. 47.97
S = 5.5 (6.93)
S = 38.12 mph
Lesson 6.1: CAR FAMILIARIZATION

Car Defined. A car is a motor vehicle with a room for a small number of passengers. (Car in Collins Online
Dictionary, n.d.). It also refers to an automobile which is wheeled motor vehicle used for transportation (Car in
Wikipedia, n.d).

Rationale. In today’s motorized society, owning a motor vehicle or a car is no longer a matter of luxury but a matter
of necessity. Hence, many earning individuals and professionals are buying their own vehicle- from motorcycles to
automobiles.

There are numerous driving schools but some opt to practice driving through the help of their relatives, friends,
and/or colleagues. Some may be hesitant to lend their motor vehicle for practice driving purposes because of the
risks of incurring mechanical and engine defects own their vehicles.
It is also observe in many government and non-government companies where unwarranted early car failures were
experienced because some of their personnel are using their company car for practice driving. Same is observe in
some law enforcement agencies. It is in the reason that Cadets and other aspiring professionals should learn skills
in driving by enrolling in legitimate driving schools.

There are also instances that unwarranted motor vehicle defects occur because of unfamiliarity with the parts
and accessories of motor vehicles and the operating system of a motor vehicle such as the electrical system, and
the braking system. For traffic law enforcers, familiarity with car parts and accessories could enable them to
properly describe what part of motor vehicle is damaged in cases of motor vehicle accidents. They may also give
them practical knowledge on how to assist motorist who are unexpectedly stocked in the middle of a roadway.
A. External parts and Accessories.
Definition and Description of each part or accessory. Some part not labelled are also defined and described
particularly those parts and accessories that should be known by a driver. The definitions are based mostly from
Macmillan Online Dictionary (n.d), unless the reference is specified. Some of the definition and descriptions are from
the author’s concept. Other parts are no longer defined or described because they can be self-explained.

a. Bull bar- a frame of strong metal bars around the front of a car or truck, used for protecting it if there is an
accident.
b. Bumper- a long thin bar of metal or plastic attached to the front or back of a vehicle, designed to protect it I it hits
anything.
c. Chassis- the frame and wheels of a vehicle which is located under the motor vehicle.
d. Exhaust pipe- used to direct the flow of exhaust gas and smoke coming from the engine.
e. Fender- it covers or protects the area around the wheel.
f. Gas cap or fuel tank cap- the cover that fits on the hole where the fuel is placed.
g. Grill- a metal screen in front serving as air vent to help cool down the engine.
h. Hood- it covers the engine that can be raised. The British word is bonnet.
i. Hubcap of center cap- a metal cover for the central part of a wheel on a car.
j. License plate- a plate containing letters and numbers attached on the back an d front of a car, that shows its
official number and the region (state) where it was licensed.
k. Luggage rack (top load rack) - a metal frame fix on the roof of a car, used for carrying large objects, bicycles
etc. British word is roof rack
i. Mudguard (mudflap) – a piece of metal, plastic, or rubber over or behind a wheel of a vehicle that stops dirt from
the road from hitting the vehicle.
m. Muffler- a piece of equipment attached to the exhaust pipe to make the sound of the engine quieter. The British
word is silencer.
n. Panel- a piece of shaped metal that form part of the body of a vehicle.
o. Roof- the top outer part of a vehicle.
p. Roof box- a large hard container that fits on the roof of a car.
q. Running board- a step outside the door of a vehicle, especially on an old car.
r. Side view mirror (side mirror)- a mirror on the side of a car to enable the drivers see anything or activity on
the side and/or rear of the vehicle.
s. Spoiler- part on the back of a race car that keeps it on the ground at high speeds. Sometimes attached to
ordinary cars as decoration.
t. Stabilizer- a part on the vehicle or machine that keeps it steady or in the correct position.
u. Sunroof- part of the roof of a car that can be opened
v. Tailgate (tailboard) – a door at the back of a van or truck that opens downward.
w. Tail light- light of different colors attached at the back to guide other motorist and road users on the actions
or intentions of a driver.
x. Tail pipe- the pipe at back of a motor vehicle that takes waste gases out of the engine.
y. Tow bar- a metal bar on the back of a vehicle used for towing another vehicle.
z. Trunk- the covered space at the back of a car, used for carrying things in.
aa. Wheelbase- the distance between the front and back wheels of a vehicle
ab. Windshield 9wind screen)- the large glass window at the front of a vehicle the British word is windscreen.
ac. Windshield wiper- a long thin piece of equipment that moves across a vehicle’s windshield in order to wipe
the rain (or water) of it.
Internal Parts and Accessories. For
clarity, some of the external parts and
accessories of a car or motor vehicle are
defined below.
1. Side defroster outlets
2. Side vents
3. Instrument cluster
4. Center vents
5. Electric moon roof switches
6. Personal lights
7. Power door lock switches
8. Power window switches
9. Glove box
10. Portable ashtray
11. Rear console box
12. Cup holders
13. Power outlet
14. Parking brake lever
15. Automatic transmission selector lever
or manual transmission gear shift lever
16. Hood lock release lever
17. Window lock switch
1. Headlight, turn signal and front fog light
switches
2. Wiper and washer switches
3. Emergency flasher switch
4. Car audio
5. Clock
6. Front passenger’s seat belt reminder light
7. Rear window defogger switch
8. Auxiliary boxes
9. Power outlet or cigarette lighter
10. Air conditioning controls
11. Ignition switch
12. Cruise control switch
13. Tilt steering lock release lever
14. Interior/instrument panel light control dial
15. Power rear view mirror control switches
16. Toyota vehicle intrusion protection
system indicator light
Drivers compartment parts and accessories.

