Methods of Data Collection

DR. SAURABH VERMA

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION,

M.J.P. ROHILKHAND UNIVERSITY, BAREILLY

 Methods of Data Collection
The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and
research design/ plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection
to be used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz.,
primary and secondary. The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for
the first time, and thus happen to be original in character. The secondary data, on the
other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone else and which
have already been passed through the statistical process. The researcher would have to
decide which sort of data he would be using (thus collecting) for his study and
accordingly he will have to select one or the other method of data collection. The
methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ since primary data are to be
originally collected, while in case of secondary data the nature of data collection work
is merely that of compilation. We describe the different methods of data collection, with
the pros and cons of each method.
Collection Of Primary Data
we collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research but in case we do
research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether sample surveys or census surveys, then we can
obtain primary data either through observation or through direct communication with respondents in one form
or another or through personal interviews.* This, in other words, meansthat there are several methods of
collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive researches. Important ones are:
(i) observation method,
(ii) interview method,
(iii) through questionnaires,
(iv) through schedules, and
(v) other methods which include
(a) warranty cards;
(b) distributor audits;
(c) pantry audits;
(d) consumer panels;
(e) using mechanical devices;
(f) through projective techniques;
(g) depth interviews, and
(h) content analysis.
Observation Method
The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to
behavioural sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not
scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the
researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Under the observation method, the
information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the
respondent. For instance, in a study relating to consumer behaviour, the investigator instead of asking
the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent, may himself look at the watch. The main advantage
of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately. Secondly, the
information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening; it is not complicated by
either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes. Thirdly, this method is independent of
respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on
the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This
method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not
Interview Method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used
through personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.
Collection Of Data Through Questionnaires
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big
enquiries. It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and
public organisations and even by governments. In this method a questionnaire is
sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the
questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of
questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. The
questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and understand
the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.
Collection Of Data Through Schedules
This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, with little difference
which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators
who are specially appointed for the purpose. These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to
them the questions from the proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space
meant for the same in the proforma. In certain situations, schedules may be handed over to respondents and
enumerators may help them in recording their answers to various questions in the said schedules. Enumerators
explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in
understanding the implications of a particular question or the definition or concept of difficult terms.
This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or assisting respondents to fill up
schedules and as such enumerators should be very carefully selected. The enumerators should be trained to
perform their job well and the nature and scope of the investigation should be explained to them thoroughly so
that they may well understand the implications of different questions put in the schedule. Enumerators should be
intelligent and must possess the capacity of crossexamination in order to find out the truth. Above all, they should
be honest, sincere, hardworking and should have patience and perseverance.
This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable results. It is,
however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by governmental agencies or by some
big organisations. Population census all over the world is conducted through this method.
Difference Between Questionnaires And Schedules
1. The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified in a covering letter,
but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The schedule is generally filled out by the research
worker or the enumerator, who can interpret questions when necessary.
2. To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we have to spend money only
in preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents. Here no field staff required. To collect
data through schedules is relatively more expensive since considerable amount of money has to be spent in
appointing enumerators and in importing training to them. Money is also spent in preparing schedules.
3. Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not respond and many return the
questionnaire without answering all questions. Bias due to non-response often remains indeterminate. As
against this, non-response is generally very low in case of schedules because these are filled by enumerators
who are able to get answers to all questions. But there remains the danger of interviewer bias and cheating.
4. In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the identity of
respondent is known.
5. The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents do not return the questionnaire in
time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules the information is collected well in time as they are
filled in by enumerators.
Collection Of Secondary Data
Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already been collected
and analysed by someone else. When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he has to look into various
sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not confronted with the problems that are
usually associated with the collection of original data. Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished
data. Usually published data are available in:
(a) various publications of the central, state are local governments;
(b) various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary organisations;
(c) technical and trade journals;
(d) books, magazines and newspapers;
(e) reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock
exchanges, etc.;
(f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and
(g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information. The sources of
unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and
autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research workers, trade associations, labour
bureaus and other public/ private individuals and organisations.
