Physics

Course Outline

Topic one: UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

Basic Units of Measurements

Applications of Dimensional Analysis

Topic two: PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Elasticity

Surface Tension

Topic three: FLUID MECHANICS

Pressure

Hydrostatic Principles

Types of Valves

Topic Four: STATICS

Factors Affecting Equilibrium

Applications Of Static Forces

TOPIC FIVE: DYNAMICS

Newton’s Laws Of Motion

Inertia

Momentum

Topic six: HEAT

Definition of terms

Temperature scales and types of thermometers

Methods of determining heat capacity

Calculation involving heat capacities

Application of heat capacities heat capacities and latent heat

Heat transfers

Topic seven: LIGHT

Properties of light

Interference of light

Diffraction of light

Polarization of light

Topic eight: OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Types of optical instruments

Power of a lens

Working principle of microscope

Topic nine: ELECTRICITY AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

Magnetism

Magnetization and demagnetization

Current electricity

Electromagnetism

Application of Electromagnetism
A.C theory

Electrochemistry

Topic ten: CHARGED PARTICLES

Electric field on a charged particle

Thermionic emissions

Use of C.R.O

Photoelectric effects

Production of X-rays

Radioactivity
 PHYSICS MODULE

TOPIC ONE: UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

Basic Units of Measurements

In order to measure we need to know or define the quantity to be measured and the
units for measuring it. In 1971 a system known as the International System of Units
(Systeme’ International- SI units) and seven basic units were agreed upon as follows.
Other quantities can be/derived obtained from these basic quantities and are
referred to as derived quantities.

Basic quantity SI units Symbol

s
Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Thermodynamic Kelvin K
temperature
Luminous intensity Candela Cd
Amount of substance Mole mol

Applications of Dimensional Analysis

Length
This is the measure of distance between two points in space. The SI unit for length is
the metre (m).Therefore 1 km = 1000 m
1 Hm = 100 m
1 Dm= 10 m
1 mm = 0.001 m
Length is measured using a metre rule (100 cm), tape measure (100 m, 300 m, 500 m)

Area
This is the measure of the extent of a surface. It is a derived quantity of length. Its SI
units are square metres (m2). Other units are cm2, km2, etc. Formulas are used to
determine areas of regular bodies while for irregular bodies an approximation of
area is used.

Volume
This is the amount of space occupied by matter. The SI units for volume are cubic
metre (m3). Other sub-multiples are cm3, mm3 and l. Hence 1 m3 = 1,000,000 cm3 and
1l= 1,000 cm3. Volume can be measured using a measuring cylinder, eureka can,
pipette, burette, volumetric flask, beaker, etc.
Mass
This is the quantity of matter contained in a substance. Matter is anything that
occupies space and has weight. The SI unit for mass is the Kilogram (kg). Other sub-
multiples used are grams (g), milligrams (mg) and tonnes (t). 1 kg = 1,000 g =
1,000,000 mg=100 tonnes. A beam balance is used to measure mass.

Density
This is mass per unit volume of a substance. It is symbolized by rho (ρ) and its SI
unit are kg/m3. Density = mass / volume.

Examples
1. A block of glass of mass 187.5 g is 5.0 cm long, 2.0 cm thick and 7.5 cm high.
Calculate the density of the glass in kgm-3.
Solution
Density = mass / volume = (187.5 /1000) /(2.0 × 7.5 × 5.0 /1,000,000) = 2,500
kgm-3.

2. The density of concentrated sulphuric acid is 1.8 g/cm 3. Calculate the volume of 3.1
kg of the acid.
Solution
Volume = mass / density = 3,100 / 1.8 = 1,722 cm3 or 0.001722 m3.
Example
The mass of an empty density bottle is 20 g. Its mass when filled with water is 40.0 g and
50.0 g when filled with liquid X. Calculate the density of liquid X if the density of water is
1,000 kgm-3.
Solution
Mass of water = 40 – 20 = 20 g = 0.02 kg.
Volume of water = 0.02 / 1,000 = 0.00002 m3. Volume of liquid = volume of bottle
Mass of liquid = 50 – 20 = 30 g = 0.03 kg
Therefore density of liquid = 0.03 / 0.00002 = 1,500 kgm-3

Relative density
This is the density of a substance compared to the density of water.
It is symbolized by (d) and has no units since it’s a ratio.
Relative density (d) = density of substance / density of water.
It is measured using a relative density bottle
Example
The relative density of some type of wood is 0.8. Find the density of the wood in kg/m3.
Solution
Density of substance = d × density of water
Density of substance = 0.8 × 1,000 = 800 kgm-3

Densities of mixtures
We use the following formula to calculate densities of mixtures
Density of the mixture = mass of the mixture / volume of the mixture
Example
100 cm3 of fresh water of density 1,000 kgm -3 is mixed with 100 cm3 of sea water of density
1030 kgm-3. Calculate the density of the mixture.
Solution
Mass = density × volume
Mass of fresh water = 1,000 × 0.0001 = 0.1 kg
Mass of sea water = 1030 × 0.0001 = 0.103 kg
Mass of mixture = 0.1 + 0.103 = 0.203 kg
Volume of mixture = 100 + 100 = 200 cm3 = 0.0002 m3
Therefore density = mass / volume = 0.203 / 0.0002 =1,015 kg/m3.

Time
This is a measure of duration of an event. The SI unit for time is the second (s). Sub-
multiples of the second are milliseconds, microseconds, minute, hour, day, week and
year. It is measured using clocks, stop watches, wrist watches, and digital watches.

