PHYSICS

MEASUREMENTS
AND UNITS

Numbers and units

Measuring length and time

Volume and density

Measuring volume and density

More about mass and density

COMBINING UNITS & RIGHTS AND WRONGS

Combining units can be said as You need to add the si units of a

when you have two or more base unit to an equation other
units working at the same point wise it termed as wrong
and using a formula to link them
Units in physics
G(giga) 1,000,000,000 GW(gigawatt)

M(mega) 1,000,000 (10) MW(megawatt)

k(kilo) 1,000 (10) km(kilometre)

d(deci) 1/10 (10) dm(decimetre)

c(centi) 1/100 (10) cm(centimetre)

m(milli) 1/1,000 (10) mm(millimetre)

h(micro) 1/1,000,000 (10) HW(microwatt)

n(nano) 1/1,000,000,000 (10) nm(nanometre)

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

• Scientific notation is a mathematical way to express very

large or very small numbers using powers of ten. It
simplifies calculations and comparisons by writing
numbers in the form times 10^b, where a is a coefficient
greater than or equal to 1 but less than 10, and b is an
integer representing the power of ten. For example, 3,000
can be written as 3 \times 10^3, and 0.00045 can be
written as 4.5 \times 10^{-4}. This notation makes it
easier to handle and understand numbers that are
otherwise cumbersome to work with.
SI UNITS

• SI units, or International System of Units, are the standard

set of units used globally for scientific and technical
measurements. Established to provide a consistent and
universal system, SI units are based on seven fundamental
quantities: length (meter), mass (kilogram), time (second),
electric current (ampere), thermodynamic temperature
(kelvin), amount of substance (mole), and luminous
intensity (candela). Each fundamental unit serves as the
foundation for derived units, such as the newton for force or
the joule for energy. The SI system ensures uniformity and
precision in scientific communication and measurement
worldwide.
MASS

• Mass is a fundamental property of matter that measures the

amount of substance in an object or system. It quantifies
how much matter is present, regardless of the object's
shape or volume. Mass is a key factor in determining an
object's inertia, or its resistance to changes in motion. It is
typically measured in units such as grams or kilograms and
is a fundamental concept in physics and chemistry. Unlike
weight, which varies with gravity, mass remains constant
regardless of location.
TIME

• Time is a dimension that measures the

progression of events and the intervals between
them. It is a continuous, linear concept that
allows us to quantify and order occurrences from
the past, through the present, and into the future.
Time is typically measured in units such as
seconds, minutes, and hours, and is crucial for
understanding and coordinating activities,
scientific phenomena, and natural processes.
LENGTH

• Length is a fundamental physical quantity that measures

the extent or distance from one end of an object or space
to another. It is used to quantify how long, wide, or tall
something is, providing a way to describe and compare
the dimensions of objects or the distances between
points. Length is typically measured in units such as
meters, centimeters, or inches, and is crucial in various
fields, including geometry, engineering, and everyday
activities. It serves as a fundamental parameter in
understanding and analyzing spatial relationships.
MEASURING
LENGTHS

Measuring lengths involves determining how long or

wide something is by using a standard unit of
measurement. This is typically done with tools like
rulers, tape measures, or calipers. For example, you
might measure a pencil's length in centimeters or
inches by aligning it with the markings on a ruler.
This helps you find out the exact distance between
the two ends of the pencil, allowing you to describe
its size accurately.
The intruments involve calipers, a rule and a tape.
MEASURING TIME

• Measuring time means finding out how long something

takes or when it happens. This is usually done using clocks
or watches, which show time in units like seconds, minutes,
and hours. For example, you might use a stopwatch to see
how long it takes to run a race or check the time on a wall
clock to know when your favorite show starts. This helps us
keep track of events and organize our daily activities.
Click icon to add picture

VOLUME

For solids with regular shapes, volume is

calculated using geometric formulas. The
mass is measured using a balance scale.
Density is then calculated using the formula
ρ=m/V

The formula for volume is v(volume) =

m(mass) / p(density)
The formula for density is p(density) =
m(mass) / v(volume)
 substan p/kgm p/g/cm substan p/kg/m p/g/cm
ce ce
Air 1.3 0.0013 Granite 2700 2.7

polystyren 14 0.014 Aluminu 2700 2.7

DENSITY e m
beech 750 0.75 Steel 7800

Petrol 800 0.80 Copper 8900

Density is a measure of how much
mass is packed into a certain Ice 920 0.92 Lead 11400
volume. It tells us how heavy an
object is for its size. For example,
Polythen 950 0.95 mercury 13600
if you have two objects that are
the same size, but one feels
e
heavier, it has a higher density. Water 1000 1.0 Gold 19300
Density is calculated by dividing
the mass of an object by its
Concrete 2400 2.4 Platinum 21500
volume and is usually expressed
in units like grams per cubic
centimeter or kilograms per liter. glass 2500 2.5 Osmium 22600
DENSITY CALCULATIONS

• Density calculations involve figuring out how dense an

object is by dividing its mass by its volume. To calculate
density, you first measure how much the object weighs (its
mass) and then measure how much space it takes up (its
volume). You then divide the mass by the volume. For
example, if an object has a mass of 100 grams and takes up
50 cubic centimeters of space, its density is 100 grams
divided by 50 cubic centimeters, which equals 2 grams per
cubic centimeter. This tells you how tightly packed the
material is inside the object.
MEASURING VOLUME

Measuring the volume of a regular solid, like a cube or a

rectangular box, is straightforward: you multiply its length,
width, and height. For irregular solids, which don’t have simple
shapes, you use a displacement can. Fill the can with water
and note the level. Then, carefully submerge the irregular
solid into the water and check the new water level. The
volume of the solid is the difference between the initial and
final water levels. This method works because the solid
displaces a volume of water equal to its own volume.
CHECKING THE DENSITY OF A
LIQUID

• Checking the density of a liquid involves measuring its mass

and volume and then calculating the ratio of these two
values. First, you weigh a container empty and then filled
with the liquid to find the mass of the liquid alone. Next,
you measure the volume of the liquid using a graduated
cylinder or similar tool. Finally, you divide the mass by the
volume to obtain the density, typically expressed in units
like grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) or kilograms per
liter (kg/L). This process helps determine how much matter
is packed into a given space within the liquid.
ARCHIMEDES AND THE CROWN

• Archimedes was an ancient Greek mathematician and

inventor known for his contributions to mathematics,
physics, and engineering. One famous story about him
involves determining whether a crown was made of pure
gold. He discovered that by submerging the crown in water
and measuring the amount of water displaced, he could
determine its volume. By comparing the crown's weight to
the weight of an equal volume of water, he could find its
density and thus verify if it was pure gold. This principle,
known as Archimedes' principle, states that a body
submerged in a fluid experiences a buoyant force equal to
the weight of the fluid it displaces.
COMPARING MASSES

