Igneous Petrology

Dr. Amir Khan

Petrology & Petrography
 Petrology - The branch of geology dealing with the origin, occurrence, structure, and history of rocks.

 Petrography - The branch of geology dealing with the description and systematic classification of
rocks, especially by microscopic examination of thin sections. Petrography is a subfield of Petrology.

 Igneous petrology is the study of the classification, occurrence, composition, origin, and evolution of
rocks formed from magmas

Rocks: Aggregates of minerals.

 There are three main types of rocks:

 Igneous rocks
 Sedimentary rocks
 Metamorphic rocks
Igneous Rocks:
 Igneous rocks are formed when molten hot material cools
and solidifies.

Intrusive Igneous Rocks:

 When they are formed inside of the earth, they are called
intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rocks.
 Granite, Monzonite, granodiorite, tonalite, and quartz
diorite

 Intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rock forms when magma is

trapped deep inside the Earth.

 Great globs of molten rock rise toward the surface.  Slow cooling means the individual mineral
grains have a very long time to grow, so they
 Some of the magma may feed volcanoes on the Earth's
grow to a relatively large size.
surface, but most remain trapped below, where it cools very
slowly over many thousands or millions of years until it  Intrusive rocks have a coarse-grained texture.
solidifies.
Extrusive Igneous Rocks:
 Extrusive, or volcanic, igneous rock is produced when
magma exits and cools above (or very near) the Earth's
surface.

 These are the rocks that form at erupting volcanoes and

oozing fissures.

 The magma, called lava when molten rock erupts on the

surface, cools and solidifies almost instantly when it is
exposed to the relatively cool temperature of the
atmosphere.

 Quick cooling means that mineral crystals don't have

much time to grow, so these rocks have a very fine- Basalt, Rhyolite, Obsidian etc
grained or even glassy texture.

 Hot gas bubbles are often trapped in the quenched lava,

forming a bubbly, vesicular texture.
 Plutonic rocks form in all the same
geological settings as volcanic rocks.

 Yet, because they crystallize

underground unless brought to the
surface in some way, we may never see
them.

 We find plutonic rocks exposed in

uplifted mountain ranges and in shield
regions where erosion has uncovered the
underlying roots of ancient mountains.

 Hypabyssal or subvolcanic rocks: form

at intermediate depths (generally as
dykes and sills) and so tend to be
medium-grained.
Sedimentary Rocks
 Sedimentary rocks are formed from pieces of other existing rock or organic material. There are three
different types of sedimentary rocks: clastic, organic (biological), and chemical.

 Clastic sedimentary rocks, like sandstone, form from clasts, or pieces of other rock. Organic sedimentary
rocks, like coal, form from hard, biological materials like plants, shells, and bones that are compressed
into rock.

The formation of clastic and organic rocks begins with the weathering, or breaking down, of the exposed
rock into small fragments.

 Through the process of erosion, these fragments are removed from their source and transported by wind,
water, ice, or biological activity to a new location.

 Once the sediment settles somewhere, and enough of it collects, the lowest layers become compacted so
tightly that they form solid rock.
 The origin of
sedimentary rocks
involves the weathering
of older rock to generate
the materials that make
up sedimentary rock,
erosion and transport of
weathered debris and
soluble constituents to
depositional basins,
deposition of this
material in continental
(terrigenous) or marine
environments, and
diagenetic alteration
during burial to
ultimately produce
lithified sedimentary
rock.
Metamorphic Rocks
 Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been changed from their original form by immense heat or
pressure.

 Metamorphic rocks have two classes: foliated and nonfoliated. When a rock with flat or elongated minerals
is put under immense pressure, the minerals line up in layers, creating foliation.

 Foliation is the aligning of elongated or platy minerals, like hornblende or mica, perpendicular to the
direction of pressure that is applied.

 Granite contains long and platy minerals that are not initially aligned, but when enough pressure is added,
those minerals shift to all points in the same direction while getting squeezed into flat sheets.

 When granite undergoes this process, like at a tectonic plate boundary, it turns into gneiss (pronounced
“nice”).

 Nonfoliated rocks are formed the same way, but they do not contain the minerals that tend to line up under
pressure and thus do not have the layered appearance of foliated rocks.
 Sedimentary rocks like bituminous coal,
limestone, and sandstone, given enough
heat and pressure, can turn into
nonfoliated metamorphic rocks like
anthracite coal, marble, and quartzite.

