Chapter 3
Chapter 3
Chapter 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Sampling Design, Methods of data collection, Selection of statistical tools used
3.1 Research Methodology Research is a common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. The word research has been derived from French word Research means to search.
FRANCIES RUMMER defined Research it is a careful inquiry or examination to discover new information or relationship and to expand or verify existing knowledge.
Research is the solution of problem, whether created or already generated. When research is done, some new outcome, so that the problem created or generated to solved.
3.2 Sampling Design If one wishes to obtain reliable statistical information from sampling, one must design the sampling process very carefully. Good sampling techniques, which involve the use of chance, can produce meaningful and useful results. Bad sampling techniques often produce worthless data.
Sampling is that part of statistical concerned with the selection of an unbiased or random subset of individual observations within a population of individuals intended to yield some knowledge about the population of concern, especially for the purposes of making predictions based on statistical inferences. Sampling is an important aspect of data collection. Researchers rarely survey the entire population for two reasons (Adr, Mellenbergh, & Hand, 2008): the cost is too high, and the population is dynamic in that the
individuals making up the population may change over time. The three main advantages of sampling are that the cost is lower, data collection is faster, and since the data set is smaller is possible to ensure homogeneity and to improve the accuracy and quality of the data. Each observation measures one or more properties (such as weight, location, color) of observable bodies distinguished as independent objects or individuals. In survey sampling, survey weights can be applied to the data to adjust for the sample design. Results from probability theory and statistical theory are employed to guide practice. In business and medical research, sampling is widely used for gathering information about a population.
3.2.1 Sample Size Sample size refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute the sample. The size of sample neither too long nor too short, it should be optimum which fulfils the requirement and efficiency, reliability, and flexibility of the research. In this research work I have gone through fifty (50) consumers and try to acquire some relevant information through questionnaire and observations according to my project requirement. Through the use of random sampling technique I have chosen the samples from the universe and try to conclude the research whatever I have got during the project work.
3.2.2 Sampling Design Simple random sampling In a simple random sample ('SRS') of a given size, all such subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each element of the frame thus has an equal probability of selection: the frame is not subdivided or partitioned. Furthermore, any given pair of elements has the same chance of selection as any other such pair (and similarly for triples, and so on). This minimizes bias and simplifies analysis of results. In particular, the variance between individual results within the sample is a good indicator of variance in the overall population, which makes it relatively easy to estimate the accuracy of results.
However, SRS can be vulnerable to sampling error because the randomness of the selection may result in a sample that doesn't reflect the makeup of the population. For instance, a simple random sample of ten people from a given country will on average produce five men and five women, but any given trial is likely to over represent one sex and under represent the other. Systematic and stratified techniques, discussed below, attempt to overcome this problem by using information about the population to choose a more representative sample.
SRS may also be cumbersome and tedious when sampling from an unusually large target population. In some cases, investigators are interested in research questions specific to subgroups of the population. For example, researchers might be interested in examining whether cognitive ability as a predictor of job performance is equally applicable across racial groups. SRS cannot accommodate the needs of researchers in this situation because it does not provide subsamples of the population. Stratified sampling, which is discussed below, addresses this weakness of SRS. Simple random sampling is always an EPS design, but not all EPS designs are simple random sampling.
Advantage & Disadvantage of Random sampling Advantages over other sampling methods 1. Focuses on important subpopulations and ignores irrelevant ones.
3. Improves the accuracy/efficiency of estimation. 4. Permits greater balancing of statistical power of tests of differences between strata by sampling equal numbers from strata varying widely in size.
Disadvantages over the sampling methods 1. Requires selection of relevant stratification variables which can be difficult.
3.3 Method of Data Collection Data collection is a term used to describe a process of preparing and collecting data - for example as part of a process improvement or similar project. The purpose of data collection is to obtain information to keep on record, to make decisions about important issues, to pass information on to others. Primarily, data is collected to provide information regarding a specific topic.
Data collection usually takes place early on in an improvement project, and is often formalized through a data collection plan which often contains the following activity.
3. Present Findings usually involves some form of sorting analysis and/or presentation. Prior to any data collection, pre-collection activity is one of the most crucial steps in the process. It is often discovered too late that the value of their interview information is discounted as a consequence of poor sampling of both questions and informants and poor elicitation techniques. After pre-collection activity is fully completed, data collection in the field, whether by interviewing or other methods, can be carried out in a structured, systematic and scientific way.
During the procedure of data collection, all the respondents were personally approached and were explained the purpose of the interview. The respondents were given the questionnaire and also all the instructions were given to fill it up. Each and every question was made clear to them.
They were assured that the information given by them would be kept strictly confidential. After they finished filling up the questionnaires, it was thoroughly checked as to whether every question was attempted or not.
