CHAPTER 3

HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPASAL

By
Kassegne Damtew
 Proposal Writing and Anxiety: Proposal-
specific Advice

• Understand that the proposal will be negotiated--be prepared to

revise!

• Think of the proposal as an introduction to your thesis or

dissertation.

• Remember that the proposal is not a binding contract.

• Remember that your proposal is not meant to limit ideas, but to help
you think practically.

• Ask colleagues to form a writing group.

• Talk to your advisor!

•Writing a research proposal is both science and art
•A good research proposal is based on scientific facts and on the
 What is a research proposal /synopisis?

• A research proposal is your plan

 It describes in detail your study
 Decisions about your study are based on
the quality of the proposal
• Research funding
• Approvals to proceed by the Institutional
Review Board
 The research proposal: CONTENTS

• Title of the topic

• Table of content
 Summary /Resume/abstract

Chapter one : Introduction / Background

 Overview
• Problem Statement, Research questions
• Objectives of the research & or hypothesis
• Rationale/ Justification /Relevance of the study \
• Significance/ Implications
Chapter Two : Review of Literature
 Theoretical perspective
 Related research
Chapter Three : Research Methodology
 Research approach
 Research Design
 Location of research
 .

 Data collection instruments and Methods

 Sample design
 Operational Definitions
 Scope of the study, Limitations and delimitation
 Overview of Chapters

 Analysis plan

 Measurement: Reliability and Validity

 Ethical consideration
 Time frame and work schedule and Budget
 Bibliography/Reference
 Appendices
 Length of Research proposal
• Unless specific requirement is set the length
of synopsis will be 15 to 30 pages
 1. RESEARCH TITLE

1. Research Title must be reflective of its problem

2. It must answer the following questions:
2.1 What question will answer THE FOLLOWING
2.1.1 What are you trying to investigate
2.1.1 What are you trying to find out, determine
or discover?
2.2 Who are the respondents or subjects of the
study
2.3 Where questions will indicate the research
locale, setting or the place where the research
study is conducted.
 2. Abstract
• An abstract is required in completed research studies; it is an optional
section in a research proposal

The elements of the abstract will include the following:

 Research problems , Concise statement of research hypothesis or
research questions.
• Statement of expected number and characteristics of participants.
• Brief summary of Research method procedure and data collection
method
• Brief statement of how will analyze results.

A brief summary of the entire report, generally around 150 - 200 words.

Write the abstract after you have written the research paper.

Key words : very much essential

It should be written in italics

 3. Introduction/Background
Introduction chapter will state what you are going to do

• The purpose of this section is to introduce your research idea, establish its

importance (i.e., you want to “sell” it to your reader), and explain its significance .

• Flow of the introduction:

– Start with a general introduction that

• defines the research topic.

• demonstrates its importance.

– Then review the relevant literature.

– This review should lead directly into a statement of the purpose of the
study and your research questions.
• The Introduction gives the background and provides the rationale of the
study, moving from general to specific. This is done by establishing a
research area and establishing a gap in that area. Then, the writer sets
out to occupy that gap.
 :
GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

• It may be composed of paragraphs enabling the readers to

see at a glance the entire contents of the research work.
• The intention of the first paragraph is to provide the readers a mental
warm-up, thus giving them information and readiness as to what the
research is all about. It should introduce the study and justify the
problem.
• The second paragraph carries the bulk of the introduction. The
statement of the problem can best be used as frame of reference to
write this paragraph. It is simply telling the readers the scope and
coverage of the study. This will help revolve around mentioning the
purpose of the study, which is to determine the existing or not
existing between the independent and dependent variables.
 .

• The third or last paragraph is a sort of closing portion

that is intriguing and challenging the readers to
become interested in knowing the results of the study.
It is one or two sentences to link between the
introduction and the statement of the problem.

• This part is a 2-3-page discussion.

 4. Statement of the Problem

• The very first, and the most important step in

research:
– “A problem well-defined is half solved”

– Nature of the problem determines the type of study to conduct.

• Answer the question: “What is the gap that needs to be

filled?” and/or “What is the problem that needs to be solved?”

• State the problem clearly early in a paragraph.

• Limit the variables you address in stating your problem or

question.

