Groundwater-Permeability: Civl3501 - Soil Mechanics

CIVL3501 - SOIL MECHANICS
GROUNDWATER-PERMEABILITY
Asst. Prof. Dr. Ehsan Etminan

Soils and Groundwater
Remember: water existing inbetween the soil particles almost always

influence the engineering behavior of such soils in a negative way.
Figure 7.1 The hydrologic cycle.
• ground water table (gwt) can be located by installing observation
wells.
Figure 3.22 Using an electronic probe to measure the
water level inside an observation well. When the
Figure 3.21 An observation well. electrodes on the bottom of the tape touch the water, an
electrical circuit is closed and a buzzer sounds inside
the reel (bobin).
•ground water table (gwt) elevation could change with time due to
seasonal changes of precipitation, irrigation practices, pumping
activities etc.
• water exist as moisture above the gwt and this zone is called vadose
zone.Water in the vadose zone has negative pore water pressure.
• the zone below gwt is called phreatic zone and water in this zone is
subjected to positive pore water pressure.
One Dimensional(1D) Flow
Hydraulic Conductivity [Permeability] is the ability of water

and other fluids to flow through the voids in a soil.
1-D Seepage Problems
• The first step is to determine if a flow either is one dimensional (1-D),
or can be reasonably represented as one dimensional.
• One dimensional in this context, means “one direction”, but the

direction is not specified.
Figure 7.4 One-,
two-, and three-
dimensional flow
conditions: (a) one-
dimensional flow in a
confined aquifer; (b)
two-dimensional flow
into a long
excavation; (c) three-
dimensional flow into
a pair of wells.
Head
In engineering, we find it more convenient to use the unit “head” for the energy
terms, hence the “total energy” becomes “total head”:
Total Head = Elevation Head + Pressure Head+Velocity Head

(Total Energy = potential energy + elastic strain energy+ kinetic energy)
The last term, velocity head will always

be very small with the flow of water
through soil because flow velocities are
low hence we can ignore the velocity
head term.This leaves us with:
French Engineer Henri Darcy performed a set of experiments
in the mid 1800’s about the flow of water through sand. He
developed the following relationship known as Darcy’s Law :
Where:
v = apparent velocity defined as the volumetric flow rate
divided by the gross soil cross section [solid plus void area],
m/sec,
k=
i=
Darcy’s Law
The discharge form of Darcy’s Law is
where
q = volumetric flow rate, m3/sec, and,
a = gross soil cross section normal to the flow direction, m2.
i= hydraulic gradient
Graphical Expression of Darcy’s Law (v=k.i)
Hydraulic gradient, i
1
k
velocity, v
Head loss increases linearly with increasing velocity as long as the

flow is laminar (when a fluid flows in parallel layers)
Hydraulic Conductivity [like grain size] varies through many orders
of magnitude, and is responsible for the complicated behavior of
soil as an engineering material
Table 7.1
• Clean Gravel 1 to 100 cm/sec
• Clean Coarse Sand 10-2 to 1 cm/sec
• Fine Sand 10-3 to 10-1 cm/sec
• Silty Sand 10-3 to 10-2 cm/sec
• Clayey Sand 10-4 to 10-2 cm/sec
• Silt 10-8 to 10-3 cm/sec
• Clay 10-10 to 10-6 cm/sec
A range of 12 orders of magnitude

Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity (k) in the Lab
• Approach to the laboratory test results for hydraulic conductivity with
some skepticism. We don’t know how well the in situ permeability is
represented in those tests.
• remember that there might be fissures and other irregularities in the soils
that might influence the permeability significantly.
• three commonly used laboratory methods for determination of hydraulic

conductivity (k) are:
-constant head permeability test (for coarse grained soils),
-falling head permeability test (for fine grained soils)
-indirectly from consolidation tests (for fine grained soils)
Constant head permeability test
• Useful for sands and gravels - must have a fairly high flow rate for it to be
measurable.
• Also great for gaining an understanding of the correct application of

Darcy’s Law to one-dimensional flow problems.
• Look at Darcy’s Law to see how it works.