Accuracy and errors

Accuracy is the closeness of a measurement to the correct value of the quantity
being measured. It is expressed as an error. An error is therefore the deviation of
measurement to the correct value being measured. The smaller the error the accurate
the measurement.

% error = (sensitivity / size measured) × 100.

 TOPIC TWO: PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Elasticity

Elasticity is that property of the object by virtue of which it regain its original
configuration after the removal of the deforming force.

Elastic Limit
Elastic limit is the upper limit of deforming force upto which, if deforming force is
removed, the body regains its original form completely and beyond which if
deforming force is increased the body loses its property of elasticity and get
permanently deformed.

Perfectly Elastic Bodies

Those bodies which regain its original configuration immediately and completely
after the removal of deforming force are called perfectly elastic bodies. e.g., quartz
and phosphor bronze etc.

Perfectly Plastic Bodies

Those bodies which does not regain its original configuration at all on the removal of
deforming force are called perfectly plastic bodies, e.g., putty, paraffin, wax etc.

Stress
The internal restoring force acting per unit area of a deformed body is called stress.

Stress = Restoring force / Area

Its unit is N/m2 or Pascal and dimensional formula is [ML-12T-2].

Stress is a tensor quantity.

Stress is of Two Types

(i) Normal Stress If deforming force is applied normal to the area, then the stress is
called normal stress.

If there is an increase in length, then stress is called tensile stress.

If there is a decrease in length, then stress is called compression stress.
(ii) Tangential Stress If deforming force is applied tangentially, then the stress is
called tangential stress.
Strain
The fractional change in configuration is called strain.

Strain = Change in the configuration / Original configuration

It has no unit and it is a dimensionless quantity.

According to the change in configuration, the strain is of three types

(1) Longitudinal strain= Change in length / Original length

(2) Volumetric strain = Change in volume / Original volume

(iii) Shearing strain = Angular displacement of the plane perpendicular to the fixed
surface.

Hooke’s Law
Within the limit of elasticity, the stress is proportional to the strain.

When a stretching force (tensile force) is applied to an object, it will extend. We

cannot use it to deduce the behavior of another object even if it is made of the same
material. This is because extension of an object is not only dependent on the material
but also on other factors like dimensions of the object (e.g. length, thickness etc.) It is
therefore more useful to find out about the characteristic extension property of the
material itself. This can be done if we draw a graph in which deformation is
independent of dimensions of the object under test.
Stress
Stress is defined as the force per unit area of a material.
I.e. Stress = force / cross sectional area:

where,
σ = stress,
F = force applied, and
A= cross sectional area of the object.
Units of s: Nm-2 or Pa.
Strain
Strain is defined as extension per unit length.
Strain = extension / original length

where,
ε = strain,
lo = the original length
e = extension = (l-lo), and
l = stretched length

Surface Tension

Surface tension – this is the force which causes the surface of a liquid to behave like a
stretched skin. This force is cohesive.

This is a force that causes the surface of a liquid to behave like a stretched plastic
skin.
The force is due to the force of attraction between individual molecules in a liquid.
Its due to this force that liquids form drops, water wets the surface but runs off
others, some insects like pond skaters manage to rest on the surface of water without
sinking, water rises up in narrow glass tubes but mercury is pushed down to a lower
level in the same tube and steel needle or razor blade floats on water even though
steel is denser than water
experiment:
to investigate the behaviour of a liquid surface
apparatus:
beaker, water, soup solution, razor blade or steel needle.
Procedure:

 Fill the beaker with clean water to the brim as shown

 Place a dry steel needle or razor blade at the edge of the beaker and carefully
introduce it on the surface of water. Take care not to break the surface of
water. Observe what happens.
 Put a few drops of soap solution and observe what happens.
 Depress the tip of the needle into the water and observe what happens.

OBSERVATIONS
  The razor blade/needle floats on the surface of water and remains resting so
long as the water surface is not broken.
 When drops of soap solution are put on the surface of the water around the
razor blade/steel needle, the razor blade/steel needle sinks after a few
minutes.
 Depressing the razor blade highly allows it to sink very quickly

Explanation

 The razor blade/needle floats because the surface of water behaves like a
fully stretched, thin, elastic skin. The force which causes the surface of a liquid
to behave like a stretched skin is called surface tension. This force is due to the
force of attraction individual molecules of the liquid. (Cohesive force)
 The needle or blade sinks when drops of soap solution are put near the
razor/needle because the soap solution reduces surface tension of the water.
 When the tip of the needle or razor is depressed into the liquid, it pierces the
surface skin and sinks.

Molecular explanation of surface tension

A Molecule say C deep in the liquid is surrounded by molecules on all sides so that
the net force in it is zero. However, molecules of the surface, say A and B will have
fewer molecules on the vapour side and hence it will experience a resultant inward
force causing the surface of the liquid to be in tension.
Factors Affecting Surface Tension

1. Impurities – impurities reduces surface tension of a liquid. Detergents

weaken the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules.
2. Temperature – Increasing the temperature of a liquid increases kinetic theory
of molecules. The inter-molecular distance increases and the force of cohesion
is decreased hence surface tension is lowered.

Consequences/effects of surface tension

 Water insects can rest on the surface of water without breaking the surface.
The insects skate across the surface at high speed.
  Mosquito larvae float on water surface. Oiling the surface using kerosene
lower surface tension making larvae to sink.