• Consider framing the problem as a question

 Potential Sources of Research Problems

• Scanning and reading published and unpublished

research
• Disagreeing with some previous research and
developing a new study to test its findings
• Gaps in explanations or in accepted principles
• Questioning the validity of a generally accepted
procedure
• Replication – Redoing the same thing with an
expectation of the same result
Functions of the Statement of the Problem

• Establishes the existence of a unique problem

• Relates the problem to its general
antecedents
• Suggests the benefits to be derived from the
study
• Justifies the utility, significance, or interest
inherent in the pursuit of the problems
Any problem statement should contain four elements

1. A lead-in [narrative hook]

2. Declaration of originality (mentioning a

knowledge void which would be supported by the
literature review

3. Indication of the central focus of the study (purpose

statement); and

4. Explanation of study significance or benefits to be

derived from an investigation of the problem
(Rationale or justification of the study)
 GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE STATEMENT OF THE
PROBLEM:
• The problem should be stated both in general and in specific
terms. The general statement of the problem is usually a
reiteration of the title of the study.
• The problem is always in an interrogatory form; hence, it must
ask a question. Sub-problems must follow the main problem,
which are the key points for investigations in the research.
• The problem should be stated in the infinitive to (action words
in research) such as examine, analyze, determine, measure,
assess, evaluate, recommend, find out, among others; setting 4-
5 research objectives is ideal for a research problem.
• Specific questions should be stated using the following guide
question words: “How,” “Will,” “What,” “Is there”…
 5. Research Questions , Objectives, &
Hypotheses

• Emerge from the Statement of the Problem

• How the research problem is to be prepared to be
approached methodologically
• A precise and formal statement
• Wording of considerable importance
 Research questions
• Identifying the research problem and developing a
question to be answered are the first steps in the
research process.
• The research question will guide the remainder of the
design process.
Qualitative:
Expand or understand a phenomenon
– What is the nature of…?
– What are the lived experiences of…? Includes no hypotheses
Study driven by induction and exploration
Quantitative:
Understand relationship between two+ variables
– What is the relationship between A and B?
– What is impact of X on Y?

Includes hypotheses
 Research objectives
Main objective:
To identify ways to improve the building and maintaining of
sustainable project relationships for project success.

Sub-objectives:
To determine the effectiveness of a visualisation tool for
stakeholder management.
 If you do not know what you are looking for, you won’t find
it”

• The objectives refers to the questions to be answered through

the study. They indicate what we are trying to get from the
study or the expected results / outcome of the study.
• Research objectives are related to and determined by the
problem definition.
• In establishing research objectives, the researcher must answer
the following questions:
i) What specific information should the project provide?
ii) If more than one type of information will be developed from
the study, which is the most important? and finally,

iii) What are the priorities?

 .

• When specifying research objectives, development of hypotheses,

might be very helpful.

• When achieved, objectives provide the necessary information to

solve the problem.

• The objective of the proposed study should be stated very clearly

• The objective stated should be specific, achievable and measurable

• Too many objectives to be avoided

• Even just one clearly stated relevant objective for a study would be

good enough

• If there is more than one objective the objectives can be presented

in the appropriate order of importance

 .

HYPOTHESESE
• This is understood as:
•a statement of what one expects to find;
•a statement to be proven;
•an initial answer to the research questions;
•a common sense statement;
•an expected relationship between variables;
•an explanation of the phenomena;
•a statement of patterns of behavior.
• In a research that strives to explain and predict, the hypothesis
states an expected pattern, a relationship and a cause.
 THE HYPOTHESIS MAY HAVE THE FOLLOWING FORMAT :

• There is a pattern in the observed phenomena;

• There is a relationship between variables, where a change in one

(independent variable) causes a change in the other variable (dependent

variable).

• There is a cause and effect relationship between the variable.

• There is an association between the variables. A relationship exists

between two variables but it is not in the sense that one is the cause and

the other is the effect.

• We will use variables in stating the hypothesis. When we want to find the

cause-and-effect or other forms of relationship between two variables,

two “mutually exclusive hypothesis” are formulated: (1) null hypothesis,

and (2) alternative hypothesis.

