7 e Applied EMCh 4

4.
ELECTROSTATICS
7e Applied EM by Ulaby and Ravaioli
Chapter 4 Overview
Maxwell’s Equations
God said:
And there was light!

Charge Distributions
Volume charge density:
Total Charge in a Volume
Surface and Line Charge Densities

Current Density
For a surface with any orientation:
J is called the current density

Convection vs. Conduction
Coulomb’s Law
Electric field at point P due to single charge
Electric force on a test charge placed at P
Electric flux density D

Electric Field Due to 2 Charges
Electric Field due to Multiple
Charges
Electric Field Due to Charge Distributions
Field due to:

Cont.
Cont.
Example 4-5 cont.
Gauss’s Law
Application of the divergence theorem gives:
Applying Gauss’s Law
Construct an imaginary Gaussian cylinder

of radius r and height h:
Electric Scalar Potential
Minimum force needed to move charge
against E field:
Electric Scalar Potential
Electric Potential Due to Charges
For a point charge, V at range R is:
In electric circuits, we usually select a

convenient node that we call ground and For continuous charge distributions:
assign it zero reference voltage. In free
space and material media, we choose infinity
as reference with V = 0. Hence, at a point P
Relating E to V
https://www.youtube.com/watch? Cont.
(cont.)
Poisson’s & Laplace’s Equations
In the absence of charges:

Conduction Current
Conduction current density:
Note how wide the range is, over 24 orders

of magnitude
Conductivity
ve = volume charge density of
electrons
he = volume charge density of
holes
e = electron mobility
h = hole mobility
Ne = number of electrons per unit
volume
Nh = number of holes per unit
volume
Resistance
Longitudinal Resistor
For any conductor:

G’=0 if the insulating material is air or a
perfect dielectric with zero conductivity.
Joule’s Law
The power dissipated in a
volume containing electric field
For a coaxial cable:
E and current density J is:
For a resistor, Joule’s law reduces to:

Tech Brief 7: Resistive Sensors
An electrical sensor is a device
capable of responding to an applied
stimulus by generating an electrical
signal whose voltage, current, or
some other attribute is related to the
intensity of the stimulus.
Typical stimuli : temperature,

pressure, position, distance, motion,
velocity, acceleration, concentration
(of a gas or liquid), blood flow, etc.
Sensing process relies on measuring

resistance, capacitance, inductance,
induced electromotive force (emf),
oscillation frequency or time delay,
etc.
Piezoresistivity
The Greek word piezein means to press
R0 = resistance when F = 0
F = applied force
A0 = cross-section when F = 0
 = piezoresistive coefficient of material
Piezoresistors
Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone bridge is a high

sensitivity circuit for
measuring small changes in
resistance
Dielectric Materials
Polarization Field
P = electric flux density induced by E

Electric Breakdown
Electric Breakdown
Boundary Conditions
Summary of Boundary Conditions
Remember E = 0 in a good conductor

Conductors
Net electric field inside a conductor is zero

Field Lines at Conductor Boundary
At conductor boundary, E field direction is always

perpendicular to conductor surface
Capacitance
Capacitance
For any two-conductor configuration:
For any resistor:

Application of Gauss’s law gives:
Q is total charge on inside of outer

cylinder, and –Q is on outside surface of
inner cylinder
Tech Brief 8: Supercapacitors
For a traditional parallel-plate capacitor, what
is the maximum attainable energy density? Mica has one of the highest dielectric
strengths ~2 x 10**8 V/m.
If we select a voltage rating of 1 V and a
breakdown voltage of 2 V (50% safety), this
will require that d be no smaller than 10 nm.
For mica,  = 60 and  = 3 x 10**3 kg/m3 .
Hence:
Energy density is given by:
W = 90 J/kg = 2.5 x10**‒2 Wh/kg.
By comparison, a lithium-ion battery has

W = 1.5 x 10**2 Wh/kg, almost 4 orders of
 = permittivity of insulation material magnitude greater
V = applied voltage
 = density of insulation material
d = separation between plates
A supercapacitor is a “hybrid” battery/capacitor
Users of Supercapacitors
Energy Comparison
Electrostatic Potential Energy
Electrostatic potential energy density (Joules/volume)
Energy stored in a capacitor
Total electrostatic energy stored in a volume

Image Method
Image method simplifies calculation for E and V

due to charges near conducting planes.
1. For each charge Q, add an image charge –Q

2. Remove conducting plane
3. Calculate field due to all charges
Tech Brief 9:
Capacitive Sensors
Humidity Sensor
Pressure Sensor
Planar capacitors
Fingerprint Imager

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4.

And there was light!

Volume charge density:

Total Charge in a Volume

Surface and Line Charge Densities

For a surface with any orientation:

J is called the current density

Electric force on a test charge placed at P

Electric flux density D

Field due to:

Construct an imaginary Gaussian cylinder

For a point charge, V at range R is:

In electric circuits, we usually select a

In the absence of charges:

Conduction current density:

Note how wide the range is, over 24 orders

For any conductor:

For a resistor, Joule’s law reduces to:

Typical stimuli : temperature,

Sensing process relies on measuring

Wheatstone bridge is a high

P = electric flux density induced by E

Remember E = 0 in a good conductor

Net electric field inside a conductor is zero

At conductor boundary, E field direction is always

For any resistor:

Q is total charge on inside of outer

By comparison, a lithium-ion battery has

Energy stored in a capacitor

Total electrostatic energy stored in a volume

Image method simplifies calculation for E and V

1. For each charge Q, add an image charge –Q

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