Constant head permeability test
Falling head permeability test
qin
qout
Analysis of falling head permeability test results is a little more complex than the
constant head permeability test results, because the hydraulic gradient(i) is not
constant throughout the test.Therefore, the flow rate(q) also is not constant.
• At a time t, the water level in the standpipe is Ht
• First lets write qin

velocity of the water
in the standpipe
• Then lets write qout
• when qin = qout

• when qin = qout
• when the integral is taken over the limits

Apparent Velocity [Darcy velocity] versus true seepage
velocity
• Darcy’s Law is written in terms of an apparent velocity that is obtained by dividing
the volumetric flow rate through a soil by the gross cross section of the soil normal to
the flow direction.
• The gross cross section includes both solids and voids, yet the actual flow of water
occurs only through the voids.
• The actual velocity of flow, or seepage velocity can be obtained by considering the
relationship between the total cross section and the net cross section which includes
only the voids.
• Seepage velocity is used in geoenvironmental engineering especially for contaminant

transport problems.
Seepage velocity (vs)
which one is greater

v or vs ?
Example 7.4 (1-D seepage example)
Figure 7.16 Cross-section through reservoir showing silty sand stratum. This cross-
section is oriented parallel to the direction of flow. el. = elevation.
A 3.2m thick silty sand stratum intersects one side of a reservoir as shown above. For
this stratum k=4 10-2 cm/s and the stratum extends along the entire 1000m length of
the reservoir. An observation well has been installed in this stratum as shown.
Compute the seepage loss from the reservoir through this stratum.
1-D Flow Through Anisotropic Soils
• many natural soil profiles could be composed of thin horizontal
stratifications that reflect their depositional history.
• each layer has different hydraulic conductivity (k1, k2 etc.).
Figure 7.20 Flow of water through anisotropic soils.

1-D Flow Through Anisotropic Soils
• soils are also anisotropic with respect to hydraulic conductivity
(hydraulic conductivity in horizontal direction is different than the one in
vertical direction).
• you can easily obtain equivalent horizontal (kx) and vertical (kz)
hydraulic conductivities by considering the flow condition.
Figure 7.21 Constant-head permeameters illustrating (a) horizontal flow parallel to layering and (b) vertical flow normal to layering.
1-D Flow Through Anisotropic Soils (flow in parallel layers)
• in Fig. (a), total head loss
(Dh) in each layer is same,
therefore b
i=i1=i2=i3=Dh/L,
• but the flow in each layer will be
different q1≠q2≠q3,
qt= q1+q2+q3
equivalent hydraulic conductivity for flow in
kx.i.at= kx1.i.a1 +kx2.i.a2 +kx3.i.a3 parallel layers
kx.i.(H1+H2+H3).b= kx1.i.H1.b+kx2.i.H2.b+kx3.i.H3.b
kx.(H1+H2+H3)= kx1.H1+kx2.H2+kx3.H3
1-D Flow Through Anisotropic Soils (vertical flow)
• in Fig. (b), head loss in each layer
is not same this time
a
Dh=Dh1+Dh2+Dh3
• but the flow rate in each layer
will be same
q=q1=q2=q3,
q=k.i.a=k.(Dh/l).a Dh=q.l/(k.a)
q.(H1+H2+H3)/(kz.a)=q.H1/( kz1.a)+q.H2/( kz2.a)+q.H3/( kz3.a)
equivalent hydraulic conductivity

for vertical flow
Two Dimensional(2-D) Seepage
Revisit to the Hydraulic Gradient (i)
• we defined the hydraulic gradient as
• another way to express it in differential terms is
• similarly for two dimensional space

• if we examine the flow of water into and out of a two dimensional
square element
• flow into the element:
• flow out of the element:
• from continuity (what goes in must come out)
• by cancelling some of the terms

and rearranging
• this equation means that any change
in the velocity of water within the soil
in the x direction must be offset by an
equal and opposite change in the y
direction.
• if we substitute the earlier expressions we get
• when we cancel the k’s, we got the following LaPlacian differential

equation:
• this LaPlacian differential equation describes the flowing water

potential in soil.
• there is a similar equation in three dimensions, x, y, and z.

• we have already made few assumptions in order to derive the LaPlace
equation:
1. the size of the soil element remains constant (i.e. no contraction

or expansion),
2. the soil is homogeneous (i.e. k is constant everywhere in the

soil),
3. the soil is isotropic ,
4. the soil is completely saturated (S=100%).

• The solution to this differential equation is what is useful. But the
boundary conditions involved in most seepage problems makes it too
complex to derive an analytical solution.
• A graphical representation of the solution along with the solution to a

similar differential equation that describes the flow paths of the water is a
set of mutually orthogonal lines in the flow space.
• This plot of the solutions is called a Flow Net. The flow net is a scale
drawing of the solution superimposed(üzerine koymak) on the seepage
space.
Example of a flow net under a dam
• Equipotential lines are the lines of equal total head.
• Flow lines are the lines that describe water flow paths.
Equipotential lines
• Since equipotential lines are the lines of equal total head, if you had imaginary
piezometers, water level should be the same along different points at an
equipotential line.
Figure from Holtz et al. (2011)

Some Properties of the flow nets
• Each flow path [the space between adjacent flow lines] carries the same
amount of flow.
where Nf is the number of flow paths
• The head drop between adjacent equipotential lines is a constant

[except for the possibility of one partial drop].
where Nd is the number of head drops

Example of a flow net under a dam
A detailed look on one of the elements
• from Darcy’s Law we could write
• we recall from earlier that
• by combining the above terms

• for easiness if we set a=b
• setting a=b means the flow net elements should be almost “square” or
“equidimensional”
Steps involved in drawing flow nets
1) Draw cross-section to scale,
2) Identify boundary conditions,
3) Select a value for number of flow channels, Nf,
4) Sketch the initial flow lines,
5) Add equipotential lines,
6) Check for errors and revise the flow net.