 FORMS OF HYPOTHESIS

• NULL HYPOTHESIS. This says “there is no difference,” meaning the

independent variable does not affect the dependent variable. If data
reject the null hypothesis, then the alternative hypothesis should be true.
• ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS. This says “there is a difference,”
meaning, that the independent variable affects the dependent variable.
The alternative hypothesis serves as the real concern of the research. It is
a definite statement of the relationship between variables. This is what
the research hopes to determine.

WAYS OF STATING THE ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

• NON-DIRECTIONAL FORM. A difference exists between the related
variables (without expressing the direction of the relationship). It does
not tell us if the relationship is direct or inverse.
• DIRECTIONAL FORM. This states very explicitly that the relationship is
direct or inverse.
 .

• GUIDELINES IN THE FORMULATION OF EXPLICIT HYPOTHESIS:

• In experimental investigation, hypotheses have to be explicit; they have
to be expressed in comparative and correlational studies.

Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form because testing a null
hypothesis is easier than a hypothesis in the operational/alternative form.

• Hypotheses are formulated from the specific questions upon which they

are based
• Example:
• QUESTION: Is there any significant difference between the effectiveness of the
inductive method and the deductive method in the teaching of science?
• NULL HYPOTHESIS: there is no significant difference between the effectiveness
of the inductive and the deductive method in the teaching of science.
• Alternative HYPOTHESIS: There is a significant difference between the
effectiveness of the inductive and the deductive method in the teaching of
science.
 6. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
• Related literature includes research findings, published or unpublished

theories and principles formulated by experts or authorities in some

field or discipline; and ideas or opinions of experts contained in books,

pamphlets magazines and periodicals.

• It should give more weight to studies considered more authoritative as

evaluated and should give reference to primary rather than secondary

sources.

• It should be organized thematically to conform with the specific

problems.

• It should be synthesized such that evidence from all the studies

reviewed would get an overall understanding of the state of knowledge

in the problem area.

 .

• Most literature reviews should use a standard formula for verb tense. The
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) advocates
using the PAST TENSE and the PERFECT TENSE for literature reviews.

• The PAST TENSE should be used to describe the procedure of a study that has
already been conducted and to describe the results of a completed study.

• The PRESENT TENSE is used to discuss the meanings and implications of the
results of the study and to present conclusions. Using this standard formula
helps to ensure smooth reading.
• GUIDELINES ON THE EFFECTIVE WRITING OF THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE:

• Research Papers must be written in a formal style, which is IN THE THIRD

PERSON, NOT IN THE FIRST PERSON.

• Avoid highly descriptive writing style, which is not appropriate for a scholarly
research.

• Use the active voice for direct impact and easy understanding.

• Avoid the use of jargon; use familiar terms in place of terminologies.

• Language should be neutral gender, no sexy language like his.

 Sample 1:

Peters (1993) claims that job-related stress can enhance productivity up

to a certain point. There is, however, a threshold point beyond which
stress becomes a harmful factor in one’s productivity. On the other
hand, Saunders (1999) averred that, in his experience as a clinical
psychologist, stresses always produce a negative effect on one’s
productivity.

Sample 2

“The ideas of using the sample mean as a measure of central tendency

has a long-standing history. It is almost automatic tendency and
reaction of the people confronted with a mass of data to add the set of
numbers and divide the total by the number of observations. Gauss
(1989), however, demonstrated that the sample mean indeed satisfies an
optimality criterion when the original observations are normally
 RELATED STUDIES

• Related Studies in contrast to related literature are works based on empirical data.
In reviewing related studies, one must be careful to the (1) problem, (2)
methodology, (3) instruments used, (4) findings, and (5) conclusions.
• The researcher reviews such studies by commenting on the research design used.
Given the problem statement, is the design appropriate to answer the problem
posed? He proceeds to comment on the plausibility and scope of applicability of the
findings given in the information on the research design and instruments used by
the researcher.
• At the end of the researcher’s review, he explains how the study being reviewed
relates to the present study and identifies similarities and differences with the
present study.
• The researcher’s motivation for conducting the study (this is usually found in the
introduction).
• The statement of the problem.
• The variables involved in the study, including their quantifications;
• The research design, including the sampling data utilized by the investigator;The major results

and conclusions.
 .