• Comparing the masses of liquids involves measuring and

determining how much each liquid weighs. This is usually
done by placing each liquid in a container and using a
balance or scale to measure its mass. For an accurate
comparison, it's important to use the same volume of each
liquid. This process helps to understand the density of
different liquids since a denser liquid will have more mass in
the same volume compared to a less dense liquid.
CHAPTER 2
FORCES AND
MOTION
Speed and velocity

Acceleration

Free fall

Force and mass

Friction

Gravity

Momentum

Vectors and scalars

Circular motion
SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

Speed: Velocity and acceleration:

Velocity is a measure of how quickly an object
Speed is a measure of how quickly an
changes its position, and it includes both the speed
object moves from one place to and the direction of the object's motion. For example,
another. It is calculated by dividing the if a car is moving north at 60 miles per hour, its
velocity is 60 mph north. Unlike speed, which only
distance traveled by the time it takes
considers how fast an object is moving, velocity takes
to travel that distance. Speed is usually into account the direction of movement as well.
measured in units like meters per Acceleration is the rate at which an object's velocity
second (m/s) or miles per hour (mph). changes over time. It can occur as an increase or
decrease in speed and/or a change in direction. For
For example, if a car travels 60 miles in instance, if a car speeds up from 0 to 60 miles per
one hour, its speed is 60 mph. Speed hour in 10 seconds, it is accelerating. Similarly, if it
tells us how fast something is moving slows down or changes direction, it is also
experiencing acceleration. Acceleration is typically
without considering its direction.
measured in meters per second squared (m/s²).
Motion graphs
Motion graphs are visual representations of an object's movement over time. They help us
understand how the position, velocity, and acceleration of an object change. The three most
common types of motion graphs are:

1. **Position-Time Graphs**: These graphs plot an object's position on the vertical axis and time on
the horizontal axis. The slope of the line indicates the object's velocity. A steeper slope means a
higher velocity, while a horizontal line indicates the object is stationary.

2. **Velocity-Time Graphs**: These graphs plot an object's velocity on the vertical axis and time on
the horizontal axis. The slope of the line represents the object's acceleration. A steeper slope
indicates a greater acceleration. A horizontal line means the object is moving at a constant velocity,
and a line at zero means the object is stationary.

3. **Acceleration-Time Graphs**: These graphs plot an object's acceleration on the vertical axis and
time on the horizontal axis. The slope of the line is not typically interpreted, but the area under the
line represents the change in velocity over time.
 Motion graphs

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

RECORDING MOTION

• Recording motion involves capturing the movement of an object over time to analyze
its behavior and characteristics. This can be done using various methods and tools,
such as:

• 1. Video Recording: Using cameras to capture real-time movement, which can later be
analyzed frame by frame to study the object's position, velocity, and acceleration.
• 2. Motion Sensors: Devices like accelerometers and gyroscopes can record the speed,
direction, and acceleration of an object's motion.
• 3. Tracking Software: Programs that analyze video footage to track an object's motion,
providing detailed data on its trajectory, speed, and changes in motion.
• 4. Timing Devices: Using stopwatches or other timing tools to measure how long it
takes an object to move between two points, which can help calculate speed and
velocity.
USING A TICKER TAPE

• Calculations from a ticker tape involve analyzing the data

recorded on a ticker tape, which is a paper strip marked
with time intervals and the positions of a moving object.
By measuring the distance between the marks on the tape
and knowing the time intervals at which they were made,
you can calculate the object's speed and acceleration. For
example, if the tape shows that marks are spaced further
apart over time, it indicates that the object is accelerating.
These calculations help in understanding the object's
motion and dynamics.
Click icon to add picture

FREE FALL

An object that falls through a

vacuum is subjected to only one
external force, the gravitational
force, expressed as the weight of
the object. An object that is moving
only because of the action of
gravity is said to be free falling and
its motion is described by Newton's
second law of motion.
UP AND DOWN

• In free fall, "up" and "down" describe the motion relative to

the Earth's surface. "Down" refers to the direction of
movement toward the Earth due to gravity, which pulls
objects toward the ground. "Up," in this context, is the
opposite direction, away from the Earth. During free fall, an
object accelerates downward at a constant rate due to
gravity, with no other forces acting on it except air
resistance.
Uniform and non uniform
acceleration
Uniform acceleration, also known as constant
acceleration, occurs when an object's velocity changes at
a steady rate over time, such as an object in free fall
near the Earth's surface. In this case, the acceleration
remains constant, and the object's velocity increases by
the same amount each second. Non-uniform
acceleration, on the other hand, happens when the rate
of change of velocity varies, meaning the acceleration
itself is not constant. This can occur in situations where
forces acting on the object change or are affected by
external factors, causing the acceleration to fluctuate.
FORCES IN BALANCE

• Forces are in balance when the total of all forces acting on

an object results in no net force, meaning the object
remains in a state of equilibrium. This occurs when the
forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction,
effectively canceling each other out. As a result, the object
will either remain at rest or continue moving at a constant
velocity if it was already in motion. Balanced forces ensure
that there is no change in the object's motion or
acceleration.
MOTION WITHOUT FORCE

• Motion without force refers to the state where an object

continues moving at a constant velocity without any change
in speed or direction, even in the absence of applied forces.
This situation is described by Newton's First Law of Motion,
which states that an object in motion will remain in motion
with a constant velocity if no net external force acts on it. In
reality, forces such as friction or air resistance often act on
objects, but in an ideal scenario, an object can maintain its
motion indefinitely if no external forces are present.
RESULTANT FORCE

• The resultant force is the single force that represents the

combined effect of all the individual forces acting on an
object. It is found by vectorially adding all the forces
together, considering both their magnitudes and directions.
If the resultant force is zero, the object is in equilibrium,
meaning it will either remain stationary or continue moving
at a constant velocity. If the resultant force is not zero, it
causes the object to accelerate in the direction of the
resultant force, according to Newton's Second Law of
Motion.
LINKING FORCE MASS AND
ACCELERATION

• The link between force, mass, and acceleration is described

by Newton's Second Law of Motion, which states that the
force acting on an object is equal to the mass of the object
multiplied by its acceleration. Mathematically, it is
expressed as F = m times a where F is the force, m is the
mass, and a is the acceleration. This law shows that for a
given force, a more massive object will experience less
acceleration, while a larger force will result in greater
acceleration, provided the mass remains constant.
DEFINING NEWTON

• Defining Newton, in a scientific context, typically refers to

explaining Sir Isaac Newton's contributions to physics,
particularly his laws of motion and universal gravitation.
Newton's laws of motion describe how objects move in
response to forces, with his First Law stating that an object
will remain at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon
by a net external force, his Second Law linking force, mass,
and acceleration F = m times a and his Third Law stating
that for every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction. Additionally, Newton formulated the law of
universal gravitation, which posits that every mass attracts
every other mass with a force proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
Terminal velocity
Terminal velocity is the maximum speed attainable by an
object as it falls through a fluid (air is the most common
example). It is reached when the sum of the drag force
(Fd) and the buoyancy is equal to the downward force of
gravity (FG) acting on the object. Since the net force on
the object is zero, the object has zero acceleration.[1][2]
For objects falling through air at normal pressure, the
buoyant force is usually dismissed and not taken into
account, as its effects are negligible
FRICTION

Friction is a force that opposes the

relative motion or tendency of
motion between two surfaces in
contact. It acts parallel to the
surfaces in contact and is caused by
the microscopic irregularities of the
surfaces and intermolecular forces
between them.
TYPES OF FRICTION

Static Friction: Acts between

stationary surfaces in contact,
preventing them from sliding
relative to each other until a force is
applied that exceeds the static
frictional force.