A formal data collection process is necessary as it ensures that data gathered is both defined and accurate and that subsequent decisions based on arguments embodied in the findings are valid. The process provides both a baseline from which to measure from and in certain cases a target on what to improve.
3.3.1 Primary Data Collection In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using methods such as interviews and questionnaires. The key point here is that the data you collect is unique to you and your research and, until you publish, no one else has access to it.
Primary data are those which are collected fresh and for the first time and this happen to be original in character. In this case, overall 100 respondents were questioned and interviewed personally, for the purpose of collecting the most reliable facts about the making. The instances are recorded or itemized as encountered.
The data is collected for the first time as original data. Retailers having first - hand knowledge about the problem are interrogated and the desired data is collected. Generally a questionnaire was prepared and the replies are recorded by personally contacting them. The data is fairly accurate because the informants are contacted personally and a directive or structured interview was undertaken, by opting for this procedure we not only get a clear picture of the problem but also get various suggestions and recommendations. Under personal interview the additional data is also collected with the help of supplementary questions.
Primary data in this project is was collected from the various customers and the method of data collection is random sampling.
Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results.
Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At the one end of this continuum are quantitative methods and at the other end of the continuum are Qualitative methods for data collection.
Basic requirements for scientific data are that it should be reliable and impartial. In Sociology these conditions are hard to meet. Yet numerous methods are used to minimize errors in data. Some of the commonly used sources in collecting data are:
Existing materials including the official statistical record and historical and contemporary documents.
Interviewing
3.3.2 Secondary Data Collection Secondary data is data collected by someone other than the user. Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, surveys, organizational records and data collected through qualitative methodologies or qualitative research. Primary data, by contrast, are collected by the investigator conducting the research.
Secondary data which is already been collected and analysed by someone else, All the information about the profile of about the profile of the company and regarding the way of their functioning is reported through this method. The secondary data has
been gathered from the company bulletins, official files, company records and information from the companys websites. Secondary data analysis saves time that would otherwise be spent collecting data and, particularly in the case of quantitative data, provides larger and higher-quality databases than would be unfeasible for any individual researcher to collect on their own. In addition to that, analysts of social and economic change consider secondary data essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change and/or developments.
Type of data collection: Internal Secondary Data: data collected within the firm, such as internal databases of customer information.
Secondary research can be described as the most widely used method for data collection. This process involves accessing information that is already gathered from either the originator or a distributor of primary research. Secondary research includes collecting information from third-party sources such as company websites, sales and accounting records, magazine articles and marketing research reports. It also includes any previously gathered information used by the marketer from any internal or external source.
There is several reasons for including secondary data in this study these are: Number of questionnaire is not enough to examine current status and require need of the University.
The respondents are not familiar with all world class University.
The number of questions is not enough to examine the whole infrastructure of the University.
3.3.3 Advantages of secondary data Ease of Access There are many advantages to using secondary research. This includes the relative ease of access to many sources of secondary data. In the past secondary data accumulation required marketers to visit libraries, or wait for reports to be shipped by mail. Now with the availability of online access, secondary research is more openly accessed. This offers convenience and generally standardized usage methods for all sources of secondary research.
Low Cost to Acquire The use of secondary data has allowed researchers access to valuable information for little or no cost to acquire. Therefore, this information is much less expensive then if the researchers had to carry out the research themselves.
Clarification of Research Question The use of secondary research may help the researcher to clarify the research question. Secondary research is often used prior to primary research to help clarify the research focus.
The use of secondary data collection is often used to help align the focus of large scale primary research. When focusing on secondary research, the researcher may realize that the exact information they were looking to uncover is already available through secondary sources. This would effectively eliminate the need and expense to carry out their- own primary research.
May Show Difficulties in Conducting Primary Research In many cases, the originators of secondary research include details of how the information was collected. This may include information detailing the procedures used in data collection and difficulties encountered in conducting the primary research. Therefore, the detailed difficulties may persuade the researcher to decide that the potential information obtained is not worth the potential difficulties in conducting the research.
3.3.4 Disadvantages of secondary data Quality of Research There are some disadvantages to using secondary research. The originators of the primary research are largely self-governed and controlled by the marketer. Therefore, the secondary research used must be scrutinized closely since the origins of the information may be questionable. Moreover, the researcher needs to take sufficient steps to critically evaluate the validity and reliability of the information
Not Specific to Researchers Needs In many cases, secondary data is not presented in a form that exactly meets the researchers needs. Therefore, the researcher needs to rely on secondary data that is presented and classified in a way that is similar to their needs.