• The researcher reviews both local and foreign studies in

order to give a balanced presentation of the investigations

conducted in various settings. Foreign studies may have

some biases in terms of the cultural

• Background of the respondents of the study; and therefore, there
is a need to review local studies conducted on the same topic so
that the effects of cultural differences may be ascertained.
• Both local and foreign studies are normally reviewed on
chronological order to establish the time-order progression of the
topic. Conflicting results may be observed because of the
differences in (1) population frame; (2) research design, (3)
statistical test employed, and (4) absence or presence of
appropriate controls.
• The use of the following phrases and expressions that help express
.

related literature and studies are:

• In 1999, Dizon stresses that . . .
• From the book of Espidio entitled “Practice of Research” published by
the National Bookstore Inc., in 1999 he expounded that … Gay (1998)
said that …
• Gates (1998) pointed out that …
• Amidos and Hunters system investigated …
• Bellack, et al., proposed …
• Malcolhm, on the other hand, credited for …
• Zulueta postulated that these …
• Nebrez directed that …
• Sample 1:
• Bernard pointed out that good teachers vary their combination of traits
but the listed characteristics do indicate what teachers should strive for
(1999).
• Sample 2:
• Ryan (1999) found out that the qualities of good teachers are not
absolute; they are instead interesting traits that may vary in their
merits, depending upon educational philosophy, pupil characteristics,
course level and content.
 Why Literature Review
1.To see what has and has not been investigated

2.To develop general explanation for observed variation in a behaviour

3.To identify potential relationships between concepts and to identify

researchable hypotheses.

4.To learn how others have defined and measured key concepts

5.To identify data sources that other researchers have used

6.To develop alternative research projects

7.To discover how a research project is relate to the work of others.

8.To avoid common traps and pitfalls in once own research

9.To find and select appropriate measurement instrument.

10.To quick start in once own research

 How does literature relate to research?

• Any research study, inductive or deductive

undertaken for academic purpose always
require a review of relevant literature
• The review must be critical not just a
description of what others said
• Anyone can ask a few people to fill in a
questionnaire, but not everyone can make
sense of the answers!
 What kind of literature should we search
for?
• Primary literature sources

• Are least accessible, Company literature, Unpublished research,

Private correspondence, Conference proceedings

• Secondary literature sources

• Are much more easily accessible

• Include published books and articles in journals, news media, published

business, government and international body publications

• For academic research peer-reviewed journals are considered more reliable

sources of literature as the materials are monitored by experts in the field

• Tertiary literature sources

• Gateways to secondary sources
• They include encyclopedias, dictionaries, citations, indexes, catalogues and
web based portals, journal’s contents, data bases
 Critical analysis of literature

• Critical means looking at an expression from “why”

perspective instead of “what, who, where, when, and how”

• Examples

– While descriptive writing states what happened,

critical writing identifies its significance.
– While descriptive gives information, critical gives
conclusion
– While descriptive explains what a theory says,
critical shows why something is relevant or
 7. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

• This section describes the contributions of the study to

knowledge.
• This could be in the form of new knowledge in the field, a check
on the major findings of other studies, a check on the validity of
findings in a different population, a check on trends over time
and a check on the other findings using different methodology.
• It discusses the importance of the study to the society, the
country, the government, the community, the institution, the
agency concerned, the curriculum planners and developers and
to the researchers.
• It expounds on the study’s probable impact to education,
science, technology, on-going researchers and etc.
•
 GUIDELINES IN WRITING IMPORTANCE OR SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

• The rationale, timeliness and relevance of the study to existing conditions must be
explained.
• Possible solutions to existing problems or improvements to unsatisfactory
conditions.
• It must be shown who are the individuals, groups, or communities who may be
placed in amore advantageous position on account of the study.
• Possible contribution to be a fount of knowledge. It should discuss the implications,
including the possible causes of problems discovered, the positive effects of the
problems and the remedial measures to solve the problems.
• Implications must include the good points of a system, which ought to be continued
or to be improved.
• The use of the following phrases could help express the importance of the study:
• The results of this study could help them realize . . .
• The study will encourage them to . . .
• This study will enhance involvement in the . . .
 • Results could help benefit . . . .

• This study will also afford the management to know ..

• Similar organizations will benefit from the study in …

• Researches may find the study useful as …

• This study will contribute to …

• The results hopefully, will be of value to …

• Through this study, students will become aware of …

• It will also serve as basis in the study of . . .