Kinetic Friction: Acts between

surfaces that are sliding relative to
each other. It is generally slightly
less than static friction.
FRICTION HIGHS AND LOWS
Nature of friction
Friction arises when two surfaces are in contact and tend
to slide past each other or have a tendency to do so.
It occurs due to the roughness of surfaces at a
microscopic level, which interlocks when they come into
contact.
FORCE , WEIGHT AND GRAVITY

• A force is a push or pull that can cause an object with mass

to accelerate. It is capable of changing the state of motion
of an object or deforming it if the object is not rigid.

• Weight is the force with which a mass is attracted towards

the center of the Earth or any other celestial body with
gravity. It is commonly measured in Newtons (N), the same
unit as force, because weight is indeed a force.

• Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between any two

objects with mass. The larger the mass of the objects, the
stronger the gravitational attraction between them.
Action and reaction
Newton's third law states: "For every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction.“ This law emphasizes that
forces always occur in pairs. When one object exerts a
force on another object (action), the second object
simultaneously exerts a force of equal magnitude and
opposite direction on the first object (reaction). Despite
being equal in magnitude and opposite in direction,
action and reaction forces do not cancel each other out
because they act on different objects.
Newton’s third law of motion
Newton's Third Law of Motion states: "For every action,
there is an equal and opposite reaction." This means that
whenever one object exerts a force on a second object,
the second object exerts an equal force in the opposite
direction on the first object. This law explains why forces
always come in pairs and helps to understand
interactions such as how a rocket propels itself by
expelling gas downward and moving upward in response.
Momentum
Momentum occurs when a mass of an object if moving at
a particular speed
Momentum is connected to the following formulas :
• Impulse
• Velocity
• Speed
Impulse
Impulse is a measure of how much a force changes an
object's momentum over a period of time. It is calculated
by multiplying the force applied by the time it is applied.
Essentially, impulse shows the effect of a force on an
object's movement and helps to understand how the
object's speed or direction changes as a result.

Resultant force x time = change in momentum

Conservation f Momentum
Conservation of momentum in physics is a fundamental
principle that states that the total momentum of a closed
system remains constant if no external forces are acting
on it. In simpler terms, this means that if there are no
external forces exerted on a system of objects (or
particles), the total momentum before an event (such as
a collision) is equal to the total momentum after the
event.
Collision problem
The collision problem in physics involves analyzing what
happens when two or more objects crash into each other.
It focuses on how their speeds and directions change as a
result of the impact. Key aspects include understanding
the forces involved, how momentum and energy are
transferred or conserved, and predicting the outcome of
the collision. This analysis helps explain real-world
phenomena like car crashes, sports impacts, and particle
interactions.
Moving in circles
Centripetal Force: This is the force that causes an
object to move in a circular path. According to Newton's
first law of motion, an object will continue moving in a
straight line at a constant speed unless acted upon by a
force. In the case of circular motion, this force must be
directed towards the center of the circle and is called the
centripetal force. It is responsible for changing the
direction of the object's velocity continuously, keeping it
in its circular path.
Vectors and scalars
Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude (size)
and direction. For example, velocity and force are vectors
because they describe not only how much but also which
direction something is moving or being applied.
Scalars are quantities that have only magnitude, with no
direction. Examples of scalars include temperature,
mass, and time. They describe how much of something
there is but not which direction it’s in.
Parallelogram rule
The parallelogram rule is a method for adding two vectors. It
states that if you have two vectors represented as adjacent
sides of a parallelogram, the diagonal of the parallelogram that
starts from the same point as the vectors represents their
resultant vector. To use this rule:
1. Draw the two vectors as adjacent sides of a parallelogram.
2. Complete the parallelogram by drawing the other two sides.
3. The diagonal of the parallelogram that extends from the
common starting point of the two vectors represents the
resultant vector in both magnitude and direction.
Components of a vector
The components of a vector are the projections of the vector along the
coordinate axes. In a two-dimensional coordinate system, a vector can be
broken down into two components:
1. Horizontal Component (x-component): This is the projection of the vector
along the x-axis. It represents how far the vector extends in the horizontal
direction.
2. Vertical Component (y-component): This is the projection of the vector
along the y-axis. It represents how far the vector extends in the vertical
direction.
In a three-dimensional coordinate system, a vector has three components:
1. x-component: The projection along the x-axis.
2. y-component: The projection along the y-axis.
3. z-component: The projection along the z-axis.
Centripetal acceleration
Centripetal Acceleration: When an object moves in a
circle, it accelerates towards the center of the circle. This
acceleration is called centripetal acceleration and is

Its magnitude is given by the formula:𝑎𝑐=𝑣2𝑟a c​ = rv 2 ​

always directed inward, towards the center of the circle.

where 𝑣v is the speed of the object and 𝑟r is the radius of

the circle.
Changing velocity
Changing velocity while moving in a circle refers to the
variation in the direction of the object's velocity vector as
it follows a circular path. Even though the speed (the
magnitude of the velocity) remains constant, the velocity
is constantly changing because the direction of motion is
continually changing. This change in direction is due to
the centripetal force, which acts perpendicular to the
object's velocity and towards the center of the circle. The
continuous change in direction results in centripetal
acceleration, which keeps the object moving along the
circular path.
Orbits
Orbits in circular motion refer to the path that an object
follows when it moves around a central point or body in a
circular path. This type of motion occurs when an object
is constantly being pulled toward the center by a
centripetal force, which keeps it from flying off in a
straight line. For example, the planets orbit the Sun in
nearly circular paths due to the gravitational pull of the
Sun. In circular orbits, the object's speed is constant, but
its direction changes continuously, resulting in a
centripetal acceleration toward the center of the circle.
CHAPTER 3
Forces and pressure
Pressure in physics is defined as the force per unit area
applied perpendicular to the surface of an object. It
quantifies how much force is acting on a given area.
Mathematically, pressure PPP is expressed as:
P=F/A
where:
•F is the force acting perpendicular to the surface,
•A is the area over which the force is applied.
Turning eff ect of a force
Torque or the turning effect of a force is the measure of
the force's ability to cause an object to rotate about an
axis. It depends on both the magnitude of the force and
the distance from the axis or point of rotation where the
force is applied.