a. Turn signal lever and Headlight switch- the turn signal lever is used when either turning right or left. Aside from
turning on the headlight, the headlight switch is also used as “passing light” by pulling upward the lever. The
headlight switch also enables the driver to place in “high (bright)”or “low (dim)”the headlight.

b. Multi-information display- the panel behind the steering wheel which shows the various indicators such as the
fuel tank indicator, temperature gauge, speed meter and odometer, and engine revolution per minute (RPM).

c. Meters (Speedometer, Temperature gauge, Fuel tank indicator, etc. )

1. Fuel level meter- it shows the actual content of the fuel tank.
2. Odometer- it shows the total distance travelled.
3. Speedometer- it shows the actual velocity or speed of the vehicle at the moment.
4. Temperature gauge- it shows the temperature of the engine
5. RPM meter- it shows the speed of revolution of the engine.

d.Windshield wiper and washer switch

e.Emergency flasher switch- the emergency flasher is used to inform other motorist that you are on emergency
such as when bringing a critical patient to the hospital.

f.Audio display
g. Hood luck release lever- it is used to unlock the engine hood.
h. Tilt and telescopic steering control lever- it is used to unjust the inclination of the steering wheel
i. Brake pedal
j. Engine switch (keyhole)- it is also used to lock and unlock the steering wheel.
k. Accelerator pedal- it is used to increase or decrease the amount of injected fuel.
l. Engine switch (push button)
m. Parking brake (hand brake handle)
n. Shift lever
o. Air-conditioning system/switch.

2. Other important interior parts and accessories

a. clutch pedal (for manual transmission) – it disengages the clutch disc and the pressure plate
to facilitate smooth shifting of gears.
b. steering wheel- it is used to control the direction of the motor vehicle.

Major Operating System of a Motor Vehicle. Better operation or driving a motor vehicle is attained when the
operator or driver understands the major operation systems of a motor vehicle. Failure to properly maintain the
different operating system of the vehicle usually shortens the life-expectancy of the motor vehicle particularly the
engine.
 1. Lubrication system. It consists of the oil pump and other hoses used to distribute engine oil to different
internal parts of the engine to reduce friction. Once this system malfunctioned, it may cause mechanical
deterioration of the moving parts such as the piston rings and engine valves. It also causes overheating of the
engine.

2. Cooling system. It consists of the radiator, water pump, cooling fan hoses and passages (ducts) in
the engine block and heads. The water absorbs the heat while passing through the ducts. Failure of this system
also causes overheating of the engine.

3. Electrical system. It consists of the car battery, alternator, voltage regulator, starter, and the
distributor (in cases of gasoline-fed motor vehicles.) failure of the electrical system affects the life-expectancy of
the car’s battery, and in cases of gasoline-fed motor vehicle, it affects complete combustion of the gasoline by
spark plugs. Worst, it may cause accidental burning of a motor vehicle due to short circuiting.

4. Brake system. It is designed to slow down or to stop a motor vehicle. It consists of the hydrovac,
brake fluid cup and brake fluid line. In front wheels, brake discs and braked pads are usually used. In rear wheels,
brake drums and brakes shoes are used.

5. Intake system. It allows the engine to inhale the oxygen which is vital in the complete combustion of
the fuel. The intake system is composed of the intake manifold, air filter, throttle, and air passageway. Some used
turbocharge to reflow the exhausted air, other used supercharge or a pumped to increase the amount of air
passing through the intake system. For gasoline-fed engines, the carburetor could be a vital element in the intake
system because the carburettor mixes the gasoline with the incoming air. Failure of the intake system causes
incomplete burning of combustion resulting to weaker engine power and black or grayish smoke coming out from
the exhaust tail pipe.
6. Exhaust system. It aides in the free flowing of exhausted air out of the engine. It starts from the
exhaust manifold and ending of the exhaust tail pipe. The muffler is also a vital element of the exhaust
system because it reduces noise. Defects in the exhaust system may contribute to the overheating of
vehicle due to the smothering of exhaust heated and air smoke.

A motor vehicle driver needs to be conscientious on the various operating system or

mechanism of a motor vehicle enable him preserve the life-expectancy of the engine and the motor
vehicle. Thorough knowledge on the various operating systems will also help the driver to detect
possible malfunctioning of the vehicle while on operation therefore pre-empting any accident. It is also
recommended that drivers should not only be skilled in operating the vehicle but also to troubleshoot
basic vehicle malfunctioning.
Lesson 6.2: BASICS OF DRIVING

Driving Defined. Driving is the act of controlling and directing the speed and travelling of a motor vehicle. It could be
also understood as the directing and controlling a motor vehicle towards the desired way or action. In RA 4136, the
person, driver is defined as a person operating a motor vehicle.

