3.

Soil permeability and seepage analysis

• A material is permeable if it contains continuous voids. All
materials such as rocks, soils etc are permeable materials since
they allow flow of water through them.
• The flow of water through all of them obeys approximately the
same laws.
• permeability of soils has effect on the stability of foundations,
seepage loss through embankments of reservoirs, drainage of
sub-grades.
 3.1 Head
• before we look into in to Darcy’s law which is governing law
for flow of water through the soil mass, we will discuss an
important principle in fluid mechanics – Bernoulli’s principle –
which is essential in understanding flow through soils.

fig 3.1
• If you cap one end of a tube, fill the tube with water, and
then rest it on your table (Fig. 3.1), the height of water with
reference to your table is called the pressure head (hP).
 Cont…
• If you raise the tube above the table, the mechanical energy
or total head increases. You now have two components of
total head – the pressure head (hp) and the elevation head
(hz).
• If water were to flow through the tube with a velocity v ,
under steady state condition, then we have an additional
head due to the velocity given as .
• As per Bernoulli's equation, the total head at any point in
water under steady flow condition may be expressed as:

• Total head = pressure head + velocity head + elevation head

• H= hp +hz + hv
• H = hz (3.1)
 cont…

• The velocity of flow through soils is generally small (< 1 cm/s)

and so,we usually neglect the velocity head. The total head in
soils is then:

• H =hz+hp= w (3.2)
• U=pore water pressure, ϒw =unit weight of the water

• Now , Consider a cylinder containing a soil mass with water

flowing through it at a constant rate as depicted in Fig. 3.2. If
we connect two tubes, A and B, called piezometers, at a
distance L apart, the water will rise to different heights in
each of the tubes.
 cont…

fig 3.2

• As the water flows through the soil, energy is dissipated through

friction with the soil particles, resulting in a loss of head.
• The head loss between A and B assuming datum selected at the
top of cylinder is :
ΔH=( hp)A-(hP)B
ΔH/L=i ,called hydraulic gradient
 3.2 Darcy’s law
• Darcy (1856) proposed that average flow velocity through soils is
proportional to the gradient of the total head. The flow in any
direction, j, is:
(3.3)
where v is the average flow velocity, k is a coefficient of
proportionality called the coefficient of permeability and ΔH is
the change in total head over a distance Δ x. The unit of
measurement for k is length/time, that is, cm/s.
With reference to Fig. 3.2, Darcy’s law becomes:

(3.4)
where i= ΔH/l is called hydraulic gradient
 Cont…
• Flow through soils, however, happens only through the interconnected
voids. The velocity through the void spaces is called the seepage velocity
(vs) and is obtained by dividing the average velocity by the porosity of the
soil:
(3.5)
The volume rate of flow, qv, or, simply, flow rate is the product of the
average velocity and the cross-sectional area:
(3.6)

Qv =measured in m3/s or cm3/s

The conservation of flow (law of continuity) stipulates that the volume
rate of inflow (qv)in into a soil element must equal the volume rate
of outflow, (qv)out, or, simply, inflow must equal outflow:
(qv)in = (qv)out.
 Table 3.1: Coefficient of permeability for common soil types

soil tyes Kz (cm/s

Clean gravel > 1.0

Clean sands, clean sand & gravel mix 1.0 to 10-3

Fine sands, silts, mixtures comprising

sands, silts, and clays 10-3 to 10-7

Homogeneous clays < 10-7

but ,Homogeneous clays are practically impervious and used construction earth dam
core.
For a homogeneous soil, the coefficient of permeability depends predominantly on its
void ratio.
 Cont…
• A number of empirical relationships have been proposed
linking k to void ratio and grain size for coarse-grained soils.
• Hazen (1930) proposed one of the early relationships as:
kz=C* in cm/s
• where C is a constant varying between 0.4 and 1.2 if the unit
of measurement of D10 (effective diameter) is mm.
• Typically, C = 1.0.
 EXAMPLE 3.1

• A soil sample 10 cm in diameter is placed in a tube 1 m long. A constant

supply of water is allowed to flow into one end of the soil at A and the
outflow at B is collected by a beaker (Fig. E3.1). The average amount of
water collected is 1 cm3 for every 10 seconds. The tube is inclined as shown
in Fig. 3.1. Determine the (a) hydraulic gradient, (b) flow rate, (c) average
velocity, (d) seepage velocity, if e = 0.6, and (e) coefficient of permeability.