The formula for this is τ=r×F×sin(θ)

Moment of a force
The moment of a force, also known as torque, is a
measure of the rotational effect of a force applied to a
point at a distance from a pivot or axis of rotation. It
quantifies how much a force will cause an object to rotate
around that axis. Mathematically, the moment (M) is
calculated as:
M = F times d
where F is the magnitude of the force and d is the
perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force
to the pivot point. The greater the distance or the larger
the force, the greater the moment, which means the
greater the tendency to cause rotational motion.
Conditions for equilibrum
If an object is in equilibrium , the forces must balance as
well as their turning effects so:
• The sum of the forces in one direction must me equal to the
sum of the foces in the opposite direction
• The principle of moments must apply
What is the principle of moment?
The principle of moment states that the object in question must
be in a state of equilibrium and the sum of anticlockwise
moment is equal to the sum of clockwise moment
Center of gravity
The center of gravity (CG) of an object is the single point where the
force of gravity can be considered to act upon the object's mass,
causing it to experience weight. It is the average location of the mass
distribution within the object, determining its stability and equilibrium.
For symmetrical objects with uniform density, the center of gravity
coincides with the geometric center. However, for irregularly shaped
objects or those with varying densities, the center of gravity may be
located away from the geometric center. Calculating the center of
gravity involves analyzing the distribution of mass and applying
mathematical methods such as geometric principles or calculus.
Understanding the center of gravity is essential in fields like
engineering, physics, and architecture for designing stable structures
and ensuring safe operation of vehicles and equipment.
Finding the centre of gravity
Finding the center of gravity of an object involves determining the
point where the object's weight is evenly distributed and where it
can be perfectly balanced. This point, also known as the center of
mass, can be found using several methods:
1.Balancing Method: Suspend the object from different points and
mark the vertical lines that pass through the suspension points. The
intersection of these lines indicates the center of gravity.
2.Mathematical Calculation: For complex shapes, use
mathematical formulas or integration based on the distribution of
mass and the object's geometry to calculate the center of gravity.
3.Experimental Method: Use physical models or simulations to
identify the point at which the object balances evenly.
Stability
Stability in physics refers to the ability of an object or system to
return to its original position or state after being disturbed. It is a
measure of how well an object can resist being tipped over,
displaced, or altered by external forces. In equilibrium, an object
is stable if small disturbances cause it to return to its original
position, indicating a low center of gravity relative to its support
base. Factors influencing stability include the distribution of
mass, the location of the center of gravity, and the size and
shape of the object's base of support. Understanding stability is
crucial in fields like mechanics, engineering, and architecture,
where it informs the design of structures, vehicles, and
equipment to ensure safety and functionality under various
conditions of use.x
STATES OF
EQUILIBRIUM

Stable equilibrium

Unstable equilibrium

Neutral equilibrium
THE HEAVY BAR
PROBLEM

The heavy bar problem refers to a classic physics

scenario where a uniform bar of known length and weight
is balanced on a pivot point or fulcrum. The challenge lies
in determining the exact position along the bar where a
weight must be applied to keep it balanced horizontally.
This problem illustrates principles of torque and the
center of gravity: the bar remains balanced when the
torques (moments) on either side of the pivot point are
equal. The solution involves calculating the center of
gravity of the bar and using this information to determine
the necessary position for the added weight to achieve
equilibrium. The heavy bar problem is fundamental in
understanding rotational equilibrium and is a common
example in physics education and engineering studies.
The crane problem
The crane problem in moments refers to a physics scenario where the
equilibrium of a crane arm or boom is analyzed using principles of
moments (or torques). In this context, the crane's stability and balance
are crucial factors in determining its operational safety and efficiency.
The problem typically involves calculating the torques generated by
the weight of the crane's load and the counterweights, as well as any
additional forces or moments acting on the crane structure. By
ensuring that the sum of all torques around the pivot point (usually the
crane's base) equals zero, engineers and operators can ensure that
the crane remains stable and does not tip over during lifting
operations. The crane problem in moments is fundamental in
structural and mechanical engineering, providing insights into how
forces and torques interact to maintain equilibrium in complex
systems.
Stretching and compressing
Stretching and compressing refer to changes in the dimensions of an
object due to the application of forces. Stretching occurs when forces act
to lengthen or elongate an object, increasing its linear dimensions along
the direction of the applied force. This is typically seen in materials like
rubber bands or springs under tension. Compressing, on the other hand,
involves forces that decrease the linear dimensions of an object by
pushing its parts closer together. Examples include the compression of a
spring or the squeezing of a sponge. Both stretching and compressing
are manifestations of mechanical stress, where internal forces within the
material resist or accommodate the applied external forces, affecting the
object's shape and dimensions. Understanding these concepts is
essential in fields like material science, structural engineering, and
mechanics, where the behavior of materials under different loading
conditions is analyzed and utilized in various applications.
Hooke’s Law
Hooke's Law states that the force required to extend or compress
a spring or elastic material is directly proportional to the
displacement or deformation of the material from its equilibrium
position. Mathematically, it can be expressed as F = -kx , where F
is the restoring force exerted by the spring, k is the spring
constant (a measure of the stiffness of the spring), and x is the
displacement or deformation from the equilibrium position.
Hooke's Law applies as long as the elastic limit of the material is
not exceeded, meaning the material returns to its original shape
and size when the deforming force is removed. This law is
fundamental in physics and engineering for understanding the
behavior of springs, elastic materials, and systems subjected to
small deformations.
SPRING CONSTANT

• The spring constant, often denoted as k is a measure of the stiffness

or rigidity of a spring or elastic material. It represents the amount of
force required to stretch or compress the spring by a unit distance
(typically one meter or one inch). Mathematically, the spring constant
is defined as the ratio of the applied force F to the resulting
displacement x, expressed as k = F/x . In Hooke's Law, which governs
the behavior of elastic materials, the spring constant determines how
much restoring force the spring exerts when it is stretched or
compressed from its equilibrium position. A higher spring constant
indicates a stiffer spring that requires more force to achieve the same
amount of deformation, whereas a lower spring constant indicates a
more flexible spring. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed
under CC BY-SA-NC
PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS

• In liquids, pressure is distributed uniformly in all directions due to the fluid's ability to
flow and conform to its container. Here are key points describing pressure in liquids:

• 1. Pascal's Law: Pressure exerted at any point in a confined fluid is transmitted

equally and undiminished in all directions throughout the fluid and to the walls of its
container. This principle explains why liquids in containers exert pressure uniformly
on all surfaces.

• 2. Hydrostatic Pressure: This is the pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a

given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity. The pressure increases with
depth in the liquid and is given by P =rho gh , where rho is the density of the liquid g
is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is the depth of the liquid.