Rationale. Driving or operating a motor vehicle entails a psycho-motor skill. Psychological skill because it involves
familiarization of the various mechanisms of a vehicle to attain smooth driving. It is also psychological because a
driver must think like the motor vehicle. In a way, the driver and motor vehicle acts in unison. It is a motor skill
because there must be coordination among the various body parts involve in operating a motor vehicle such as the
entire lower extremities and the upper extremities.
In addition, psychomotor skills, driving also includes perceptual skills. Perceptual skills involve the ability of the driver
to observe occurrences in and around the motor vehicle as wheel as the ability to foresee the traffic situation and
traffic hazards.
Like in any other activities involving skills, development of driving skills is starts from the basics. The basics
of driving involve the proper holding of the steering wheel, proper control of the accelerator, brake and clutch pedals,
proper and timely shifting of gears, appropriate using of the various lights and signals of a motor vehicle, and correct
utilization of the other gadgets and accessories of a motor vehicle.
Since driving is a skill, all the actions in driving should be done repeatedly until it will be embedded in the body system
of a driver. Hence, in practice, the driving instructor should instruct the student driver to repeatedly perform the
actions until it will become spontaneously done.
For this book, the context of driving as discussed is based in countries which use left-hand driving like the
Philippines. In left hand driving, the steering wheel is located in the left side and the shifting lever is on the right side
or the left side is the driver side and the right side is the passenger side.
A. Before Boarding and or Starting a Motor Vehicle. A driver must always visually inspect the motor vehicle at its
surrounding before embarking. Looks for any hazards under the car, in front, or at the rear. In addition a driver must
consider the old reliable BLOWBAGETS principle. This principle is usually useful to avoid sudden motor vehicle
breakdown and accident particularly when preparing for a long road trip.

1. Battery. The battery is important for gasoline-fed engines because it supplies the electric power to the spark plugs
which burn the fuel. In diesel-fed engines, the electric current coming from the battery will not affect the engine while
running as long as the electric alternator and voltage regulators are properly functioning.

a. Open the hood or in some other cars, the battery is located somewhere inside the motor vehicle.
b. Check the battery liquid (juice) if using a battery that needs to be frequently maintained. This is not applicable to
maintenance-free batteries which are common today.
c. Check also if the battery clamp or holder is tight to avoid movement of the battery out of its place.
d. Checks also the battery clamp terminals (connectors) if they are tight. Loose battery connections often times cause
discharging of the battery power and worse, it may cause sparking. See also the terminals I corroded or if covered
with hardened acids.
e. Upon switching the engine, check also the battery indicator in the panel display which shows a possible
malfunctioning of the voltage regulator and/or the electric alternator. Malfunctioning of the voltage regulator and/or
the electric alternator causes discharging of the battery.
2.Lights. This include the headlight, the signal lights, fog lights, the tail lights, and the plate number lights. The
headlight is very significant when driving in the dark to enable the driver see the road and for him to be seen by
others. Like the other lights, the headlights are also used to communicate with other motorists and road users.

a.Check if there are broken glass or plastic covers 9housing) of the lights, crack on covers may cause sipping
of rain waters. Once the housing of the light is filled with water, it causes busting of light and it may also cause
short-circuiting.
b.Look for possible busted or malfunctioning lights by switching on all light switches and walk around the motor
vehicle.
c.It is practical also to keep in the car, reserve light bulbs and electrical fuses (capacitors).

3.Oil. The lubrication ensures the optimizing the engine power by reducing friction of the moving parts inside
the engine. Regular oil charging is a must to lengthen the life of the engine. For routine practice---

a.Check always the oil gauge in the engine by pulling out the oil engine stick. Wipe with cloth or tissue paper
then reinsert the oil gauge stick. Pull out again and read the oil level if still within the limit. This practice is
necessary when using older cars.
b.If the oil gauge is below the minimum limit, add engine oil which should be the same quality as with the oil
that is already filled during the last changing of oil.
c.Inside the motor vehicle, switch on the engine, and check for the oil warning light in the display panel.
If necessary, keep reserve engine oil inside the car
4. Water. The cooling system is also vital to the life of the engine. The radiator is usually located in front of the
engine especially rear-drive motor vehicles.

a. Open the radiator cap and check whether the water level is up to the brim.
b. If up to the brim, then the cooling system is functioning well. Add water if necessary. Newer cars have
a separate coolant container.
c. If there is a separate coolant container, check also the level of the coolant, and add coolant if
necessary.

5. Brakes. The braking system is another vital system of a car. Proper functioning of this system is necessary.
The brake fluid container is located inside the hood near the engine. Other cars have their brake fluid container
inside the motor vehicle.
a. Check the brake fluid level if it within the minimum limit. Add brake fluid if necessary.
b. Upon start of the engine, push the brake pedal. Pump the pedal at least twice.
c. Push the brake pedal up to the limit. If it suddenly loosens, there is something wrong in the brake
system.
6. Air. The air pressure is in the tire is not as vital as the other operational systems of the motor vehicle. However,
insufficient or excessive air pressure of the tires may endanger the lives of the driver and its passengers.
a. Walk around and check all the tires. See if there are any flat tires or seemingly lack of air.
b. If the driver has a portable or handy air pressure gauge, check the gauge by thru the air valve heads of the tires.
Tire pressures vary depending on the types and motor vehicle weight. Usually the required tire pressures are
provided by the motor vehicle manufacturers and such required tire pressures are marked on the interior of driver
side door. For the maximum tire load, it is marked on the tire itself.
c. Aside from the air pressure, check also for possible damages on the tires and any other object under the car which
may cut or puncture the tires.

7. Gas. Motor vehicle breakdown due to lack of fuel will not only cause delay. It may also cause engine damages
once the motor suddenly stops while on high speed movement. Upon starting the engine, check the fuel gauge in the
panel display. Other cars have digital travel distance left corresponding to the present amount of fuel in the tank.

8. Engine. Without proper maintenance of the engine will cause damaged and it can affect the performance of the
vehicle. Also, cause more consumption of fuel.