• Strategy: For flow problems, you must define a datum position. So your first
task is to define the datum position and then find the difference in total
head between A and B. Use the head difference to calculate the hydraulic
gradient and use Eqs. (3.4 to 3.6) to solve the problem.
 Example 3.2
• A drainage pipe (Fig. E3.2) became completely blocked during a storm by a
plug of sand, 1.5 m long, followed by another plug of a mixture of clays, silts,
and sands, 0.5 m long. When the storm was over, the water level above ground
was 1 m. The coefficient of permeability of the sand is 2 times that of the
mixture of clays, silts, and sands.
A) Plot the variation of pressure, elevation, and total head over the length of the pipe.
B)Calculate the pore water pressure at (1) the center of the sand plug and (2) the center of the
mixture of clays, silts, and sands.
C)Find the average hydraulic gradients in the sand and in the mixture of clays, silts and sands.

Strategy: You need to select a datum. From the information given, you can calculate the total
head at A and B. The difference in head is the head loss over both plugs but you do not know
how much head is lost in the sand and in the mixture of clays, silts, and sands. The continuity
equation provides the key to finding the head loss over each plug.
3.3 Flow Parallel to Soil Layers and normal to soil layer (reading
assignment)
 When the flow is parallel to the soil layer (Fig. 3.2), the
hydraulic gradient is the same at all points.
 The flow through the soil mass as a whole is equal to the sum
of the flow through each of the layers.
 If we consider a unit width (in the y direction) of flow and use
Eq. (3.6), we obtain.

 where H0 is the total thickness of the soil mass, kx(eq) is the

equivalent permeability in the horizontal (x) direction, z1 to zn
are the thickness of the first to the nth layers, and kx1 to kxn are
the horizontal permeability of first to the nth layer.
 Cont.…
• Solving Eq. (3.6) for kx(eq),
 For flow normal to the soil layers, the head loss in the soil
mass is the sum of the head losses in each layer:

• where ΔH is the total head loss, and Δh1 to Δhn are the head
losses in each of the n layers. The velocity in each layer is the
same.
 Example 3.3
• A canal is cut into a soil with a stratigraphy shown in Fig. E3.3.
Assuming flow takes place laterally and vertically through the sides of
the canal and vertically below the canal, determines the equivalent
permeability in the horizontal and vertical directions. Calculate the
ratio of the equivalent horizontal permeability to the equivalent
vertical permeability for flow through the sides of the canal.

• Strategy: find the equivalent horizontal and vertical permeability’s

over the depth of the canal (3 m) and then find the equivalent
vertical permeability below the canal. To make the calculations
easier, convert all exponential quantities to a single exponent.
 3.4 Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability
• Constant-Head Test:
The constant-head test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability of
coarse-grained soils.
• Water is allowed to flow through a cylindrical sample of soil under a
constant head (h). The outflow (Q) is collected in a graduated cylinder at a
convenient duration (t).
• the flow rate through the soil is qv = Q/t,
where Q is the total quantity of water
collected in the measuring cylinder over
time t.
• But qv=kz*A*i, i=h/l and
kz=qv/Ai ,substituting for qv and I
( 3.11)
 Falling head test
• The falling-head test is used for fine-grained soils because the flow of water
through these soils is too slow to get reasonable measurements from the
constant-head test.
• A compacted soil sample or a sample extracted from the field is placed in a metal
or acrylic cylinder (Fig. 3.4).
• Porous stones are positioned at the top and bottom faces of the sample to
prevent its disintegration and to allow water to percolate through it. Water flows
through the sample from a standpipe attached to the top of the cylinder. The
head of water (h) changes with time as flow occurs through the soil. At different
times, the head of water is recorded.
•
• (3.12)
•
• a=x-sectional area of tube,A=X-sectional
area of sample
 3.5 seepage through the soil
In many practical situation flow around sheet pile wall and earth dam is not one
dimensional but two dimensional which means velocity component in
horizontal and vertical directions vary from point to point within the cross
section of the soil mass.
The flow of water through soils is described by Laplace’s equation. The popular
form of Laplace’s equation for two-dimensional flow of water through soils is:
(3.13)

where H is the total head and kx and kz are the coefficients of permeability in the
X and Z directions.
Laplace’s equation expresses the condition that the changes of hydraulic
gradient in one direction are balanced by the changes in the other directions.
 Cont…