Selection Of Appropriate Method For Data Collection
1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry: This constitutes the most important factor affecting the choice of a
particular method. The method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted
by the researcher. This factor is also important in deciding whether the data already available (secondary
data) are to be used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to be collected.
2. Availability of funds: Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large extent the method
to be used for the collection of data. When funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will
have to select a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as some other
costly method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the researcher has to act within this
limitation.
3. Time factor: Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a particular method of data
collection. Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the data can be collected in a
comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus, affects the selection of the
method by which the data are to be collected.
4. Precision required: Precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at the time of
selecting the method of collection of data.
Case Study Method
Meaning: The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a careful
and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group
or even the entire community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. The case study
places more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their
interrelations. The case study deals with the processes that take place and their interrelationship. Thus,
case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration. The object
of the case study method is to locate the factors that account for the behaviour-patterns of the given
unit as an integrated totality.
According to H. Odum, “The case study method is a technique by which individual factor whether it be an
institution or just an episode in the life of an individual or a group is analysed in its relationship to any other in
the group.”
Pauline V. Young describes case study as “a comprehensive study of a social unit be that unit a
person, a group, a social institution, a district or a community.”
Characteristics: The important characteristics of the case study method are as under:
1. Under this method the researcher can take one single social unit or more of such units for his study purpose;
he may even take a situation to study the same comprehensively.
2. Here the selected unit is studied intensively i.e., it is studied in minute details. Generally, the study extends
over a long period of time to ascertain the natural history of the unit so as to obtain enough information for
drawing correct inferences.
3. In the context of this method we make complete study of the social unit covering all facets. Through this
method we try to understand the complex of factors that are operative within a social unit as an integrated
totality.
4. Under this method the approach happens to be qualitative and information concerning all aspects of life. As
such, case study deepens our perception and gives us a clear insight into life. For instance, under this method
we not only study how many crimes a man has done but shall peep into the factors that forced him to commit
crimes when we are making a case study of a man as a criminal. The objective of the study may be to suggest
ways to reform the criminal.
5. In respect of the case study method an effort is made to know the mutual inter-relationship of causal factors.
Evolution and scope:
The case study method is a widely used systematic field research technique in sociology these days. The credit for
introducing this method to the field of social investigation goes to Frederic Le Play who used it as a hand-maiden
to statistics in his studies of family budgets. Herbert Spencer was the first to use case material in his comparative
study of different cultures. Dr. William Healy resorted to this method in his study of juvenile delinquency, and
considered it as a better method over and above the mere use of statistical data. Similarly, anthropologists,
historians, novelists and dramatists have used this method concerning problems pertaining to their areas of
interests. Even management experts use case study methods for getting clues to several management problems. In
brief, case study method is being used in several disciplines. Not only this, its use is increasing day by day.
Processing and Analysis of Data
The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysed in accordance with the outline laid down for the
purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential for a scientific study and for ensuring that we
have all relevant data for making contemplated comparisons and analysis. Technically speaking, processing implies
editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to analysis. The term
analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist
among data-groups. Thus, “in the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with
original or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to determine with what validity
data can be said to indicate any conclusions”. But there are persons (Selltiz, Jahoda and others) who do not like to
make difference between processing and analysis. They opine that analysis of data in a general way involves a
number of closely related operations which are performed with the purpose of summarising the collected data and
organising these in such a manner that they answer the research question(s). We, however, shall prefer to observe
the difference between the two terms as stated here in order to understand their implications more clearly.
Processing Operations
With this brief introduction concerning the concepts of processing and analysis, we can now proceed with the
explanation of all the processing operations.
1. Editing: Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in surveys) to detect
errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. As a matter of fact, editing involves a careful
scrutiny of the completed questionnaires and/or schedules. Editing is done to assure that the data are
accurate, consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have been
well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
2. Coding: Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses
can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the research
problem under consideration. They must also possess the characteristic of exhaustiveness (i.e., there must be
a class for every data item) and also that of mutual exclusively which means that a specific answer can be
placed in one and only one cell in a given category set. Another rule to be observed is that of
unidimensionality by which is meant that every class is defined in terms of only one concept.
3. Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced into homogeneous
groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact necessitates classification of data which happens to be the
process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics. Data having a common
characteristic are placed in one class and in this way the entire data get divided into a number of groups or classes.