9. Tire. Tire is considered important also because the uneven volume/amount of air it cause accident.

10.Self. Is most important in order to determined the condition of your self (driver) upon driving especially long
trip/travel. Driver must have enough slept and rest. Mostly, on the study or in the investigation revealed that most
causes of accident are from human error which indicate the unconditioned body of the driver.
B. Before Starting the Engine. A driver must always ensure his safety and convenience in driving before starting
the car’s engine. He should---
1) Fastens his/her seatbelt for safety purposes.
2) Adjust his/her seat enable him/her reach the clutch, brake, and accelerator pedals, and to fit with his/her driving
convenience.
3) Adjust the rear and side mirrors to have complete view of the rear and sides of the motor vehicle.
4) Adjust or tilt the steering wheel if necessary.
5) Look around if possible hazards like motor vehicles or persons who suddenly park or stand at the rear.

C. Starting the Engine. Safety is always the concern of a driver, hence, when starting the engine, a driver must---
1) step on the brake pedal with the right foot to ensure that the motor vehicle will not move forward or backward.
2) ensure that the hand brake or parking brake is pulled up.
3) fully press the clutch pedal with the left foot and hold on the shifting lever to check if the gear is in NEUTRAL
position. In case of automatic transmission (AT) motor vehicles, place the shift to gear to either PART or NEUTRAL
position.
4) slightly step on the accelerator pedal in starting the engine. Twist for a moment the key to start the engine.
Some vehicles are equipped with push button starting switch. Once the engine started, immediately get off your
hands from the key. In cases of diesel engines, twist the key to switch on the “heater” before switching on the
engine.
allow the engine thru the oil pump, to distribute lubrication inside the engine before slightly revving.
D. Moving the Motor Vehicle. The driver must smoothly move the vehicle and sudden jumping of the motor
vehicle must be avoided. Hence the driver should---

1) not rev on the start of the engine. In case of diesel engines, allow the engine to heat up before start
moving the car.
2) fully press the clutch pedal to disengage before shifting the gear in NUMBER 1 position or first gear.
3) slowly rev the accelerator pedal while slowly releasing the clutch pedal until driver will feel vibrations in
the engine indicating that the clutch disc and pressure plate slowly engage. Abrupt releasing of the clutch
pedal will cause jumping movement of the motor vehicle. Steps 1 to 3 should be repeatedly done by a
student driver until he/she masters the smooth starting movement of the vehicle.
4) not fully rev up the vehicle after the first gear unless the engine is already heater (for diesel) and/or the
engine is already running for few minutes ensuring the complete distribution of engine oil.
5) scan the front and rear areas of the motor vehicle if there are any other road users around who could
be affected by his/her movement.
switch on the turning light when moving in a roadway and/or blow the horn to signal other motorists of his
of her intention to move in.
E. The Steering Wheel. The steering is considered as one of the most significant parts of a motor
vehicles because it is the main part used in directing and controlling the path of the motor vehicle.

Proper hand positioning is necessary. The olden times, the 10 o’clock (left hand) and 2 o’clock (right
hand) positions were advisable. Today, such hand positioning is still applicable but no longer mandatory
particularly on motor vehicles having smaller steering wheels and with air bags in the center of the
steering wheels. Correct hand positioning and steering wheel control should be done by the following tips
of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in the United States (Using Efficient
Steering Techniques, n.d.).

1) Both hands should be outside (left and right sides) of the steering wheel.
2) Gripping should be firm but gentle.
3) Fingers should be gripping the steering wheel, not the palm.
4) Keeping the thumbs up on the face of the steering wheel.
It is not advisable to turn the steering wheel from the inside of the rim of the steering wheel.
 Further, NHTSA recommends three (3) types of steering method to enable a driver safely and conveniently turn
a motor vehicle (Using Efficient Steering Techniques, n.d.).

1. Hand to hand Steering: (commonly called push/pull steering)

a. Hand position: left hand between 7 and 8 o’clock, and right hand between 4 and 5 o’clock.
b. Turning right: the left hand pushes the wheel up and the right hand slides up, grasps the wheel
and pulls down to turn. While the right hand moves down, the left hand slides back towards its
original position to make adjustments as needed.
c. Turning left: the right hand pushes the wheel up and the left hand slides up, grasps the wheel
and pulls down to turn. While the left hand moves down, the right hand slides back towards its
original position to make adjustments as needed.
d.In pushing up and down the steering wheel, proper hand positions: between 11 & 8 o’clock with
the left hand and between 1 and 8 o’clock with the right hand.
2.Hand-over-hand Steering: Applicable when the turning at low speeds with limited visibility at an intersection
or when parking the vehicle or recovering from a skid.
a. Hand positions: left hand between 8 and 9 o’clock and right hand between 3 and 4 o’clock.
b.Used the right top third of the steering wheel to move the wheel to the right and use the left top third
of the wheel to move the wheel to the left.
c.Turning right: left hand pushes up, while the right hands lets go, reaches across the other arm, grasps
the wheel and pulls the wheel up, over and down as appropriate. As the wheel is being pulled up, the left
hand releases the wheels and returns to its original position.
d.Turing left: right hand pushes up, while the left hand lets go, reaches across the other arm, grasps
the wheel and pulls the wheel up, over and down as appropriate. As the wheel is being pulled up, the right
hand releases the wheel and returns to its original position.
3. One Hand Steering: this is used when backing or while operating or manipulating or adjusting vehicle
controls like wipers, flashers, lights, etc. that require a reach from the steering wheel. This method of steering is
critical to vehicle balance, steering reversals, and potential injury.
a. Hand position when reaching for an operating control: between 8 and 9 o’clock or 3 and 4 o’clock
depending on steering will design.
b. Hand position when backing: 12 o’clock is recommended to the left or right and the driver has to turn
his head in order to see the path of travel to the rear.
c. When turning right while backing, the steering wheel is also turned to the right.
d. When turning left while backing, the steering wheel is also turned to the left.