• The assumptions in Laplace’s equation are:

 Darcy’s law is valid.
 The soil is homogeneous and saturated.
 The soil and water are incompressible.
 No volume change occurs.
• If the soil were an isotropic material then kx = kz and Laplace’s equation
becomes:
(3.14)

The velocities of flow in the X and Z directions are:

( 3.15)

• The inference from Eqs. (5.4) and (5.5) is that the velocity of flow (v) is normal to
lines of constant total head (also called constant piezometric head or equipotential
lines) as illustrated in Fig. 5.1.
 Cont…
• The direction of v is in the direction of decreasing total head.
The head difference between two equipotential lines is called
a potential drop or head loss.

fig 3.4. illustration of flow terms

 Cont…
• If lines are drawn that are tangent to the velocity of flow at
every point in the flow field in the XZ plane, we will get a
series of lines that are normal to the equipotential lines.

• These tangential lines are called streamlines or flow lines

(Fig. 5.1). A flow line represents the flow path that a particle
of water is expected to take in steady state flow.

• Since flow lines are normal to equipotential lines, there can

be no flow across flow lines. The rate of flow between any
two flow lines is constant. The area between two flow lines
is called a flow channel (fig. 5.1). Therefore, the rate of flow
is constant in a flow channel.
 Flow net sketching
• Criteria for Sketching Flow Nets
• A flow net is a graphical representation of a flow field that
satisfies Laplace’s equation and comprises a family of flow lines
and equipotential lines.
• A flow net must meet the following criteria:
1. The boundary conditions must be satisfied.
2. Flow lines must intersect equipotential lines at right angles.
3. The area between flow lines and equipotential lines must be
curvilinear squares. A curvilinear square has the property that
an inscribed circle can be drawn to touch each side of the
square.
4. The quantity of flow through each flow channel is constant.
5. The head loss between each consecutive equipotential line is
constant
6. A flow line cannot intersect another flow line.
7. An equipotential line cannot intersect another equipotential line
 Procedure for Sketching Flow Nets

1. Draw the structure and soil mass to a suitable scale.

2. Identify impermeable and permeable boundaries. The soil-
impermeable boundary interfaces are flow lines because
water can flow along these interfaces. The soil-permeable
boundary interfaces are equipotential lines because the total
head is constant along these interfaces.
3. Sketch a series of flow lines (four or five) and then sketch an
appropriate number of equipotential lines such that the area
between a pair of flow lines and a pair of equipotential lines
(cell) is approximately a curvilinear square.
Figure : Flow net under a dam with a cutoff curtain
(sheet pile) on the upstream
 Flow Through Earth Dams

• Flow through earth dams is an important design

consideration.
• We need to ensure that the pore water pressure at the
downstream end of the dam will not lead to instability
and the exit hydraulic gradient does not lead to piping.
• So, the major exercise is to find the top flow line called
the phreatic surface (Fig . below) because,the pressure
head on the phreatic surface is zero.
• Casagrande (1937) showed that the phreatic surface can
be approximated by a parabola with corrections at the
points of entry and exit. The focus of the parabola is at
the toe of the dam, point F.
Figure : Phreatic surface within an earth dam
• The procedure to draw a phreatic surface within an earth
dam, with reference to Fig. above, is as follows .
1. Draw the structure to scale.
2. Locate a point A at the intersection of a vertical line
from the bottom of the upstream face and the water
surface, and a point B where the waterline intersects
the upstream face.
3. Locate point C, such that BC=0.3AB.
4. Project a vertical line from C to intersect the base of
the dam at D.
5. Locate the focus of the basic parabola. The focus is
located at the toe of the dam
6. Calculate the focal distance,
where b is the distance FD and H is the height of
water at the upstream face.
• 7. Construct the basic parabola from
• 8. Sketch in a transition section BE.
• 9. Calculate the length of the discharge face, a, using

For ß>30, use Fig.5.7 and (a) measure the distance TF, where T is
the intersection of the basic parabola with the downstream face;
(b) for the known angle ß , read the corresponding factor ∆a/L
from the chart; and (c) find the distance .
• 10.Measure the distance a from the toe of the dam along the
downstream face to point G.
• 11.Sketch in a transition section, GK
• 12.Calculate the flow using where k
is the coefficient of permeability.
• If the downstream slope has a horizontal drainage blanket as
shown in Fig. 5.3, the flow is calculated using