TOPIC THREE: FLUID MECHANICS

Introduction

Fluid mechanics = science that deals with the behaviour of fluids at rest
(hydrostatics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids
or other fluids at the boundaries.

Fluid – A substance in the liquid or gas phase

Steady – No change at a point in time i. This is important because it defines a state of

consistency that allows for basic calculations under normal parameters. Analysis
becomes incredibly more difficult under varying or oscillatory fluid behaviour.

Pressure

Pressure is defined as the force acting normally (perpendicularly) per unit area. The
SI units for pressure is newton per metre squared (N/m2). One Nm-2 is known as one
Pascal (Pa).
Pressure = normal force / area or pressure = thrust / area. Another unit for
measuring pressure is the bar. 1 bar = 105 N/m2. 1 millibar = 100 N/m2.
Calculating pressure
Examples
1. A man of mass 84 kg stands upright on a floor. If the area of contact of his shoes and the
floor is 420 cm2, determine the average pressure he exerts on the floor. (Take g = 10
N/Kg)
Solution
Pressure = force / area = 840 / 0.042 = 20,000 Nm-2.

Pressure in liquids.
The following formula is used to determine pressure in liquids.
Pressure = h ρ g, where h – height of the liquid, ρ – density and g – is force of gravity.
Examples
1. A diver is 10 m below the surface of water in a dam. If the density of water is 1,000 kgm-3,
determine the pressure due to the water on the diver. (Take g = 10 Nkg-1)
Solution

Pressure = h ρ g = 10 × 1000 × 10 = 100,000 Nm-2.

2. The density of mercury is 13,600 kgm-3. Determine the liquid pressure at a point 76 cm
below the surface of mercury. (Take g = 10 Nkg-1)
Solution
Pressure = h ρ g = 0.76 × 13,600 × 10 = 103,360 Nm-2.
3. The height of the mercury column in a barometer is found to be 67.0 cm at a certain
place. What would be the height of a water barometer at the same place? (Densities of
mercury and water are 1.36 × 104 kg/m3 and 1.0 × 103 kg/m3 respectively.)
Solution
Let the pressure due to water be h1ρ1g1 = h ρ g, hence;
h1 = h ρ / ρ1= (6.7 × 10-1) × (1.36 × 104) = 911.2 cm or 9.11 m.

Hydrostatic Principles

Types of Valves
Topic Four: STATICS

Statics is the branch of mechanics dealing with forces acting on objects that are not
accelerating.

When all the forces that act upon an object are balanced, then the object is said to be
in a state of equilibrium. The forces are considered to be balanced if the rightward
forces are balanced by the leftward forces and the upward forces are balanced by the
downward forces. This however does not necessarily mean that all the forces
are equal to each other. Consider the two objects pictured in the force diagram shown
below. Note that the two objects are at equilibrium because the forces that act upon
them are balanced; however, the individual forces are not equal to each other. The 50
N force is not equal to the 30 N force.

If an object is at equilibrium, then the forces are balanced. Balanced is the key word
that is used to describe equilibrium situations. Thus, the net force is zero and the
acceleration is 0 m/s/s. Objects at equilibrium must have an acceleration of 0 m/s/s.
This extends from Newton's first law of motion. But having an acceleration of 0
m/s/s does not mean the object is at rest. An object at equilibrium is either ...
 at rest and staying at rest, or
 in motion and continuing in motion with the same speed and direction.
Statics
Static is the branch of mechanics which deals with the study of bodies at rest under a
number of forces, the equilibrium, conditions of equilibrium, types of equilibrium,
torque etc.
Equilibrium
A body is said to be in equilibrium if it is at rest or moving with uniform velocity.
In other words if the linear and angular acceleration of a body are zero, the body is
said to be in equilibrium.
Or we can say that when two or more forces act on a body such that their resultant
or combining effect on the body is zero and the body retains its state of rest or of
uniform motion then the body is said to be in equilibrium.
Example
A book lies on the table, suspended bodies, all stationary bodies, jump by using
parachute.
Types of equilibrium
With respect to the state of a body, equilibrium may be divided into two categories:
1. Static equilibrium. 2. Dynamic equilibrium.
Static equilibrium
If the combined effect of all the forces acting on a body is zero and the body is in the
state of rest then its equilibrium is termed as static equilibrium. For example: All
stationary bodies
Dynamic equilibrium
When a body is in state of uniform motion and the resultant of all forces acting upon
it is zero then it is said to be in dynamic equilibrium. For example: Jump by using
parachute.
Conditions of
equilibrium
There are two conditions of equilibrium are as follows
First condition of
equilibrium
The first condition of equilibrium stated as follows:
To maintain transitional equilibrium in a body the vector sum of all the forces
acting on the
body is equal to zero.In other words we can say that to maintain equilibrium the
sum of all the forces acting along X-axis is zero and the sum of all the forces acting
along Y-axis is zero.
Second condition of equilibrium
The second condition of equilibrium stated as follows:
A body will be in rotational equilibrium when the vector sum of all the torques
acting on it is zero.
 TOPIC FIVE: DYNAMICS

Newton’s Laws Of Motion

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Newton’s first law (law of inertia)

This law states that “According to Newton’s first principle, a body that is at rest or
moving at a uniform rate in a straight line will remain in that state until some
force is applied to it.”. The mass of a body is a measure of its inertia. Inertia is the
property that keeps an object in its state of motion and resists any efforts to change
it.