Classification can be one of the following two types, depending upon the nature of the phenomenon involved:
(a) Classification according to attributes: As stated above, data are classified on the basis of common
characteristics which can either be descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc.) or numerical (such as weight,
height, income, etc.). Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon which cannot be measured
quantitatively; only their presence or absence in an individual item can be noticed. Data obtained this way on the
basis of certain attributes are known as statistics of attributes and their classification is said to be classification
according to attributes.
(b) Classification according to class-intervals: Unlike descriptive characteristics, the numerical characteristics refer
to quantitative phenomenon which can be measured through some statistical units. Data relating to income,
production, age, weight, etc. come under this category. Such data are known as statistics of variables and are
classified on the basis of class intervals.
4. Tabulation: When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange
the s ame in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is referred to as tabulation. Thus,
tabulation is the process of summarising raw data and displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form
of statistical tables) for further analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in
columns and rows
Some Problems In Processing
We can take up the following two problems of processing the data for analytical purposes:
(a) The problem concerning “Don’t know” (or DK) responses: While processing the data, the researcher
often comes across some responses that are difficult to handle. One category of such responses may be
‘Don’t Know Response’ or simply DK response. When the DK response group is small, it is of little
significance. But when it is relatively big, it becomes a matter of major concern in which case the question
arises: Is the question which elicited DK response useless? The answer depends on two points viz., the
respondent actually may not know the answer or the researcher may fail in obtaining the appropriate
information. In the first case the concerned question is said to be alright and DK response is taken as
legitimate DK response. But in the second case, DK response is more likely to be a failure of the questioning
process.
(b) Use or percentages: Percentages are often used in data presentation for they simplify numbers,
reducing all of them to a 0 to 100 range. Through the use of percentages, the data are reduced in the
standard form with base equal to 100 which fact facilitates relative comparisons.
Elements/Types Of Analysis
As stated earlier, by analysis we mean the computation of certain indices or measures along with searching for
patterns of relationship that exist among the data groups. Analysis, particularly in case of survey or experimental
data, involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the population and testing of hypotheses for
drawing inferences. Analysis may, therefore, be categorised as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis
(Inferential analysis is often known as statistical analysis). “Descriptive analysis is largely the study of
distributions of one variable. This study provides us with profiles of companies, work groups, persons and other
subjects on any of a multiple of characteristics such as size. Composition, efficiency, preferences, etc.” . this sort
of analysis may be in respect of one variable (described as unidimensional analysis), or in respect of two variables
(described as bivariate analysis) or in respect of more than two variables (described as multivariate analysis). In
this context we work out various measures that show the size and shape of a distribution(s) along with the study of
measuring relationships between two or more variables.
In modern times, with the availability of computer facilities, there has been a rapid development of multivariate
analysis which may be defined as “all statistical methods which simultaneously analyse more than two variables
on a sample of observations”
Usually the following analyses* are involved when we make a reference of multivariate analysis:
(a) Multiple regression analysis: This analysis is adopted when the researcher has one dependent variable which
is presumed to be a function of two or more independent variables. The objective of this analysis is to make a
prediction about the dependent variable based on its covariance with all the concerned independent variables.
(b) Multiple discriminant analysis: This analysis is appropriate when the researcher has a single dependent
variable that cannot be measured, but can be classified into two or more groups on the basis of some attribute.
The object of this analysis happens to be to predict an entity’s possibility of belonging to a particular group
based on several predictor variables.
(c) Multivariate analysis of variance (or multi-ANOVA): This analysis is an extension of twoway ANOVA,
wherein the ratio of among group variance to within group variance is worked out on a set of variables.
(d) Canonical analysis: This analysis can be used in case of both measurable and non-measurable variables for
the purpose of simultaneously predicting a set of dependent variables from their joint covariance with a set of
independent variables.
Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing hypotheses in order to determine
with what validity data can be said to indicate some conclusion or conclusions. It is also concerned with the
estimation of population values. It is mainly on the basis of inferential analysis that the task of interpretation (i.e.,
the task of drawing inferences and conclusions) is performed