• 4. Buoyancy: Objects submerged in a liquid experience an upward buoyant force

equal to the weight of the displaced liquid. This force is due to the pressure difference
between the top and bottom of the submerged object and helps explain why objects
float or sink.
PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS EXAMPLES

Calculate the pressure exerted by a column of water

10 meters deep. Assume the density of water rho is 3. **Substitute Values into the Formula:**
1000 kg/m³, and the acceleration due to gravity g
\[ P = 1000 \text{ kg/m³} 9.81 m/s²10 m
is \( 9.81 \) m/s².
1. **Identify Given Data:**
4. **Calculate the Pressure:**
- Depth of water h: 10 meters
\[ P = 1000 x 9.81 x 10
- Density of water (\( \rho \)): \( 1000 \) kg/m³
\[ P = 98100 Pascal (Pa)
- Acceleration due to gravity (\( g \)): \( 9.81 \) m/s²

5. **Convert Pressure to Standard Units (Optional):**

2. **Formula for Pressure in a Liquid:**
- \( 1 \) Pascal (Pa) \( = 1 \) Newton per square meter
The pressure P at a depth h in a liquid is given by (N/m²)
the formula:
- \( 98100 \) Pa \( = 98100 \) N/m²
P =rho g h
between depth, density, and gravitational acceleration.
CALCUL ATING
PRESSURE IN
LIQUIDS

Volume of liquid = base area x

depth
Mass of liquid = density x volume
Weight of liquid = mas x g
Atmospheric pressure
Finding atmospheric pressure involves measuring the
force exerted by the weight of the air above a given
point. This can be done using a barometer, an instrument
specifically designed to measure air pressure. The
barometer typically consists of a column of mercury or an
aneroid capsule. In a mercury barometer, the height of
the mercury column corresponds to the atmospheric
pressure. In an aneroid barometer, changes in pressure
cause a small, flexible metal chamber to expand or
contract, and this movement is translated into pressure
readings. Atmospheric pressure can also be measured
indirectly using weather balloons or other specialized
instruments.
The mercury barometer
The mercury barometer is a device used to measure
atmospheric pressure. It consists of a long, sealed glass
tube filled with mercury, with one end open and
submerged in a dish of mercury. The atmospheric
pressure pushes down on the mercury in the dish,
causing the mercury in the tube to rise. The height of the
mercury column in the tube is proportional to the
atmospheric pressure. This height is measured and used
to determine the pressure of the air. The mercury
barometer is known for its accuracy and has been a
fundamental tool in meteorology for measuring air
pressure.
Standard atmospheric pressure
Standard atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted
by the Earth's atmosphere at sea level, which is typically
defined as 101.3 kilopascals (kPa), or 1 atmosphere
(atm). This value is used as a reference point for
measuring and comparing pressures in various scientific
and engineering applications.
The manometer
A manometer is an instrument used to measure the
pressure of gases or liquids. It typically consists of a U-
shaped tube filled with a fluid, often mercury or water.
One end of the tube is open to the fluid whose pressure is
being measured, while the other end is exposed to a
reference pressure, such as atmospheric pressure. By
observing the difference in fluid levels between the two
ends of the tube, the pressure difference can be
calculated. Manometers are commonly used in various
applications, including laboratory experiments, industrial
processes, and HVAC systems.
CHAPTER 4
ENERGY TRANSFER

Example: A 1000-watt (W) electric heater is used to heat a

Energy can be transferred in various forms, such as: room for 30 minutes. Calculate the amount of energy
Mechanical energy (kinetic and potential) transferred to the room.
Electrical energy
Given: Power of the heater = 1000 W
Thermal energy
Time of operation = 30 minutes = 0.5 hours
Light energy
Energy = Power x Time
Sound energy Energy = 1000 W x 0.5 hours
Energy can be converted from one form to another, Energy = 500 Watt-hours (Wh)
but the total amount of energy is conserved (Law To convert to Joules (J):
of Conservation of Energy) Energy = 500 Wh x 3600 seconds/hour
Energy = 1,800,000 Joules (J)
Therefore, the amount of energy transferred to the room by
the 1000-watt electric heater in 30 minutes is 1,800,000
Joules.
ENERGY AND ENERGY STORES

• energy is the capacity to perform work or produce change

in a system. It can exist in different forms, such as kinetic
energy (energy of motion), potential energy (stored energy
due to position or condition), and thermal energy (heat).
Energy is a fundamental concept in physics and
engineering, representing the ability to cause physical
changes or perform tasks. Moving obeject can store energy
as well as materials made up from particles
ENERGY STORES
• Kinetic energy = energy gotten from a moving object

• Gph = it is the energy gotten when an object is thrown and

falls due to gravity

• Elastic energy = the energy a stretched rubber band has

• Chemical energy = the energy between chemical bonds of

atoms

• Electrostatic energy = when electric forces attract and are

separated

• Nuclear energy = the neutrons and protons ae held

together
ENERGY PATHWAYS

Energy pathways refer to the various routes or processes

through which energy is transferred or transformed from one
form to another or from one part of a system to another.
These pathways describe how energy moves and changes as
it interacts with different components or systems. For
example:

• Mechanically

• Electrically by a current

• By heating because of a temperature difference

• By radiation
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

• The conservation of energy is a fundamental principle in

physics stating that energy cannot be created or destroyed,
only transformed from one form to another or transferred
between objects. According to this principle, the total
energy in a closed system remains constant over time. This
means that the amount of energy present before a process
or event must be equal to the amount of energy present
afterward, though the energy may change forms—such as
from kinetic to potential energy, or from chemical to
thermal energy.
WASTING ENERGY

Wasting energy refers to the loss or inefficient use of energy

that does not contribute to the intended purpose or desired
outcome of a process or system. It occurs when energy is
transformed into forms that are not useful or are dissipated
into the environment, such as heat or sound, rather than
being used for productive work. For example, leaving lights on
in an unoccupied room or using outdated appliances that
consume more energy than necessary can result in energy
waste. Reducing energy waste is important for improving
efficiency, lowering costs, and minimizing environmental
impact.
WORK DONE AND ENERGY
TRANSFERRED

• Work done is the measure of energy transferred when a

force acts on an object and causes it to move. It is
calculated as the product of the force applied and the
distance over which the force is exerted, in the direction of
the force. Mathematically, work done (W)

• Energy transferred refers to the movement of energy from

one place or form to another. When work is done on an
object, energy is transferred to or from that object. For
instance, when a ball is lifted, energy is transferred from the
person lifting it to the ball in the form of gravitational
potential energy. Similarly, when a car engine operates,
chemical energy from fuel is transferred into kinetic energy
WORK AND ENERGY

Work: Example: A person pushes a box with a force of 50 Newtons (N)

and the box moves a distance of 2 meters (m). Calculate the
Work is the transfer of energy due to the application work done.
of a force
Given:
The formula for work is: Work = Force x Displacement Force (F) = 50 N
Displacement (d) = 2 m
Unit of work: Joule (J)
Energy: Energy is the ability to do work Work = Force x Displacement

There are different forms of energy, such as kinetic Work = 50 N x 2 m

energy, potential energy, and thermal energy
Work = 100 Joules (J)
Energy can be transformed from one form to another
Therefore, the work done in pushing the box a distance of 2
meters with a force of 50 Newtons is 100 Joules.
CALCULATING PE AND KE