• The results of this study will provide some insights and information on how

they

• The findings may also serve as a guide to …

Importance


Addressing the national context problem



Bridging the knowledge gaps



Useful to the society/community



Present state of affairs


 8.. Operational Definitions
• Define technical terms, jargon, or familiar words used in specialized
ways in your study
• Alphabetical order; indented in italics

• Do not define familiar definitions of familiar terms (e.g., data,

perceptions).
• GUIDELINES IN WRITING DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Define those terms, which though may be common, may have a special meaning or
differently used.
• Define special terms or languages created by some disciplines. This applies as well to
terms familiar in one discipline and borrowed or transformed by another discipline.
• Define only what is absolutely necessary and do so precisely by using an authoritative
document.
• If you cannot find an authoritative definition, find one or two such definitions; cite
them and try to create your own definitions as used in research;
• Complicated and lengthy definitions like those required in mathematics or science,
should be placed in an appendix.
 9. SCOPE of the study

• This section explains the nature, coverage, and time

frame of the study.
• It presents in brief the subject area of investigation,
the place, the time period, or school year covered.
• It discusses the variables included in the study and
the exclusion of other variables which are expected
to be included.
• It indicates the extent of capability of results arising
from the sampling population
• The SCOPE identifies the boundaries or coverage of the study in terms of
.

subjects, objectives, facilities, area, time frame, and the issues to which
the research is focused.
• The DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY defines the constraints or
weaknesses, which are not within the control of the researcher,
therefore, they are not to be expected to be covered by the study.
• The use of the following phrases could help express the SCOPE of this
portion:
• The study will focus on …
• The coverage of this study . . .
• The study covers the…
• The study focuses on …
• It includes …
• It is concerned with ..
• The study consists of …
• The DELIMITATIONS could be expressed using the following phrases:
• This study is limited to …
• The study does not cover ….
• The investigator limited this research to …
• It does not seek to include …
 10, Research METHODOLOGY

• The function of the Methodology is to describe in

detail the research and to answer the questions
when, where and how.
• It includes the main components of design,
population and sample, data collection and
instrumentation, and analysis.
• It must be explicit enough to allow the replication of
research
 1.1 Research Design

• This describes the research mode whether it is true

experimental or quasi-experimental design,
descriptive or survey research, historical research,
qualitative research, etc.
1.2 Study Population ,Sampling / Respondents of the Study

• This describes the target population and the sample

frame.

• It specifies the sampling technique used and how the

sample size is determined.
 1.3 Research Instrument
• This explains the specific type of research instrument used
such as questionnaire, checklist, questionnaire-checklists,
structured interview, teacher–made test, standardized
instrument which are adopted or borrowed with permission
from the author or from other sources.
• The parts of the instruments should be explained and what
bits of information are derived.
• The establishment of validity and reliability should be
explained and only experts should be chosen to validate
such instrument.
• Specific and appropriate statistical test used should be
 1.4 Data analysis
• This describes exactly how you propose to analyze the
data you plan on collecting.
• In a quantitative study, you will use some type of
statistical analysis. You need to specify those analyses.
• In a qualitative study, there is no one or “right” way of
analyzing the data.
• You must explain the approach you propose to use and
justify its use.

• In general, qualitative analysis will involve coding and

searching for relationships and patterns in qualitative

data.
 1.5 . Measurement: Reliability and Validity

Observed Score = true score + systematic error +

random error
• Observed Scores are the data gathered by the researcher

• True Scores are the actual unknown values that correspond to the
construct of interest
• Systematic Error is variations that results from constructs of
disinterest

• Random Error is nonsystematic variations in the observed scores

 .
Reliability
• Imagine that you are using a ruler to measure a book

• What do you think would happen if you waited 10 minutes and measured
the book again, how long would it be then? …Probably still 25 cm.

• Your ruler…
– was consistent
– measured the same way each time it was used under the
same condition with the same object
The book did not change and therefore the ruler reported
back the same measurement
Your ruler is RELIABLE
 .

• Reliable but not Valid

• Can a ruler measure how loud the radio is?

• The ruler may be reliable (and perhaps even

valid) but not in these situations!

• It is only valid for measuring length.