F. The Pedals. Controlling the pressure of applied on the pedal controls is dependent on how tight or loose the
pedals. In new vehicles, pressure applied is usually light and foot movement is slow. On the other hand, some
old vehicles have very tight pedals, hence foot pressure is greater or stronger.

1.Accelerator pedal. In slow speed movement, the pedal is usually slightly pressed at approximately 1000 rpm
to 1200 rpm. When travelling at higher speed, the revving is greater but should not be more than 2500 rpm
(ideal).
2. The Clutch Pedal. As earlier stated, when the clutch pedal is fully pushed down, it disengages the clutch disc
and the pressure plate, thus enable smooth changing of gears.
a. generally, pushing down the clutch pedal should be quick and completely pushed downward.

b. the speed releasing the clutch pedal is slow when shifting gear from first to second gear to third gear, the
release of the clutch is a little bit faster than when shifting from first gear to second gear.

c. the releasing is also slowly when adjusting the speed from fast to slow such as from fourth to third gear to
avoid sudden engagement of the clutch disc and the pressure plate. Such abrupt engagement of the clutch
disc and the pressure plate causes struggling of the engine and transmission because the spinning speed of
the engine does not match the spinning movement of the transmission. Eventually, when this always
happens, it will contribute to the early wearing out of the engine, and the gears in the transmission.

d. Shifting from 3rd to 4th or 4th to 5th, the releasing of the clutch pedal should be very quick when traversing
on flat and downhill roads.

e. Releasing the clutch pedal should also be slow when shifting from a high gear to a lower gear such as
from 5th to 4th, 4th to 3rd, and 3rd to 2nd. In shifting back to low gear, the driver should slightly press the brake
pedal to slow down the spinning (or revolution per minute (rpm)) of the engine to avoid struggling of the
engine. The struggling is caused by the discrepancy of the rpm of the engine and the gears in the
transmission.

f. The clutch pedal is always completely pressed whenever the motor vehicle comes into complete stop to
avoid sudden shutting off of the engine.
3. The Brake Pedal. Similar with the other control pedals, the pressure of pushing down the brake pedal is
dependent on the tightness of the pedal.

a. Reducing speed: the movement of pushing the brake pedal should be slowly and not full-pressing depending
of the desired speed of the motor vehicle.

b. Complete stopping: It should be fully-pushed downward but the movement of pushing the brake pedal should
be slowly unless there is an immediate risk of collision.

c. In some older motor vehicles, particularly those still equipped with manual braking system, pushing the brake
pedal is sometimes done twice or more until the brake functions.

d. In reducing the speed by stepping on the brake pedal, once the engine and transmission struggle (it can be
detected by vibration from the engine), fully pushed the clutch pedal to avoid sudden shutting off of the engine.

G. Shifting Gears. Shifting of gears entails coordinated and simulated actions and movements of the hand
controlling the shifting lever, the left foot in pressing the clutch pedal, and the right foot in releasing and pushing
back the accelerator pedal. In addition, the remaining hand should firmly grip the steering wheel.

H. Lights and Signals. While driving, controlling the switches of lights and signals cannot be avoided. Like is
shifting gears, there are body movements that are simultaneously and coordinately done. Usually, one hand is left
gripping the steering wheel, while the other hand is controlling or adjusting lights and/or signal switches ( refer to
One-hand Steering Method).
I. Other Accessories. In driving, controlling the switches of other accessories such as the car air-condition, the
audio or visual gadgets and other interior accessories cannot be avoided. This also involves body movements
that are simultaneously and coordinately done. Usually, one hand is left gripping the steering wheel, while the
other hand is controlling or adjusting switches of accessories and/or gadgets (refer also to One-hand Steering
Method).

J. Backing or Reverse Movement. Backing the motor is more difficult than moving forward. Moving forward
involves coordinated and simulated movement of the head, eyes, feet and hands. Safe and convenient backing
may be done through the following.

1. Apply the one-hand steering method when the driver needs to turn his/her head to have better view of the
rear.

2. Apply the two-hand steering method when backing is done with the aid of the sideview and rearview mirrors.

3. While backing, control of the clutch and accelerator pedals are similar to when starting to move the motor
vehicle from NEUTRAL GEAR to FIRST GEAR. In this case, the clutch pedal is usually half-pressed as well as
the accelerator pedal.
K. Driving on Uphill Roads. Driving uphill is similar to driving in flat roadways. The difficulty arises when the driver
stops while going up on ascending portions of highways. Stopping is more frequent in traffic congested areas. Failure
of the driver to control the clutch and accelerator and the brake pedal may cause accidental backing of the motor
vehicle which may cause collision to any motor vehicle, pedestrian or object at the rear. Following are some of the
tips for safer and more convenient uphill driving.

1. Similar to when starting to move a motor vehicle. The difference is that when driving uphill, greater revving is
necessary to enable the engine gain power.

2. Quickly release the clutch pedal up to the point that the clutch disc engages with the pressure plate while on the 1 st
gear and while stepping on the brake (for some, the hand brake is used to avoid backward movement of the motor
vehicle). Continue pressing the clutch pedal while slowly revving the accelerator. Once the motor starts to move
forward, slowly release the clutch and slowly increase the pressure on the accelerator.

3. In shifting to higher gear such as from 1st to 2nd, 2nd to 3rd, 3rd to 4th, and/or 4th to 5th, Increase the revving and shift
gear once the engine has already gained enough power for the next higher gear.

4. If the engine struggles after shifting to a higher gear, rev up. But if the engine still struggles which is the driver feels
vibration of the engine, shift back to the lower gear. Rev up again and shift to a higher gear once the engine gains
power.