Newton’s second law (law of momentum)

Momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and its velocity.

The second law says that when an external force acts on a body, it produces

an acceleration (change in velocity) of the body in the direction of the force. The
magnitude of the acceleration is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
external force and inversely proportional to the quantity of matter in the body.

Momentum ‘p’=mv. The SI unit for momentum is kgm/s or Ns. The Newton’s
second law states that “The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to
the applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts”

Change in momentum= mv-mu

Rate of change of momentum= mv-mu/∆t

Generally the second law gives rise to the equation of force F=ma

Hence F=mv-mu/∆t and F∆t=mv-mu

The quantity F∆t is called impulse and is equal to the change of momentum of the
body. The SI unit for impulse is Ns.

In physics, the property or tendency of a moving object to continue moving. For an

object moving in a line, the momentum is the mass of the object multiplied by its
velocity (linear momentum); thus, a slowly moving, very massive body and a
rapidly moving, light body can have the same momentum.
In Newtonian mechanics, linear momentum, translational momentum, or
simply momentum (pl. momenta) is the product of the mass and velocity of an
object. It is a three-dimensional vector quantity, possessing a magnitude and a
 direction. If m is an object's mass and v is the velocity (also a vector), then the
momentum is
p = m * v
 p = momentum
 m = mass
 v = velocity
Example.

Calculate the momentum of the give objects.

a. A basketball ball having 2kg mass and 6m/s velocity moves to the east
P=m*v
2kg *6m/s= 12kg.6m/s east.
Solve the following.
a) A car having 15m/s velocity and 1500kg mass moves to the north
b) A child having mass 25kg and velocity 2m/s moves to the west

In SI units, it is measured in kilogram meters per second (kg⋅m/s). Newton's second

law of motion states that a body's rate of change in momentum is equal to the net
force acting on it.
Momentum depends on the frame of reference, but in any inertial frame it is
a conserved quantity, meaning that if a closed system is not affected by external
forces, its total linear momentum does not change. Momentum is also conserved
in special relativity, (with a modified formula) and, in a modified form,
in electrodynamics, quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, and general
relativity.

Examples

1. A van of mass 3 metric tons is travelling at a velocity of 72 km/h. Calculate the

momentum of the vehicle.
Solution
Momentum=mv=72km/h=(20m/s)×3×103 kg
=6.0×104kgm/s

2. A truck weighs 1.0×105 N and is free to move. What force will give it an acceleration
of 1.5 m/s2? (take g=10N/kg)
Solution
Mass of the truck = (1.0×105)/10=6.0×104
Using F=ma
=1.5×10×104
=1.5×104 N
 3. A car of mass 1,200 kg travelling at 45 m/s is brought to rest in 9 seconds. Calculate
the average retardation of the car and the average force applied by the brakes.
Solution
Since the car comes to rest, v=0, a=(v-u)/t =(0-45)/9=-5m/s (retardation)
F=ma =(1200×-5) N =-6,000 N (braking force)
4. A truck of mass 2,000 kg starts from rest on horizontal rails. Find the speed 3 seconds
after starting if the tractive force by the engine is 1,000 N.
Solution
Impulse = Ft=1,000×3= 3,000 Ns
Let v be the velocity after 3 seconds. Since the truck was initially at rest then
u=0.
Change in momentum=mv-mu
= (2,000×v) - (2,000×0)
=2,000 v
But impulse=change in momentum
2,000 v = 3,000
v = 3/2=1.5 m/s.

Weight of a body in a lift or elevator

When a body is in a lift at rest then the weight
W=mg
When the lift moves upwards with acceleration ‘a’ then the weight becomes
W = m (a+g)
If the lift moves downwards with acceleration ‘a’ then the weight becomes
W = m (g-a)
Example
A girl of mass stands inside a lift which is accelerated upwards at a rate of 2 m/s2.
Determine the reaction of the lift at the girls’ feet.
Solution
Let the reaction at the girls’ feet be ‘R’ and the weight ‘W’
The resultant force F= R-W
= (R-500) N
Using F = ma, then R-500= 50×2, R= 100+500 = 600 N.

Newton’s third law (law of interaction)

This law states that “For every action or force there is an equal and opposite force or
reaction”
Newton’s third law states that when one body exerts a force on another body, the
second body exerts an equal force on the first body. This principle of action and
reaction explains why a force tends to deform a body (i.e., change its shape) whether
or not it causes the body to move. The deformation of a body can usually be
neglected when investigating its motion.

Example
A girl of mass 50 Kg stands on roller skates near a wall. She pushes herself against the wall
with a force of 30N. If the ground is horizontal and the friction on the roller skates is
negligible, determine her acceleration from the wall.
Solution
Action = reaction = 30 N
Force of acceleration from the wall = 30 N
F = ma
a = F/m = 30/50 = 0.6 m/s2

Linear collisions
Linear collision occurs when two bodies collide head-on and move along the same
straight line. There are two types of collisions;
a) Inelastic collision: - this occurs when two bodies collide and stick together i.e.
hitting putty on a wall. Momentum is conserved.
b) Elastic collision: - occurs when bodies collide and bounce off each other after
collision. Both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.