Potential Energy (PE): Definition: Energy stored Example

due to an object's position or condition.
•Given:
• Mass (m) = 5 kg
Formula: PE = mgh M = mass (kg )G = • Height (h) = 10 m
acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s² )H = height • Velocity (v) = 3 m/s
•Calculate PE:
(m) • PE=mghPE = mghPE=mgh
• PE=5×9.8×10PE = 5 \times 9.8 \times 10PE=5×9.8×10
• PE=490 Joules (J)PE = 490 \, \text{Joules (J)}PE=490Joules
Kinetic Energy (KE):Definition: Energy an object (J)
has due to its motion. Formula: KE •Calculate KE:
• KE=12mv2KE = \frac{1}{2}mv^2KE=21​mv2
12mv2\2mv^221​mv2 • KE=12×5×(3)2KE = \frac{1}{2} \times 5 \times (3)^2KE=21​
×5×(3)2
•
M = mass (kg) KE=12×5×9KE = \frac{1}{2} \times 5 \times 9KE=21​×5×9

• KE=22.5 Joules (J)KE = 22.5 \, \text{Joules (J)}KE=22.5Joules

V = velocity (m/s) (J)
SCALAR ENERGY

Scalar energy is the energy that is described by magnitude

alone, without any associated direction. In physics, scalar
quantities have only size or amount, and energy itself is often
considered a scalar quantity. For example, thermal energy,
electrical energy, and chemical energy are all types of scalar
energy because they are described by their magnitude
(amount of energy) but do not involve direction. Scalar energy
focuses on the quantity of energy rather than how it is
oriented or applied.
KE AND PE PROBLEMS

• Kinetic Energy (KE) Problems: These problems involve calculating the energy of
an object in motion. The kinetic energy is given by the formula:

where m is the mass of the object and v is its velocity. Problems might ask for the
kinetic energy of a moving car, a thrown ball, or any object with a known mass
and speed.

• Potential Energy (PE) Problems: These problems involve calculating the stored
energy due to an object's position or state. For gravitational potential energy,
the formula is:

• PE = m g h

• where m is the mass of the object, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and h is
the height above a reference point. Problems might ask for the potential energy
of an elevated object, such as a book on a shelf or a rock on a hill.
POWER PROBLEMS

• Power Problems: These problems involve calculating the

rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. Power is
defined as:

• Power = work / time

• or

• Power = energy / time

• where work is the energy used to perform a task, and time

is the duration over which the work is done. Problems might
ask for the power output of a machine, the power
consumption of an appliance, or the rate at which energy is
MORE POWER PROBLEMS

• Work = force x distance

• Useful power output = useful work done/ time taken

• Efficiency = useful power output / total power input

EFFICIENCY AND POWER

Efficiency: Definition: Measure of how well Example:

energy is converted from one form to another. Given:

Total energy input = 200 J ,Useful energy output =
•Formula: Efficiency=(Useful energy output / 150 J
Total energy input) × 100% Power: Work done = 300 J . Time taken = 10 s
Calculate Efficiency:
•Definition: The rate at which work is done or
Efficiency= (Useful energy output / Total energy
energy is transferred. input) × 100%
•Formula: P= W / t Efficiency = (150/200) X
• P = Power (Watts, W) 100% ,Efficiency=0.75×100%

• W = Work done/Energy transferred Efficiency=75%

(Joules, J) Calculate Power:

P= W/t
• T = Time taken (seconds, s) P= 300/10
ENERGY FOR ELECTRICITY
Energy Use in Electricity:
Usage: Electrical energy is Energy Wastage:
used to power homes,
Inefficiencies: Not all electrical
industries, and various
energy is converted into useful
devices. Conversion:
energy; some is wasted as heat
Electrical energy is
due to resistance in wires and
converted into useful forms
components.
like light, heat, and
mechanical energy. Heat Loss: Devices like
incandescent bulbs and old
appliances waste a significant
portion of energy as heat.
THERMAL
EFFECTS

Thermal effects in physics refer to the changes

and phenomena caused by the transfer of heat
energy. These effects include thermal expansion
(the increase in size of a substance when
heated), changes in material properties like
conductivity and viscosity with temperature,
phase transitions such as melting and boiling,
and the generation of thermal radiation.
Understanding thermal effects is crucial in fields
ranging from engineering and materials science
to atmospheric physics and cosmology, where
heat transfer plays a fundamental role in
processes and system behavior.
RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

• Hydroelectric energy

• Tidal energy

• Wind energy

• Wave energy

• Geothermal energy

• Solar energy

• Biofuels
5
MOVING PARTICLES
Moving particles in physics refer to
objects or entities whose positions
change over time due to their kinetic Applying Newton's Laws:
energy. In classical mechanics, the
motion of particles is described using
•Newton's second law (F⃗=ma⃗)
principles such as Newton's laws of relates the net force (F⃗) acting on
motion, which govern how forces cause the particle to its acceleration (a⃗).
acceleration and change in velocity. In Calculate the forces acting on the
quantum mechanics, particles can
particle, such as gravitational,
exhibit wave-like properties and are
described by wavefunctions that evolve electromagnetic, or frictional
according to the Schrödinger equation. forces.
Understanding the behavior of moving
•If the forces are known functions
particles is fundamental to explaining
phenomena across all scales, from the of position and time, use them to
motion of atoms and molecules in find the acceleration
gases to the trajectories of planets in
SOLIDS LIQUIDS AND GAS
BROWNIAN MOTION

• Brownian motion is the random motion of particles

suspended in a medium. This motion pattern typically
consists of random fluctuations in a particle's position inside
a fluid sub-domain, followed by a relocation to another sub-
domain. Each relocation is followed by more fluctuations
within the new closed volume.

• The random motion by small particles suspended in the

fluid is known as Brownian motion. It is a zig-zag motion of
the particles. The particles move randomly as they are
bombarded by the other particles in the liquid. This motion
can occur even without any external force applied.
CONVECTION

Convection in physics refers to the Convection is connected to the

process of heat or mass transfer within
following:
a fluid (liquid or gas) due to the
movement of the fluid itself. It occurs - Heat transfer
when warmer, less dense fluid rises,
carrying energy or particles with it, - Heat flux
while cooler, denser fluid sinks to - Mass flux
replace it. This movement creates
currents and redistributes heat or
substances within the fluid. Convection
is a significant mechanism in natural
phenomena such as the circulation of
air in the atmosphere, ocean currents,
and the flow of magma in the Earth's
mantle. Understanding convection is
THE CELCIUS SCALE

• Celsius scale based on 0° for the freezing point of water and

100° for the boiling point of water. Invented in 1742 by the
Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, it is sometimes called
the centigrade scale because of the 100-degree interval
between the defined points.
THERMOMETERS

• When the tip of the mercury thermometer touches

the material it is measuring, the material conducts
heat energy to the mercury. Then the mercury
expands as it turns into a liquid and begins to rise up
the tube. The place where the mercury stops on the
scale is where you can take the reading of the
temperature.
ABSOLUTE 0 AND KELVIN SCALE
THERMAL RADIATION

• Thermal radiation refers to electromagnetic radiation emitted by a

substance due to its temperature. Unlike conduction and convection,
which require a medium to transfer heat, thermal radiation can occur
in a vacuum or through transparent media. This radiation is
characterized by wavelengths typically in the infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum, although it can extend into the visible and
ultraviolet ranges depending on the temperature of the emitting body.
According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, the power radiated per unit
area by a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature. Thermal radiation plays a significant role in energy
transfer between objects and is crucial in various applications,
including heat transfer, climate science, astronomy, and the design of
thermal imaging systems.
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

• Specific heat capacity, often simply called specific heat, refers to the amount
of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass (typically one
gram or one kilogram) of a substance by one degree Celsius (or Kelvin). It is a
physical property that varies depending on the substance and is usually
denoted by the symbol \( C \).