5. While on high speed and the engine starts to lost power, shift to lower gear.
The releasing of the clutch pedal in shifting to higher gear should be a little quicker than when shifting from 1 st to 2nd
gear. Immediate releasing of the clutch pedal is done when shifting to higher gears such as from 2 nd to 3rd, 3rd to 4th,
and /or 4th to 5th.
L. Driving on Downhill Roads. In driving downhills, the gear is usually in higher speed which is 3 rd gear and above. The choice
of the gear is however dependent on the degree of descending and the load of the motor vehicle.

1. Check the brakes before an approach to descending areas and slow down in preparation to shifting to low gear.
2. For a safer driving particularly when the descending is very steep, use engine break. That is -use low gear, either 1 st or 2nd gear
and do not push the accelerator pedal. Engine break is also done when the vehicle is fully loaded even if the descending in not
too steep.
3. If the road is safe and no other hazards in the highway shift to higher gear.
4. From time to time, apply pressure on the brake pedal to control the speed of the motor vehicle.
5. There are instances that revving up is not necessary. The engine automatically revs up depending on the speed of forward
movement of the motor vehicle.

M. Driving on Bumpy and Dilapidated Roads. Use low gears when there are so many road bumps and holes on the roadway. As
deeper holes or higher bumps are encountered, if necessary, come to a full stop and start again from 1 st gear. In releasing the
pedal and revving up, apply the same method as in when starting to move a motor vehicle.

1. Speed bumps are usually installed in school zones, churches, private roads, and heavily populated areas. Speed bumps are
designed to slow down motor vehicles the lowest possible speed for the safety of pedestrians and other road users. On
approach, the driver should slow down and come to a full stop before the front wheels touch the bumps. Control the speed before
the motor vehicle similar to when starting to move a car from 1 st gear. Full stop again once the driver feels that the rear wheels
touch the bumps. Start again from 1st gear and apply the same methods In starting a car from 1 st gear.

2. Speed humps are lower than bumps and are less steep. Speed humps are designed to slow down motor vehicles. On
approach, press the brake to reduce speed then change to lower gear like from 3 rd to 2nd. It is not necessary to come to full stop.
It is enough to reduce the speed in such a way that it will not cause jumping of the wheels. Speed humps are most common in
public roadways.
N. Stopping the Motor Vehicle and Switching Off the Engine. Improper stopping and switching off the
engine may also cause wearing of the car engine and other moving parts inside the transmission. The following
are the correct stopping and shutting off the engine.

1. In stopping the motor vehicle to park or come to rest, push the brake pedal.

2. Before it will totally stop, completely push also the clutch pedal to avoid erroneous shutting off the engine.

3. Finally switch off the engine by twisting back the key.

4. In flat terrains or roads, while still pressing the clutch and brake pedals, position the shifting lever to any
gear. Release the clutch pedal before releasing the brake pedal and pulling up the hand brake.

5. In downhill roads, while still pressing the clutch and brake pedals, position the shifting lever to reverse gear.
Turn the front wheels toward the curb. Release the clutch pedal before releasing the brake pedal and pulling up
the hand brake.

6. In uphill roads, while still pressing the clutch and brake pedals, position the shifting lever to any forward gear.
Turn the front wheels away from the curb. Without curb, turn the wheels towards the edge of the road. Release
the clutch pedal before releasing the brake pedal and pulling up the hand brake.

7. For automatic transmissions, shift the gear to “PARK” position.

O. Common Errors in Driving in Relation to the Operation of the Motor Vehicle. There are individuals who unknowingly
commit errors in while operating a motor vehicle. It could be a product of wrong training in driving or it could be a result of trial and
error while driving. The following are some of the common errors in driving.

1. Keeping the foot on the clutch pedal – This will cause immediate wearing out of the clutch disc.

2. Skipping the first gear – Instead of starting from 1 st gear, some drivers start from 2nd or 3rd gear. This could be done when
driving downhill and the motor vehicle is slightly moving but not when in flat terrain, on uphill, or when the motor vehicle is in
complete stopped position. This error causes struggling of the engine which may eventually affect the lifespan of the engine.

3. Skipping gears – The normal and proper shifting of gear is gradually done such as 1 st to 2nd, 2nd to 3rd, 3rd to 4th and 4th to 5th.
However, there are some who change gear by skipping gears such as 1 st to 3rd or 2nd to 4th or 3rd to 5th. This error also causes
struggling of the engine.

4. Overusing of the engine break – This error causes wearing out of the engine. It is better to use a higher gear and from time to
time pressing the brake pedal to control the speed of the motor vehicle and wearing the brake pads and brakes shoes rather than
wearing the engine.

5. Riding on the Brake Pedal – This may be safer going downhill but it may easily burn the brake pads and brake shoes.
Excessive heating may cause sudden burning of the rubber tires.

6. Untimely Shifting to Reverse Gear – Drivers who need to make a U-turn in narrow areas such as maneuvering their cars.
Hence, many times, they are forced to shift to reverse gear while the motor vehicle is still moving forward. This error may cause
wearing out of gears, and even the differential.

7. Resting on the Shifting Lever of Stick – This will cause pressure on the shift collar which may cause early wearing of the
shifting gears.
8. Under-inflation of Tires – Lack of air in the tire causes the entire exterior surface of the tire engages the road surface creating
higher friction. Increase friction increases the wearing out of the tires. Lack of air also causes flexing or the outer side of the tires
while the center surface flattens against the road. The flexing of the outer side will eventually result to tire failure (cracking of the
rubber) and such tire failure may cause tire blowout.