Collisions bring about a law derived from both Newton’s third law and conservation
of momentum. This law is known as the law of conservation of linear momentum
which states that “when no outside forces act on a system of moving objects, the
total momentum of the system stays constant”.
Examples
1. A bullet of mass 0.005 kg is fired from a gun of mass 0.5 kg. If the muzzle velocity of
the bullet is 300 m/s, determine the recoil velocity of the gun.
Solution
Initial momentum of the bullet and the gun is zero since they are at rest.
Momentum of the bullet after firing = (0.005×350) = 1.75 kgm/s
But momentum before firing = momentum after firing hence
0 = 1.75 + 0.5 v where ‘v’ = recoil velocity
0.5 v = -1.75
v =-1.75/0.5 = - 3.5 m/s (recoil velocity)
2. A resultant force of 12 N acts on a body of mass 2 kg for 10 seconds. What is the
change in momentum of the body?
Solution
Change in momentum = ∆P = mv – mu= Ft
= 12×10 = 12 Ns
3. A minibus of mass 1,500 kg travelling at a constant velocity of 72 km/h collides head-
on with a stationary car of mass 900 kg. The impact takes 2 seconds before the two
move together at a constant velocity for 20 seconds. Calculate
a) The common velocity
b) The distance moved after the impact
c) The impulsive force
d) The change in kinetic energy
Solution
 a) Let the common velocity be ‘v’
Momentum before collision = momentum after collision
(1500×20) + (900×0) = (1500 +900)v
30,000 = 2,400v
v = 30,000/2,400 = 12.5 m/s (common velocity)
b) After impact, the two bodies move together as one with a velocity of 12.5
m/s
Distance = velocity × time
= 12.5×20
= 250m
c) Impulse = change in momentum
= 1500 (20-12.5) for minibus or
=900 (12.5 – 0) for the car
= 11,250 Ns
Impulse force F = impulse/time = 11,250/2 = 5,625 N
d) K.E before collision = ½ × 1,500 × 202 = 3 × 105 J
K.E after collision = ½ × 2400 × 12.52 = 1.875×105 J
Therefore, change in K.E =(3.00 – 1.875) × 105 = 1.25× 105 J

Some of the applications of the law of conservation of momentum

1. Rocket and jet propulsion: - rocket propels itself forward by forcing out its
exhaust gases. The hot gases are pushed through exhaust nozzle at high
velocity therefore gaining momentum to move forward.
2. The garden sprinkler: - as water passes through the nozzle at high pressure it
forces the sprinkler to rotate.

Solid friction
Friction is a force which opposes or tends to oppose the relative motion of two
surfaces in contact with each other.
Measuring frictional forces
We can relate weight of bodies in contact and the force between them. This
relationship is called coefficient of friction. Coefficient of friction is defined as the
ratio of the force needed to overcome friction Ff to the perpendicular force between
the surfaces Fn. Hence
µ = Ff / Fn
Examples
1. A box of mass 50 kg is dragged on a horizontal floor by means of a rope tied to its
front. If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the floor and the box is 0.30, what is
the force required to move the box at uniform speed?
Solution
Ff = µFn
Fn= weight = 50×10 = 500 N
 Ff = 0.30 × 500 = 150 N

2. A block of metal with a mass of 20 kg requires a horizontal force of 50 N to pull it

with uniform velocity along a horizontal surface. Calculate the coefficient of friction
between the surface and the block. (take g = 10 m/s)
Solution
Since motion is uniform, the applied force is equal to the frictional force
Fn = normal reaction = weight = 20 ×10 = 200 N
Therefore, µ =Ff / Fn = 50/ 200 = 0.25.

Laws of friction
It is difficult to perform experiments involving friction and thus the following
statements should therefore be taken merely as approximate descriptions: -
1. Friction is always parallel to the contact surface and in the opposite direction to
the force tending to produce or producing motion.
2. Friction depends on the nature of the surfaces and materials in contact with each
other.
3. Sliding (kinetic) friction is less than static friction (friction before the body starts
to slide).
4. Kinetic friction is independent of speed.
5. Friction is independent of the area of contact.
6. Friction is proportional to the force pressing the two surfaces together.
Applications of friction

1. Match stick
2. Chewing food
3. Brakes
4. Motion of motor vehicles
5. Walking
Methods of reducing friction
1. Rollers
2. Ball bearings in vehicles and machines
3. Lubrication / oiling
4. Air cushioning in hovercrafts

Example
A wooden box of mass 30 kg rests on a rough floor. The coefficient of friction between the
floor and the box is 0.6. Calculate
a) The force required to just move the box
b) If a force of 200 N is applied the box with what acceleration will it move?
Solution
a) Frictional force Ff = µFn = µ(mg)
= 0.6×30×10 = 180 N
b) The resultant force = 200 – 180 = 20 N
From F =ma, then 20 = 30 a
a = 20 / 30 = 0.67 m/s2
 TOPIC SIX: HEAT

Definition of terms

Heat is a form of energy that flows from one body to another due to temperature
differences between them.

Temperature scales and types of thermometers

Methods of determining heat capacity

Heat capacity is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
a given mass of a substance by one degree Celsius or one Kelvin. It is denoted by ‘C’.

Heat capacity, C = heat absorbed, Q / temperature change θ.

The units of heat capacity are J / 0C or J / K.

S.H.C of a substance is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg

of a substance by 1 0C or 1 K. It is denoted by ‘c’, hence,

c = Q / m θ where Q – quantity of heat, m – mass andθ – change in temperature.

The units for ‘c’ are J kg-1 K-1. Also Q = m c θ.