Every instrument can be evaluated on two dimensions:

–Reliability : How consistent it is given the same conditions

–Validity :If it measures what it is supposed to and how

accurate it is
 .

• For a measure to be useful, it must be both reliable and

valid
• Reliable =

• consistent in producing the same results every time the measure is

used

• the degree to which an instrument measures the same way

each time it is used under the same condition with the

same subjects

• Valid = measuring what it is supposed to measure

Validity is whether or not the instrument measures what it is

designed to measure.
 Cronbach’s alpha
• Likert scale or linear graphic response format.

• Compares the consistency of response of all items on the

scale.

• May need to be computed for each

sample Spit Half reliability

• Items are divided into two halves and then compared. Odd,

even items, or 1-50 and 51-100 are two ways to split items.
– Only important when homogenity and internal consistency is
desirable.
Factors that increase reliability

• Number of items
• High variation among individuals being tested
• Clear instructions
• Optimal testing situation
 1.5 Chapterization
Write the list and function of chapters
in your thesis.
 Time Frame & Work Schedule

The proposal should include the sequence of tasks to be

performed, the anticipated length of time required for
its completion and the personnel required
It can be presented in tabular or graphic form (Gantt
chart)
Flow charts and other diagrams are often useful for
highlighting the sequencing and interrelationship of
different activities in the study
 FINANCIAL PLAN
• Work plan and financial plan must go hand in hand. The
purpose is to trace all the activities to be accomplished in
undertaking the study and the corresponding financial
requirements in carrying out these activities.
• The researcher/proponent must make careful estimates of all
expenses that are likely to be incurred in carrying out the
project. It contains the following: Personnel Requirement,
Materials and Supplies, Communication Services and Other
operating expenses such as research-related travel and
transportation, materials reproduction, testing fee,
computerization, evaluation fee, etc.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
• This include all materials used and reviewed by the
researcher, such as books, magazines, periodicals,
journals, thesis or dissertation (published or unpublished).
• Monographs, speeches and modules, web page or internet,
etc.
Difference between a reference list and a bibliography
• The reference list only identifies sources referred to (cited) in the
text of your assignment. You may also be required to provide a
bibliography.
• A bibliography is presented in the same format as a reference
list but it includes all material consulted in the preparation of
your assignment.
• In other words, a bibliography presents the same items as a
reference list but it also includes all other sources which you
read or consulted but did not cite.
 Part ii
• Research Ethics
• Bibliographical Standards
• Publication/Citation Styles
• Plagiarism and Copyright Issues
• Useful websites for Researchers
 Ethics in Research
Definition of ethics
• Values relating to human conduct, with respect to the
rightness and wrongness of certain actions and to the
goodness and badness of the motives and ends of
such actions.
 Four principles of research ethics
• The Principle of Non-maleficence: Research must not
cause harm to the participants in particular and to
people in general.

• The Principle of Beneficence: Research should also

make a positive contribution towards the welfare of
people.

• The Principle of Autonomy: Research must respect

and protect the rights and dignity of participants.

• The Principle of Justice: The benefits and risks of

research should be fairly distributed among people.
 Actions regarded as highly unethical
• Publishing the same paper in two different journals without
telling the editors
• Submitting the same paper to different journals without telling
the editors
• Not informing a collaborator of your intent to file a patent in
order to make sure that you are the sole inventor
• Including a colleague as an author on a paper in return for a
favor even though the colleague did not make a serious
contribution to the paper
• Discussing with your colleagues data from a paper that you are
reviewing for a journal
• Trimming outliers from a data set without discussing your
reasons in paper
• Using an inappropriate statistical technique in order to enhance
the significance of your research
• Conducting a review of the literature that fails to acknowledge
the contributions of other people in the field or relevant prior
work
 What is Plagiarism?
• Definition
– “Taking ideas, writings, drawings, words or other similar intellectual property created by
others and presenting it as your own”

• Distinguished from copyright violation

– Plagiarism is unethical issue, not necessarily a legal issue

– Effect on economic value is not part of definition

– If everyone stole ideas, no motivation to create new ideas

• Examples
– Re-use writings in the public domain (e.g. off the internet) without credit to
true origin