9. Overusing of Low Gears on Uphill – There are drivers who fear that their vehicles may not be able to climb so they tend to
keep moving in low gear. Prolonged low gear driving does not only consume more fuel but it also places excessed torque in the
engine while in low speed. Thus, causing overheating of the engine. Frequent overheating may eventually damage the engine.

10. Misusing the Car Air-conditioning System. Unlike large motor vehicles, smaller vehicles have no separate motor or engine
for their air conditioning system. The air conditioning motor relies on the engine with a pump belt. Hence, when the air
conditioning is switched on, it gives more burden on the engine so greater revving is necessary. Except for the greater fuel
consumption, there is not much a problem occur when driving uphill in low gear while the air conditioning system is switched on.
It gives more torque on the engine resulting to engine overheating.

11. Excessive Use of the Clutch and Accelerator In Controlling the Speed on Uphill – One safe way to drive uphill during bumper
to bumper traffic condition is to control the movement of the vehicle through balancing the pressure on the clutch and
accelerator pedal.
a. To stop the motor vehicle, slightly push the clutch pedal until the clutch disc and pressure plate engage.
b. While the left foot is on half-clutch position, the accelerator pedal should be pressed until the motor vehicle does
not move. Keeping these feet positions will keep the motor vehicle from moving.
c. To start slow movement, slightly release the clutch pedal while slowly adding pressure on the accelerator.
d. Repeat the same actions once the motor vehicle in front stops and again slowly moves.

However, prolonged controlling the stopping and slow movement of the motor vehicle through this clutch-accelerator
technique burns the clutch disc. If the burning is severe, the clutch disc will eventually slide.
Lesson 6.3: DEFENSIVE DRIVING

Defensive driving is the “driving to save lives and money, in spite of the conditions around you
and the actions of others”. It is also understood as the “driving manner that utilizes safe driving strategies to
enables motorists to address identified hazards in a predictable manner. These strategies go well beyond
instruction on basic laws and procedures” (What is Defensing Driving, n.d.).

Rationale. Operating a motor vehicle is a risky activity. Risks exposures of drivers include health-
related risks due to inhalation of toxic gases and smoke. The worst risk is the possible accidental loss of
lives, limbs and properties.

Health-related risks can be reduced or prevented by the state-of-the-art gadgets as masks, refining
of fuels, and more recently the introduction of alternative energies to power vehicles. Example of vehicles
powered motor vehicles. Those alternative energies are virtually zero in carbon emissions.

The second risk in driving which is possibility of involvement with accidents, is more difficult to
totally prevent because of the multi-causes of accidents. However, of the identified causes of accidents,
human errors or human factors attribute for more than 90% of all the causes of accidents. Hence, accidents
can be reduced into tolerable level through defensive driving training.
A. Defensive Driving Tips. The emphasis of any defensive driving approaches and strategies is on driving safely.
For this author, safe driving can be attained by conscientiously observing the following tips. For easier recalling,
the acronym DEFENSIVE is used.

1. D – Decrease speed upon perceiving potential hazards. In traffic accidents, hazards are not limited to
dangerous physical objects in the traffic way and road conditions. Hazards in traffic are generated by negligent or
imprudent behaviors of road users. Hence, all pedestrians, motorists, animals, commuters (passengers), and
other road users are considered potential hazards. Listed below are examples of the potential hazards.
a. Any person walking or standing along the sidewalk. There are instances that persons walking or
standing on sidewalks suddenly run across the street.
b. Playing children near the road or beside roadways, those playing children may suddenly run across
the streets.
c. A rolling ball on the road could be develop into hazard if suddenly a child will come running towards
the ball.
d. Public utility vehicles (PUV) which are unloading passengers. Some passengers who have just
disembarked from the PUV quickly cross the street.
e. Any motor vehicle or pedestrian encroaching on your driving lane.
2. E – Ensure your personal safety and safety of your passengers. Drivers are legally and morally bound to ensure
his/her passengers not only his/her own safety. Hence, a driver must do the following safety tips for his/her
passengers.
a. Remind his/her passengers to exercise utmost care in embarking and disembarking.
b. Not allow hitching at the back of his/her car or on the running board, and riding on top of the vehicle.
c. Audibly tell his/her passengers not to immediately cross the street after disembarking.
d. Tell at once to anyone not to bring out in the window any part of their body.
3. F – Fasten seatbelts. Many lives are lost because of the failure to fasten seatbelts. The driver must at all
times fasten his/her seatbelts regardless of the distance to be travelled. He/she must also his/her passengers to
fasten their seatbelts if there are any.

4. E – Expect that other motorists and road users will commit mistakes. The core of any defensive driving
principle is the anticipation of any negligence or imprudence by other drivers and other road users. It is normal.
Some may unintentionally or unconsciously or may be intentionally commit error while driving. Regardless of
the reason of such error, a driver must always anticipate those misbehaviors of others so he/she could
immediately react. Misbehaviors of drivers and other roads users include but not limited to the following
enumeration.

a. Beating the yellow or red light

b. Anticipating the green light
c. Overtaking in a no overtaking zone
d. Miscalculating a road curve or bend
e. Going beyond the speed limit
f. Improper overtaking or passing
g. Sudden backward movement on uphill road particularly in a congested area
h. Failure to yield the right of way
i. Improper use of headlight and other signal lights
j. Improper parking
k. Jaywalkers
l. Abrupt running to cross a street
m. Disembarking in no loading areas
 5. N – Never beat the yellow and/or red light. Commonly, people say “do not beat the red light”. However,
beating both the yellow and red light is correct. It is beating the red light because a driver or a pedestrian
accelerates before the yellow light turns to red. On the other hand, may road users accelerate their speed once
the yellow light is on before it turns to red. Hence, beating the yellow light is also correct.