Examples

1. A block of metal of mass 1.5 kg which is suitably insulated is heated from 30 0C to 50

0
C in 8 minutes and 20 seconds by an electric heater coil rated54 watts. Find;
a) The quantity of heat supplied by the heater
b) The heat capacity of the block
c) Its specific heat capacity
Solution
1. Quantity of heat = power × time = P t
= 54 × 500 = 27,000 J
2. Heat capacity, C = Q / θ = 27,000 / (50 – 30) = 1,350 J Kg-1 K-1
3. Specific heat capacity, c = C / m = 1,350 / 1.5 = 900 J Kg-1 K-1
2. If 300 g of paraffin is heated with an immersion heater rated 40 W, what is the
temperature after 3 minutes if the initial temperature was 20 0C? (S.H.C for paraffin
= 2,200 J Kg-1 K-1).
Solution
Energy = P t = m c θ = Q = quantity of heat.
P t = 40 × 180 = 7,200 J
m = 0.30 kg c = 2,200, θ = ..?
Q = m c θ, θ = Q / m c = 7,200 / (0.3 × 2,200) = 10.9 0C
 3. A piece of copper of mass 60 g and specific heat capacity 390 J Kg-1 K-1 cools from 90
0
C to 40 0C. Find the quantity of heat given out.
Solution
Q = m c θ, = 60 × 10-3 × 390 × 50 = 1,170 J.

Determination of specific heat capacity

A calorimeter is used to determine the specific heat capacity of a substance. This
uses the principle of heat gained by a substance is equal to the heat lost by another
substance in contact with each other until equilibrium is achieved. Heat losses in
calorimeter are controlled such that no losses occur or they are very minimal.

Examples
1. A 50 W heating coil is immersed in a liquid contained in an insulated flask of
negligible heat capacity. If the mass of the liquid is 10 g and its temperature increases
by 10 0C in 2 minutes, find the specific heat capacity of the liquid.
Solution
Heat delivered (P t) = 50 × 2 × 60 = 2,400 J
Heat gained = 0.1 × c × 10 J
Therefore ‘c’ = 2,400 / 0.1 × 10 = 2,400 J Kg-1 K-1
2. A metal cylindermass 0.5 kg is heated electrically. If the voltmeter reads 15V, the
ammeter 0.3A and the temperatures of the block rises from 20 0C to 85 0C in ten
minutes. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the metal cylinder.
Solution
Heat gained = heat lost, V I t = m c θ
15 × 3 × 10 × 60 = 0.5 × c × 65
c = (15 × 3 × 600)/ 0.5 × 65 = 831 J Kg-1 K-1

Fusion and latent heat of fusion

Fusion is the change of state from solid to liquid. Change of state from liquid to
solid is called solidification. Latent heat of fusion is the heat energy absorbed or
given out during fusion. Specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity
of heat energy required to change completely 1 kg of a substance at its melting point
into liquid without change in temperature. It is represented by the symbol (L), we
use the following formula,
Q = m Lf
Different substances have different latent heat of fusion.
Factors affecting the melting point
a) Pressure
b) Dissolved substances
Specific latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat required to change
completely 1 kg of a liquid at its normal boiling point to vapour without changing
its temperature. Hence
Q = m Lv
The SI unit for specific latent heat of vaporization is J / Kg.
Example
An immersion heater rated 600 W is placed in water. After the water starts to boil, the heater
is left on for 6 minutes. It is found that the mass of the water had reduced by 0.10 kg in that
time. Estimate the specific heat of vaporization of steam.
Solution
Heat given out by the heater = P t = 600 × 6 × 60
Heat absorbed by steam = 0.10 × L v
Heat gained = heat lost, therefore, 600 × 6 × 60 = 0.10 × L v = 2.16 × 106 J / Kg
Evaporation
Factors affecting the rate of evaporation
a) Temperature
b) Surface area
c) Draught (hot and dry surrounding)
d) Humidity
Comparison between boiling and evaporation
Evaporation Boiling
1. Takes place at all temperature - takes place at a specific temperature
2. Takes place on the surface (no bubbles formed)- takes place throughout the
liquid ( bubbles formed)
3. Decrease in atmospheric pressure increases the rate –decreases as atmospheric
pressure lowers
Applications of cooling by evaporation
1. Sweating
2. Cooling of water in a porous pot
3. The refrigerator

Heat transfers

HEAT TRANSFER.
Heat is transferred in matter through the following methods: conduction,
convection and radiation.
Conduction
This is the transfer of heat in solids. The rate of conduction depends on
1. Amount of temperature – the higher the temperature the higher the rate of transfer.
2. Cross-sectional area – the larger the cross-sectional area the higher the transfer.
3. Length of material – the shorter the material the higher the rate of transfer.
4. Type of material – different materials transfer heat at different rates.
Good and bad conductors
Conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. Good conductors of heat
are those materials which are able to transfer heat easily and steadily. Bad
conductors are those which do not conduct heat.
Experiment: Comparing thermal conductivity of metals
Procedure
1. Obtain four identical rods of copper, iron, aluminium and brass.
2. At one end of each rod attach a matchstick using paraffin wax and let it solidify.
3. Place the rods on a tripod stand with the free ends close to one another as shown.
4. Heat the free ends strongly with a Bunsen burner.
5. Observe what happens.

Discussion
When done correctly and carefully the matchsticks will fall off in the following
order: copper, aluminium, brass and finally iron. This shows that different metals
conduct heat at different rates.