• Q is the amount of heat energy transferred to the substance,

• m is the mass of the substance,

• Delta T is the change in temperature.

• The SI unit of specific heat capacity is joules per kilogram per degree Celsius
J/kg°C or joules per gram per degree Celsius J/g°C. Specific heat capacity is
essential in understanding and calculating heat transfer processes, such as
heating and cooling, in various materials and systems.
LATENT HEAT

• Latent heat refers to the energy absorbed or released by a

substance during a phase change, such as melting,
freezing, evaporation, or condensation, without a
corresponding change in temperature. It represents the
amount of heat required to alter the state of a substance,
either from solid to liquid (latent heat of fusion) or from
liquid to gas (latent heat of vaporization), and vice versa.
This phenomenon occurs because the energy is used to
break or form intermolecular bonds rather than to change
the kinetic energy (temperature) of the substance. Latent
heat is crucial in various natural and industrial processes,
influencing phenomena from weather patterns to material
processing and energy transfer mechanisms.
TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL
WAVES

• Transverse and longitudinal waves are two fundamental

types of mechanical waves that propagate through a
medium. Transverse waves oscillate perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation, causing particles of the
medium to move up and down or side to side. Examples
include waves on a string or electromagnetic waves. In
contrast, longitudinal waves oscillate parallel to the
direction of wave propagation, causing particles of the
medium to move back and forth in the direction of the
wave. Sound waves traveling through air or compression
waves in a spring are common examples of longitudinal
waves. Understanding these wave types is essential in
fields such as physics, engineering, and acoustics, where
SPEED OF SOUNDS AND ECHOES

In physics, the speed of sound refers to the velocity at which

sound waves propagate through a medium. This velocity
depends on the properties of the medium, such as its density
and elasticity. In an idealized scenario at standard
temperature and pressure (STP), the speed of sound in dry air
at sea level is approximately 343 meters per second (m/s) or
about 1235 kilometers per hour (km/h). However, this speed
can vary depending on factors such as temperature, humidity,
and the composition of the medium.
ULTRASOUND

• In physics, ultrasounds refer to high-frequency sound waves with

frequencies above the upper limit of human hearing, typically
greater than 20,000 Hertz (Hz). These waves propagate through a
medium and exhibit properties similar to audible sound waves but
are not perceptible to the human ear. Ultrasound waves are widely
used in medical imaging, such as ultrasound scans, where they
penetrate tissues and reflect off boundaries between different
tissues to create images. They are also utilized in industrial
applications for non-destructive testing, cleaning, and
measurement due to their ability to propagate through solids,
liquids, and gases with minimal energy loss. Ultrasounds play a
crucial role in both diagnostic and technical fields, contributing to
advancements in healthcare, engineering, and scientific research.
RAYS AND WAVES

• Rays are used to describe the directional path of energy or

particles as they travel through space or a medium. In
geometric optics, rays are imaginary lines that indicate the
direction and path of light as it travels through lenses,
mirrors, or other optical systems. These rays are often used
in ray tracing to predict the behavior of light rays in optical
devices or in studying the reflection and refraction of light.
Rays are also used in particle physics to describe the
trajectory of particles such as electrons, protons, or
photons.
WAVES

• Waves, on the other hand, refer to disturbances that

propagate through a medium or space, transferring energy
without necessarily transferring matter. Waves exhibit
characteristics such as amplitude (height of the wave),
wavelength (distance between successive crests or
troughs), frequency (number of wave cycles per second),
and speed. Examples of waves include electromagnetic
waves (such as light and radio waves), sound waves
(compression waves in air or other materials), and water
waves. Waves are fundamental in describing a wide range
of phenomena in physics, from quantum mechanics and
optics to acoustics and fluid dynamics.
REFLECTION IN PLANE MIRRORS

• Reflection in plane mirrors refers to the phenomenon where

light (or electromagnetic waves) striking a smooth surface is
redirected back into the same medium, maintaining its original
properties. When light rays hit a plane mirror, they obey the
law of reflection: the angle of incidence (the angle between the
incident ray and the normal to the surface) is equal to the
angle of reflection (the angle between the reflected ray and the
normal). This process results in a virtual image being formed
behind the mirror, where the image appears to be as far behind
the mirror as the object is in front of it, and laterally inverted.
Plane mirrors are fundamental in optics for applications such as
reflection in telescopes, periscopes, and everyday mirrors,
providing crucial insights into the behavior of light and
electromagnetic waves.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Refraction of light in physics refers to the bending of light rays

as they pass from one transparent medium to another with
different optical densities. This phenomenon occurs because
light travels at different speeds in different mediums, causing
the direction of propagation to change at the boundary
between the two mediums. According to Snell's Law, the angle
of refraction (the angle between the refracted ray and the
normal to the surface) depends on the angle of incidence and
the refractive indices of the two mediums. Refraction is
responsible for various optical effects, such as the apparent
bending of objects viewed through water, the formation of
rainbows, and the focusing of light through lenses.
LENSES

• Lenses in physics are transparent optical devices that

refract (bend) light to converge or diverge rays, focusing or
spreading them to form images. They are typically made of
glass or plastic and have curved surfaces—either convex
(thicker in the middle) or concave (thinner in the middle).
Convex lenses converge light rays to a focal point on the
opposite side, used in magnifying glasses, cameras, and
telescopes. Concave lenses diverge light rays and are
commonly used in corrective eyeglasses for vision
correction. Lenses operate based on principles such as
Snell's Law of refraction and the thin lens equation, which
relate focal length, object distance, and image distance.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electromagnetic waves in physics are transverse waves

composed of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that
propagate through space at the speed of light (c). These
waves are generated by the acceleration of charged particles
and encompass a broad spectrum of frequencies and
wavelengths, collectively known as the electromagnetic
spectrum. At lower frequencies are radio waves, followed by
microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet
radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays at higher frequencies.
Electromagnetic waves exhibit properties such as wavelength
(lambda), frequency (f), and energy (E), and they can travel
through a vacuum as well as through various media
ELECTRIC CHARGE

• In physics, electric charge is a fundamental property of

matter that determines how it interacts with electric and
magnetic fields. There are two types of electric charges:
positive and negative. Like charges repel each other, while
opposite charges attract. Electric charge is quantized,
meaning it exists in discrete amounts, with the smallest unit
being the charge of an electron. Objects can acquire electric
charge through processes such as friction, induction, or
contact with other charged objects. The behavior of electric
charges is governed by Coulomb's law, which describes the
electrostatic force between charges, and they are a
cornerstone of electromagnetism, influencing phenomena
from the behavior of atoms and molecules to the operation
RESISTANCE