Figure 8.4 Example of flow
net construction: (a) geometry
and boundary conditions; (b)
initial iteration of flow net; (c)
adjustment of flow net in second
iteration; (d) refining flow net
by subdivision; and (e) final flow
net.
Hints for drawing flow nets
• drawing a proper flow net is a quite challenging task, requiring lots of
revisions accompanying to the trial-and-error process.
• remember that flow lines must not intersect with each other,
• similarly equipotential lines must not intersect with each other either,
• flow lines and equipotential lines must intersect at right angles,
• b/a ratio must be same for all elements, b=a usually makes drawing
much easier.
• the curves should be smooth.

Flow nets for different cases
What is a flow net useful for?
• mainly for two things
1. Computing seepage quantity using the formula that we just

developed.
2. Computing pore water pressure in cases where seepage is occurring.

Example 1
A small dam cross section is given in the figure below together with a
flow net constructed. The hydraulic conductivity of the foundation soil is
2.5 10-5 m/sec. Determine the quantity of seepage under the dam.
Example 1 Solution
Nf=5, Nd=15
q= k. DHt. Nf/Nd
q= 2.5 10-5m/sec. 4m. 5/15 =3.33 10-5 m3/sec/m

Example 2
Find the water pressure on the right hand side of the sheetpile wall
Example 2
Example 2
the difference of pore water pressure

between the front and back sides of the wall
Example 3
The flow net of a seepage under a concrete dam is given below. Calculate
water pressure at point C.

Groundwater-Permeability: Civl3501 - Soil Mechanics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Groundwater-Permeability: Civl3501 - Soil Mechanics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Groundwater-Permeability: Civl3501 - Soil Mechanics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CIVL3501 - SOIL MECHANICS

Asst. Prof. Dr. Ehsan Etminan

Remember: water existing inbetween the soil particles almost always

Hydraulic Conductivity [Permeability] is the ability of water

• One dimensional in this context, means “one direction”, but the

Total Head = Elevation Head + Pressure Head+Velocity Head

The last term, velocity head will always

The discharge form of Darcy’s Law is

Head loss increases linearly with increasing velocity as long as the

A range of 12 orders of magnitude

• three commonly used laboratory methods for determination of hydraulic

• Also great for gaining an understanding of the correct application of

• Look at Darcy’s Law to see how it works.

• First lets write qin

• Then lets write qout

• when qin = qout

• when qin = qout

• when the integral is taken over the limits

• Seepage velocity is used in geoenvironmental engineering especially for contaminant

which one is greater

Figure 7.20 Flow of water through anisotropic soils.

q.(H1+H2+H3)/(kz.a)=q.H1/( kz1.a)+q.H2/( kz2.a)+q.H3/( kz3.a)

equivalent hydraulic conductivity

• another way to express it in differential terms is

• similarly for two dimensional space

• flow out of the element:

• from continuity (what goes in must come out)

• by cancelling some of the terms

• when we cancel the k’s, we got the following LaPlacian differential

• this LaPlacian differential equation describes the flowing water

• there is a similar equation in three dimensions, x, y, and z.

1. the size of the soil element remains constant (i.e. no contraction

2. the soil is homogeneous (i.e. k is constant everywhere in the

3. the soil is isotropic ,

4. the soil is completely saturated (S=100%).

• A graphical representation of the solution along with the solution to a

Figure from Holtz et al. (2011)

where Nf is the number of flow paths

• The head drop between adjacent equipotential lines is a constant

where Nd is the number of head drops

• we recall from earlier that

• by combining the above terms

2) Identify boundary conditions,

3) Select a value for number of flow channels, Nf,

4) Sketch the initial flow lines,

5) Add equipotential lines,

6) Check for errors and revise the flow net.

• flow lines and equipotential lines must intersect at right angles,

• the curves should be smooth.

1. Computing seepage quantity using the formula that we just

2. Computing pore water pressure in cases where seepage is occurring.

q= 2.5 10-5m/sec. 4m. 5/15 =3.33 10-5 m3/sec/m

the difference of pore water pressure

You might also like