NOTE – on a cold morning a metallic chair would feel cold compared to a wooden chair at
the same temperature, this is because the metallic chair absorbs heat from your body as
opposed to wood which is a bad conductor of heat.

Applications of conductors

Good conductors

1. They are used to manufacture cooking utensils

2. They are used as liquids suitable for thermometers i.e. mercury
3. Used as heat dumps (metal clips) when soldering delicate components in a circuit
board i.e. transistors
Poor conductors

c)Used as insulators in handles of cooking utensils

d)Used in making good winter clothes i.e. wool
e)Hot water cylinders are lagged with fibre-glass since glass is a poor conductor of heat.
f)Houses in cold countries have double walls with air trapped in them to keep them
warm.
Convection

This is the transfer of heat through fluids (liquids and gases). This occurs when
part of the fluid is heated: they become less dense and rise above the cold fluid. As
they move they carry heat with them. In convection we observe streams of moving
fluid called convectional currents.

Convection in air

Experiment: model chimney (smoke box)

Procedure

a) Obtain a model chimney system or construct one as shown

b) Place a lighted candle under one of the chimneys
c) Place a smouldering cloth near the other chimney and observe what happens.

Discussion
Smoke will be seen going into the chimney and coming out through the other
chimney. The air above the candle gets heated and rises up the chimney causing
convectional currents which carry the smoke out with them.

Experiment: revolving paper-vane

Procedure

1. Make a paper-vane by cutting a thin card as shown

2. Put a string through the hole in the centre and hold it above a lighted Bunsen burner.
3. Observe what happens.

Discussion

As the air above the flame gets heated convectional currents are formed and rise
upwards.as these currents brush against the paper-vane it rotates.
Convection in liquids

Experiment: heating water in a beaker

Procedure

1. Put water in a beaker until it is three quarters full and place it on a tripod stand.
2. Drop a crystal of potassium permanganate through a tube to settle at one corner at
the bottom of the flask.
3. Heat the water gently using a Bunsen burner and observe the movement of streams of
colour.

Discussion

A stream of colour will be seen moving upwards and downwards again at the other
side of the beaker. This will continue gradually until all the water becomes coloured.
This shows that convectional currents also exist in liquids.

Experiment: model of hot water system

Procedure

1. Obtain two flat bottomed flasks and set up the apparatus as shown below.
2. Hold the flasks in place by use of clamp stands.
 3. Heat the bottom of the lower flask and observe what happens.

Discussion

When the water in the lower flask becomes hot it rises up to the upper flask. After
some time the water in the upper flask will become hot due to convectional currents.

Applications of convection

1. Brings about the land and sea breezes.

 2. Can be used to explain the weather phenomena.
3. Used in car radiators.
4. Used in immersion water heaters by placing them at the bottom.

Radiation

This is simply the flow of heat from one point to another by means of
electromagnetic waves.

Radiation from different surfaces

We use the Leslie cube to determine radiation of different surfaces. It is a

rectangular metal container of square base with small opening at the top. One side is
coated with polished silver, another dull black (candle flame soot), the other grey
and the fourth white.

Experiment: Radiation from different surfaces

Procedure

1. Place a Leslie cube on a tripod stand and attach a thermometer on each of the four
sides.
2. All thermometers should be at least 5.0 cm form the surface and should read the same
temperature.
3. Pour hot water (about 80 0C) until it is full and note the reading of each thermometer
after 1 minute.
4. Repeat the above procedure using boiling water (100 0C).

Discussion

The thermometer against the black surface records

the highest temperature, followed by the one on
the grey side, then the white surface while the
polished side recorded the lowest temperature. The
readings when the water is boiling were higher,
indicating that radiation depends on
temperature. It also depends on the nature of surface.
Applications of radiation

1. Electric kettles have a chrome coat to reduce radiation.

2. Electric iron are silver coated to minimize radiation.
3. Green houses use radiation (heat trap) to grow crops.
4. Clouds reflect radiation back to the earth hence cloudy nights are warmer than clear
nights.

Vacuum flask

It was developed by Sir James Ivarin 1890. It keeps a liquid hot or cold (depends on
what is put in). The liquid stays at the temperature it is poured in either hot or cold.
It has the following principle features;

1. The vacuum between the double walls

2. The two interior walls coated with silver
3. Insulating cork supports (anti-shock pads)
4. Insulating cork stopper at the top.
Topic seven: LIGHT

Properties of light

Interference of light

Diffraction of light

Polarization of light

Topic eight: OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Types of optical instruments

Power of a lens

Working principle of microscope

Topic nine: ELECTRICITY AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

Magnetism

MAGNETISM
Introduction
Magnets are substances that are able to attract and hold items. Lodestone is the
only known natural magnet which was discovered by the Chinese 2,000 years ago.
Other magnets produced artificially by man are called artificial magnets.

Magnets and non-magnetic materials

Magnetic materials are those that are strongly attracted by magnets while non-
magnetic ones are those that are not affected by magnets. Iron, steel, cobalt and
nickel are magnetic substances, while wood, glass and copper are examples of non-
magnetic substances. Substances that are repelled by magnets are said to be
diamagnetic whereas those which are strongly attracted i.e. iron, nickel, cobalt are
called ferromagnetic materials. The materials that are so lightly attracted such that
the magnet seems to have no effect on them are called paramagnetic materials
(mostly non-magnetic materials). Ferrites are a mixture of iron oxide and barium
oxide are the most newly developed magnetic materials. Ceramic magnets or
magnadur magnets are made from ferrites and are very strong.