Incomplete Information
In many cases, researchers find information that appears valuable and promising. The researcher may not get the full version of the research to gain the full value of the study. This is because many research suppliers offer free portions of their research and then charge expensive fees for their full reports.
Not Timely When using secondary research, one must exercise caution when using dated information from the past. With companies competing in fast changing industries, an out-of-date research reports many have little or no relevance to the current market situation.
Conclusion In conclusion, the use of secondary research offers many significant advantages to the researcher. It is important for the researcher to identify, reduce, and manage the disadvantages that are accompanied by the use of secondary research.
3.4 Selection of Statistical Tool Statistics is the science of making effective use of numerical data relating to groups of individuals or experiments. It deals with all aspects of this, including not only the collection, analysis and interpretation of such data, but also the planning of the collection of data, in terms of the design of surveys and experiments.
For many types of data analysis problems there are no more than a couple of general approaches to be considered on the route to the problem's solution. For example, there is often a dichotomy between highly-efficient methods appropriate for data with noise from a normal distribution and more general methods for data with other types of noise. Within the different approaches for a specific problem type, there are usually at most a few competing statistical tools that can be used to obtain an appropriate solution. The bottom line for most types of data analysis problems is
that selection of the best statistical method to solve the problem is largely determined by the goal of the analysis and the nature of the data.
After the data collection, collected data has been analyzed and interpreted in an organized way to get a such specific result according to our project requirement. Data has been summarized in order to increase their usefulness in such a manner that enables the research to relate critical points to achieve the objective of the research.
The procedure of data collection, all the respondents were personally approached and were explained the purpose of the interview. The respondents were given the questionnaire and also all the instructions were given to fill it up. Each and every question was made clear to them. They were assured that the information given by them would be kept strictly confidential. After they finished filling up the questionnaires, it was thoroughly checked as to whether every question was attempted or not.
The data are edited, tabulated, for the purpose of achieving summarized result. This analysis is basically given difference & interference of association between the various variables, basically average and percentage calculations has been done.
A) Percentage method is such type of method in which we calculate the numerical value in terms of 100. The survey was conducted by using a structured questionnaire which consisted of both-open-ended and close ended questions.
During the survey, overall 100 respondents were interviewed, who belonged to the middle income group and higher income group and possessed a car. The method used for the selection of sample is purposive sampling.
B) Chi square test is based on the chi square distribution and it is a Parametric test. It is used for comparing a sample variance to a theoretical population variance. In a non-parametric test, no assumption, no assumption about the parameters of the population is made.
3.4.1 Chi Square Test Chi-square is used for comparing a sample variance to a theoretical population variance. In a non-parametric test, no assumption about the parameters of the population is made. For example, in a parametric test like t test, the population is assumed to be normally distributed but such an assumption is not made in a nonparametric test. The non-parametric tests originally were applied in sociological and psychological research. But it was Robert parket who started applying these tests in other areas of research. These test have become very popular because they can be applied in any type of distribution, they are easy to compute and they can be used in situations when parametric tests cannot be applied.
Conditions to be satisfied for applying chi-square test : 1) Data should have been collected at random
It has been already stated that chi-square is used for different purposes. These are explained below
Chi-square as a goodness of fit Goodness of fit implies perfect tallying of the observed and estimated values. For instance, in regression, if the estimated values match with the actual values, then the residual error would be minimum. This means the regression equation is a very good fit. Similarly, in chi-square, if the observed data and the estimated data do not have significant difference, then the estimate is said to be a good fit. The difference between the estimated value and the observed value is explained through sampling fluctuations
Chi-square as a test of independence In this case, chi-square test is applied to examine whether two attributes are associated or not. For example, if a new medicine is introduced, whether the medicine is effective in controlling a disease or not can be established using test. Though this, the association between the control of disease and the effectiveness of medicine is studied. Usually, the estimated values and the observed values are processed with the formula for and the computed value is compared with the table value of chi-square. If the computed value is greater than the table value of chisquare, then we reject the null hypothesis. Otherwise, the null hypothesis is accepted.
STEPS 1. Null hypothesis is (Ho) and the alternatives hypothesis (H1) are established and a significance level (Generally 5%) is selected for rejection of null hypothesis.
2. The expected frequencies are calculated using the following equation (RT) Row total * (CT) column total E= N (Total number) Whence = Expected frequency RT = Row total for the column containing the cell CT = column total for the column containing the cell N = Total number of observation
3. Compute the difference between the observed and the expected frequencies.
6. The calculated value is compared with the table value of chi- square for the given degree of freedom at a specific level of significance.
7. If the calculated value of chi-square is greater than the tabulated value of chisquare then, Ho, is rejected, if the calculated value of chi-square is smaller than the tabulated value of chi-square is accepted.