– Proposing experiment (to mentor or in paper introduction) as your own,

when the idea was in discussion of a published paper

– Copying a sentence from a published paper instead of rewriting it because

the original was phrased well
 Citation/Bibliographic Standards

• Whenever you quote or base your ideas on another person's work, you must
document the source you used. Even when you do not quote directly from
another work, if reading that source contributed to the ideas presented in your
paper, you must give the authors proper credit.
• Citations allow readers to locate and further explore the sources you consulted,
show the depth and scope of your research, and give credit to authors for their
ideas.
• Citations provide evidence for your arguments and add credibility to your work by
demonstrating that you have sought out and considered a variety of resources.
• In written academic work, citing sources is standard practice and shows that you
are responding to this person, agreeing with that person, and adding something
of your own.
• Think of documenting your sources as providing a trail for your reader to follow
to see the research you performed and discover what led you to your original
contribution
A citation style or reference system is a standardised system for referring to
materials used in your writing .
There are several different citation styles developed independently by
professional organisations

1. APA Style.org (APA) The American

Psychological Association's official website for APA
Style.
2. MLA (Modern Language
Association) Style
• Documenting Sources
Guidelines based on the MLA Style Manual and
Guide to Scholarly Publishing, Third Edition (2008)
3. Chicago Manual of style

N.B: Please refer the different types of styles in the attached

document provided to you.
 Examples of APA Citation Style
• Journal Article: Online and Hardcopy
Devine, P. G., & Sherman, S. J. (1992). Intuitive versus
rational judgment and the role of stereotyping in the human
condition: Kirk or Spock? Psychological Inquiry, 3(2), 153-
159. doi:10.1207 /s15327965pli0302_13
Book
Okuda, M., & Okuda, D. (1993). Star trek chronology: The
history of the future. New York: Pocket Books.
Book Article or Chapter
James, N. E. (1988). Two sides of paradise: The Eden myth
according to Kirk and Spock. In D. Palumbo (Ed.), Spectrum
of the fantastic (pp. 219-223). Westport, CT: Greenwood.
 Useful websites for Researchers

1. Free book down load : https://mail.google.com/mail/u/0/?

hl=en&shva=1#inbox/14194f1f5762cf9f

Bookboon.com <[email protected]

2. Journal

http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jbm/pages/v14i4.html

3. Google, write your research title, ok

4. Google, Google scholar, library, write your title and

okay.

http://scholar.google.co.in)
 Please understand the use the following

1.Arrangements Arrangement
• Headings
PRELIMINARY SECTION • Body Text
• Title Page • Footnotes
• Table of Contents • Quotations
• Abbreviations
• List of Maps and Figures
• Pagination
• Documentation Documentation
Body Text Styles and Components • Glossary
• Appendix
i. Underlining • Bibliography
Reference
ii. Italics Citations
 Ibid
iii. Emphasis (Bold)  loc. cit. (limited to periodicals and
encyclopedia etc.)
iv. Abbreviations  op. cit. Documentation

v. Capitalizations
 What to avoid
Avoid abbreviation & • Avoid vague term
contraction • Be Impersonal
• Abbreviations and • In many academic
contractions are informal, disciplines, writing in the first
and are best avoided in person is not acceptable as it
academic writing. For is believed to be too
example: subjective and personal.
• ‘Department’ should be used Many tutors prefer
instead of the abbreviation impersonal language to be
‘dept’. used in assignments
• ‘Is not’ should be used in
place of the contraction
‘isn’t’.
 .

Writing in the first person

• First person sentences use the pronouns ‘I’ and ‘we’. For
example:
• We have considered...
• I suggest that...
• I have observed...
• These can be transformed into-
Impersonal sentences
Consideration has been given to...
• The suggestion is made that...
• It has been observed that...
 Project work

From the list presented below ,choose one and prepare research proposal based on
the research concept we discussed .
1. The effect of Employee Motivation On Organizational
performance
2. Determinants of customer satisfaction.
3. The impact of different discount schemes on edible oil.
4. Assessment of rent seeking practices
5. The effect of AD spend, number of products introduced, number
of sales personnel on organizational sales.
6. Antecedents of customer loyalty
7. The effect of leadership on organizational effectiveness.
8. Effects of service quality on customer satisfaction
9. Students feelings on university café service and prices.
10. The effect of employee satisfaction on organizational
performance..
11. Challenges of VAT administration
12. Assessment of good governance practice