• In physics, resistance refers to the property of a material or

device that impedes the flow of electric current. It is
measured in ohms and is denoted by the symbol R .
Resistance arises from collisions between moving electrons
and atoms within a conductor, which converts electrical
energy into heat. Materials with high resistance, such as
ceramics or rubber, restrict current flow significantly, while
conductors like metals offer low resistance. Resistance is a
fundamental concept in electricity and electronics,
determining the efficiency of electrical circuits, the behavior
of components like resistors, and the transmission of power
in electrical systems.
SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

• In a series circuit, components are arranged sequentially so

that the same current flows through each component
consecutively. This means that there is only one path for the
current to follow. The total resistance RtotalR, Rtotal​ in a
series circuit is the sum of the individual resistances R1,R2,
…,RnR_1, R_2, , R_nR1​,R2​,…,Rn​. The voltage across each
component adds up to the total voltage VtotalV, Vtotal​
applied to the circuit. Series circuits are characterized by a
constant current through all components and a voltage drop
across each component.
PARALLEL CIRCUITS

• In a parallel circuit, components are connected across

common points, creating multiple paths for the current to
flow. Each component has the same voltage across it, equal
to the total voltage applied to the circuit​. The total
resistance in a parallel circuit is given by the reciprocal of
the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances ​.
Parallel circuits allow for independent currents through each
branch, providing redundancy and flexibility in designing
complex electrical systems.
MAGNETS

• Magnets are materials or objects that produce a magnetic

field. They have two main properties: magnetic poles (north
and south) and the ability to attract or repel other magnets
or magnetic materials such as iron. Magnets can be natural,
such as lodestone, or artificial, created from materials like
iron, nickel, and cobalt. The magnetic field around a magnet
extends from its north pole to its south pole, and magnetic
field lines represent the direction and strength of this field.
ELECTROMAGNETS

• Electromagnets are devices in physics that generate

magnetic fields using electric current. They consist of a coil
of wire wrapped around a core material (often iron or steel).
When an electric current flows through the coil, it creates a
magnetic field around the core. The strength of the
magnetic field can be controlled by varying the amount of
current flowing through the coil or by changing the number
of turns in the coil. Electromagnets are widely used in
applications where the magnetic field needs to be easily
manipulated or turned on and off, such as in electric
motors, transformers, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
machines, and various industrial applications like magnetic
separation and lifting
GENERATORS

• Generators in physics are devices that convert mechanical

energy into electrical energy through electromagnetic
induction. They operate on the principle that a changing
magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) in a
conductor. Generators typically consist of a coil of wire
(armature) rotating within a magnetic field generated by
either permanent magnets or electromagnets. As the
armature rotates, the magnetic field passing through it
changes, inducing an alternating current (AC) in the coil.
This alternating current can then be converted into a usable
form of electrical power through transformers and rectifiers
COILS AND TRANSFORMERS

• Coils in physics refer to wound loops or spirals of wire used

to generate or manipulate electromagnetic fields. They are
fundamental components in electromagnets, inductors, and
transformers. Coils create magnetic fields when an electric
current passes through them, and vice versa—they induce
electric currents when exposed to changing magnetic fields.
Transformers, on the other hand, are devices consisting of
two or more coils of wire (typically wound around a common
core) that transfer electrical energy between circuits
through electromagnetic induction. They operate on the
principle that varying current in one coil (primary winding)
induces a voltage in another coil (secondary winding) due to
mutual induction.
NUCLEAR RADIATION

• In physics, nuclear radiation refers to the particles and

electromagnetic waves emitted from the nucleus of an
unstable atom undergoing radioactive decay. These
emissions include alpha particles (helium nuclei), beta
particles (electrons or positrons), and gamma rays (high-
energy photons). Radioactive decay occurs spontaneously
as unstable nuclei seek a more stable configuration,
releasing energy in the form of radiation. Nuclear radiation
is ionizing, meaning it can strip electrons from atoms,
causing chemical changes and potentially harmful effects
on living organisms.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY

• radioactive decay is the spontaneous process through which

unstable atomic nuclei emit particles or electromagnetic
radiation, transforming into more stable nuclei. This process
occurs in radioactive isotopes, which have excess energy or
mass compared to stable isotopes. There are several types
of radioactive decay: alpha decay, where an alpha particle
(two protons and two neutrons) is emitted; beta decay,
where a beta particle (either an electron or positron) is
emitted; and gamma decay, where a gamma ray (high-
energy photon) is released to stabilize the nucleus.
NUCLEAR ENERGY

nuclear decay, also known as radioactive decay, is the process

by which unstable atomic nuclei spontaneously transform,
emitting particles or electromagnetic radiation to achieve a
more stable configuration. This process occurs in radioactive
isotopes where the nucleus undergoes changes due to internal
instability, typically due to an imbalance of protons and
neutrons or excess energy. There are several types of nuclear
decay: alpha decay, where an alpha particle (two protons and
two neutrons) is emitted; beta decay, where a beta particle
(electron or positron) is emitted; and gamma decay, where a
high-energy photon (gamma ray) is emitted
THE SOLAR SYSTEM

In physics, the solar system refers to the gravitationally bound

system comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit it,
including planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and other
celestial bodies. The Sun, a star at the center of the system,
provides heat and light to the planets through nuclear fusion.
The eight planets in the solar system (Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) orbit the Sun in
elliptical paths, following Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
Moons orbit planets, and smaller objects such as asteroids and
comets are scattered throughout. The solar system is an
example of a planetary system and serves as a fundamental
model for studying celestial mechanics, planetary formation,
and the conditions necessary for life.
OBJECTS IN ORBIT

• In physics, objects in orbit refer to bodies, such as satellites

or planets, that travel around a central mass due to
gravitational attraction. The motion of these objects is
governed by Newton's laws of motion and the law of
universal gravitation. Depending on their speed and
distance from the central mass, orbits can be circular,
elliptical, or parabolic. The stability and characteristics of
orbits are crucial for applications like satellite
communication, navigation systems, and understanding
celestial mechanics in astronomy and astrophysics.
SUN, STARS AND GALAXIES

• In physics, the Sun, stars, and galaxies are fundamental

components of the universe. The Sun is a medium-sized
star at the center of our solar system, radiating energy
through nuclear fusion. Stars are massive, luminous spheres
of plasma primarily composed of hydrogen and helium,
where nuclear fusion reactions sustain their energy output.
Galaxies are vast systems comprising billions to trillions of
stars, along with interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter,
bound together by gravity. They come in various shapes
such as spiral, elliptical, and irregular, and are the building
blocks of the cosmic structure, serving as laboratories for
studying stellar evolution, cosmology, and the nature of
dark matter and dark energy.
THE SOLAR
SYSYTEM