Properties of magnets
5. They are double poled substances with both the North and South poles.
 6. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract. Repulsion is a sure method of determining
whether two substances are magnets.
7. The greatest magnetic force is concentrated around the poles of a magnet.

Magnetic field patterns.

Magnetic field is the space around a magnet where magnetic field (force) is
observed.
Plotting field patterns
A line of force gives the direction of the magnetic field at each point along it. Their
closeness is a measure of the strength of the magnetic field or of the force that would
be exerted by the bar magnet.
Examples of field patterns.

The points marked ‘X’are called

neutral points where there is no
magnetic field at such points. Watches
(non-digital), electron beams in cathode ray
tubes and TV sets are shielded from external magnetic fields by placing a soft-iron
cylinder around the neck of the tube or watch.

Magnetization

Making magnets
The following are methods used to make magnets.
d) Magnetic induction– this is a process by which magnets are made by placing
ferromagnetic materials in a magnetic field. Materials like iron lose their
magnetism easily and are said to be soft while others like steel gain
magnetism slowly but retain it longer and are therefore said to be hard and
are used to make permanent magnets.
e) Magnetizing by stroking– the object to be magnetized is placed on a bench then
a bar magnet is dragged along the length of the bar from one end to the other.
This is repeated several times and the object becomes magnetized. This
method is known as single-stroke method.

f) Magnetizing using an electric current– this is the use of magnetic effect of an

electric current through a solenoid (insulated wire of many turns).

demagnetization
Demagnetizing
Demagnetizing is the process of removing magnetic properties of a magnet. The
following methods are which a magnet can lose its magnetism;
a) Hammering them hard with their poles facing E-W direction
 b) Heating them strongly
c) Placing a magnet inside a solenoid and passing an a.c. current through it for a short
time.

Caring for magnets

1. Magnets should be stored in pairs with unlike poles adjacent to each other
attached to pieces of soft iron called keepers.

2. Magnets should not be hammered especially with their poles facing E-W
direction.
3. Magnets should not be heated strongly or dropped roughly on hard surfaces.
4. Magnets should not be placed near alternating currents.
5. Magnets should be kept dry and clean since rust can make them lose their
magnetism.

Uses of magnets
1. Used in making other magnets
2. Used in making loud speakers
 3. Used in making moving coil meters
4. Used in making telephone speakers.
Domain theory of magnetism.
In ferromagnetic substances small atomic magnets form large groups called
domains. These atomic magnets face one direction where the direction varies from
one domain to another. In an un-magnetized crystal the directions of these domains
are different hence their resultant magnetism

is zero.

When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field the atomic magnets rotate
and eventually all domains face the same direction. When this happens then the
material becomes magnetized. When a material is magnetized we say it is saturated.
This means that the magnetism of the material cannot be increased by any other
method and this is the domain theory of magnetism.

Current electricity

Electromagnetism

Electromagnets.
An electromagnet is a soft metal core made into a magnet by passing an electric
current through a coil surrounding it. They only maintain their magnetism if
current continues to flow, if switched off they lose their magnetism.
Factors affecting the strength of an electromagnet.
5. Increasing current through the coil.
6. Increasing the number of turns of the coil.
7. Using iron of C- core shape which brings both magnetic poles together.

Some applications of electromagnets.

a) Electric bell
When the switch is closed the current passing through the solenoids magnetizes
them and they pull the soft iron armature which makes the hammer hit the gong
therefore producing sound. When the hammer hits the gong the contact between
the spring and the screw is broken and then stops the current from flowing. The
soft iron core loses its magnetism and releases the armature which is then pulled
back by the screw. The contact between the spring and the screw is regained and
 the process repeats itself again and again therefore the gong is struck
continuously.

b) Telephone receiver.
It consists of a u-magnet made by attaching two soft-iron bars to the end of a
short permanent magnet. The solenoids are wound in opposite directions around
the bars. When the phone is lifted the current flows through the solenoids
depending on the microphone on the other end of the line. These varying current
spasms induce magnetism of varying strengths in the iron bars which in turn
causes the magnetic alloy diaphragm to vibrate differently producing sound.

Force on a current- carrying

conductor in a magnetic
field.
When a conductor carries a current in a magnetic field a force acts on it. The
direction of the force depends on the directions of the field and current.
The factors affecting the magnitude of the force are;
a) The current flowing in the conductor
 b) The strength of the magnet
c) The length of the conductor in the magnetic field.
The relationship between the directions of the current, field and force are mutually
perpendicular. They are summarized in a law called Fleming’s right-hand rule or
the motor rule. This rule states that “if you hold the first finger, the second finger
and the thumb of your left hand mutually perpendicular to each other, so that the
first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field and the second finger points
in the direction of the current in the conductor, then the thumb points in the
direction of the force acting on the conductor”.

Applications of the force on a conductor.

Simple D.C motor.
Consists of a rectangular coil of wire mounted on an axle which can rotate between
the poles of a magnet. For the rotation to be continuous the ends of the coil is
connected to half-rings called the split-ring commutators. The battery terminals are
attached to brushes which slide on these half-rings. D.C motors are useful as car
starter motors, hand drills, machine motors, fans etc.
Application of Electromagnetism

A.C theory

Electrochemistry

Topic ten: CHARGED PARTICLES

Electric field on a charged particle

Thermionic emissions

Use of C.R.O

Photoelectric effects

Production of X-rays

Radioactivity