6. S – Start the day with a prayer. This could not be the first statement among this list of defensive driving
techniques but it is actually the first to be done by any traveler, whether on wheels or on foot. Divine guidance
is still the best antidote for every misdeed in the highway.

7. I – Increase speed if another motor vehicle is in the risked of hitting the rear of your car. There are times that
some drivers anticipate the green light, that is – start moving even the light is still red. There are also drivers
who accelerates in the intersection after a vehicle passed across his/her path placing a risk of angular front to
rear collision. To avoid accident and as a defensive driver, he/she must increase his/her speed so that his/her
vehicle’s rear will not be hit by the speeding vehicle coming from an angular direction.

8. V – Veer direction away from vehicles encroaching your lane. As earlier mentioned, some drivers may
intentionally or unintentionally overtake in a very risky manner. As a defense, a driver should veer away or
change direction away from the overtaking motor vehicle. Reducing speed is also recommendable so as to
give chance for the overtaking driver to get back to his/her lane.

9.E – Establish the 2-second rule (3-second rule for others). Tailgating is a risky driving behavior unless a
driver is preparing to overtake a motor vehicle. Normally, it takes a driver at least 1.5 seconds to react and final
come to a complete stop from the moment he/she perceive that the motor vehicle in front suddenly stops.
 To check whether the distance is at least 2 seconds away, a driver will use any fix object as a
reference point. Once the vehicle in front reaches the point adjacent to the fix object, the driver behind will
start counting 1001, 1002, 1003 and so on until the latter also reaches the point adjacent to the reference
fix object. If the counting is 2 seconds and more, then the distance between the two vehicles is safe.
B. Additional DO’s and DON’T’s related to defensive driving.
1. Plan the trip and the route to be taken. This is critical particularly when going for a long road trip. For
shorter travels, a driver could avoid sudden swerving or turning toward another road/street. Sufficient sleep and rest
is also vital particularly before going out for long trips. Sleepy or dozing drivers is one of the most common factors
leading to accidents.
2. Learn to be far-sighted. A defensive driver must be able to perceive what is going on beyond the motor
vehicle in front as well as beyond the vehicle right behind the rear. Misbehavior by the driver of the motor vehicle in
front may be because of the negligent act of another driver far in front.
3. Frequent scanning the surrounding area. Learn to scan the rear, front and the sides of the motor vehicle.
Many times, some motorists, especially motorcycle riders, take the appropriate evasive action, a driver should from
time to time, look at the side mirrors and the rearview mirrors. Frequent moving of the eyes may also help alert a
driver, thus preventing dozing while driving.
4. Take a rest or nap when drowsy, Resisting drowsiness is very dangerous because it affects one’s
reflexes and alertness. Look for a safe place to park the vehicle so as drowsy driver may rest and sleep before
continuing to drive.
5. Always bring Early Warning Devices (EWD). Motor vehicle malfunctioning may occur the least it is
expected. Having ready early warning devices inside the car could help in avoiding accidents when the vehicle is
stalled particularly in risky areas of a highway.
6. Do not insist right of way. Accidents occur when a motor vehicle encroaches the right of way of another
vehicle and when the driver who has the right of way insists his/her right. Example of this is when a vehicle and the
affected driver on the opposite direction does not give way, collision is likely to occur.
7. Do not take alcoholic beverages hours before operating a motor vehicle. It is proven that intoxication of
alcohol affects the reflexes and the alertness of a driver.
8. Misusing the horn. The horn is use to communicate with other road users such as warning pedestrians that your
are approaching, expressing gratitude to those who yielded the way, and telling a road user to pass ahead. Misuse
of the horn may cause accident and it is also annoying. Some of the don’ts is using the horn are listed below.
a. Blowing the horn on pedestrians crossing on a crosswalk unless the crosswalk Is controlled by
a traffic signal light. The pedestrians are priority in any crosswalk.
b. Lengthy blowing of the horn when another motorist committed misbehavior in the road. The
negligent driver may just be rattled causing him/her to commit further error that lead to accident. In addition, lengthy
blowing of the horn may indicate anger and could irritate the erring driving which may erupt into fight between the
two drivers.
c. Continuous blowing of the horn to inform the motorist in front which failed to immediately
move forward after the traffic light turned to green. This can also irritate the affected motorist causing him/her to
retaliate or be rattled causing him to abruptly move forward.

9. Switching the headlight in bright position to warn an overtaking vehicle coming from opposite
direction. As defense, consider the following whenever wrong overtaking of oncoming motor vehicles happens.
a. Miscalculations in overtaking is one of the most common mistakes committed by motorists. A
driver affected by such miscalculated overtaking may later commit the same error.
b. Switching on the headlight in bright or in high position is tantamount to shouting at the
negligent driver. It may only irritate the erring driver which may cause him/her to retaliate by switching also his
headlight in bright position.
c. Better to reduce speed, or come to complete stop, or change direction to give the overtaking
driver sufficient space to return back to his/her lane.
10. Racing with pedestrians along crosswalks. There are some drivers while approaching a crosswalk,
they try to beat the pedestrians to pass across the crosswalk lines. Such act may rattle the pedestrians
who are about to cross and they might run also to beat the passing vehicle. For defense, reduce speed
before approaching a crosswalk and prepare for any misdeeds by pedestrians. Remember, not only
drivers who have the tendency to “beat the red light”. Pedestrians too have the same tendency.

11. Using electronic gadgets while driving. Even with the presence of anti-distracted driving law, many
drivers, by reason of habit, are still using their mobile phones while driving. Other are also distracted by
resetting their car stereo or GPS Travel equipment.
Thank you for listening