 Nonfoliated rocks can also form by

metamorphism, which happens when
magma comes in contact with the
surrounding rock.
 Phaneritic: The crystals that compose the rock are readily visible with the naked eye: Plutonic

 Aphanitic: The crystals, if any, are too small to be seen readily with the naked eye: Volcanic

 Fragmental: The rock is composed of pieces of disaggregated igneous material, deposited and later
amalgamated.

 The fragments themselves may include pieces of pre-existing (predominately igneous) rock, crystal
fragments, or glass.

 Compositional Terms: In addition to classification according to grain size, we can describe the general
composition of a rock using the terms felsic, mafic, and ultramafic.

 Felsic: A rock composed predominantly of felsic minerals.

 The term felsic combines parts of the words feldspars (and feldspathoids) and silica.

 Rocks rich in quartz, feldspars, or feldspathoids are light-colored and are called felsic.

 Example: Granite, rhyolite etc

 Mafic: A rock rich in ferromagnesian minerals is called mafic.

 The term mafic reflects the enrichment of these rocks in magnesium and iron (Fe), dark-colored
minerals.

 Example: Basalt, diabase and gabbro

 Ultra mafic: Ultramafic rocks are essentially free of any felsic minerals.

 The term ultramafic refers to a rock that consists of over 90% mafic minerals.

 Examples: Peridotite, kimberlite, lamprophyre, lamproite, dunite, and komatiite

 Felsic, Mafic, and Ultramafic terms are based on mineral content.

Leucocratic and melanocratic: based on rock color.

 Leucocratic meaning a light-colored rock,

 Melanocratic meaning a dark-colored, rock.

 but the relationship between these two parameters is obvious.
 Rocks composed principally of light-colored minerals (felsic), will surely be light-colored themselves
(leucocratic).

 Smoky quartz is dark-colored quartz!!!!

 A rock composed of 90% dark feldspar would thus be considered both felsic and melanocratic.

 The color of a rock has been quantified by a value known as the color index, which is simply the volume
percentage of dark minerals.

 Based on Silica content

 The spectrum of silica content in igneous rocks has been subdivided as follows:
 Acidic: > 66 wt. % SiO2
 Intermediate: 52-66 wt. % SiO2
 Basic: 45-52% wt. % SiO2
 Ultrabasic: < 45 wt. % SiO2
 Texture of Igneous rocks: the texture of a rock refers to the small-scale appearance of the rock: the size,
shape, and mutual arrangements of its constituent phases.

 The texture is defined based on glass vs. mineral grain proportions.

 Textures may provide information about cooling and crystallization rates and the phase relations between
minerals and magma at the time of crystallization

 The term texture is applied to megascopic (as observed in hand specimens with unaided eyes) as well as
microscopic features (as observed in thin sections under the microscope).

 The formation and growth of crystals, either from a melt or in a solid medium (metamorphic mineral
growth) involves three principal processes:

 1) initial nucleation of the crystal,

 2) subsequent crystal growth,

 3) diffusion of chemical species (and heat) through the surrounding medium to and from the surface of a
growing crystal.
Crystal:
 A crystal is a solid whose atoms are
arranged in a "highly ordered" repeating
pattern.

 These patterns are called crystal systems. If

a mineral has its atoms arranged in one of
them, then that mineral is a crystal.

Mineral:
 A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic
element or compound having an orderly
internal structure and characteristic
chemical composition, crystal form, and
physical properties.

 Common minerals include quartz, feldspar,

mica, amphibole, olivine, and calcite.
Textural elements:
Crystallinity :
 Crystallinity or degree of crystallization refers to the degree or amount of crystals formed during the
process of solidification of magma.

 The igneous rocks may be composed of crystals, partly crystals, and partly glassy matter or totally glassy
matter.

 The degree of crystallization is measured by the ratio between the crystallized matter and the glass in an
igneous rock.

 On the basis of crystallinity or degree of crystallization, textures of igneous rocks are grouped as:

 Holocrystalline: The prefix ‘holo’ implies entirely or wholly.

 Igneous rocks are composed of well-defined crystal faces of constituent minerals.

 Or Igneous rocks composed of wholly of crystals.

 Holocrystalline texture is seen in plutonic rocks.

Holohyalline:
 The rocks exhibiting this texture are entirely made up of glassy matter or non-crystalline matter.

 Or Igneous rocks composed of wholly of glasses.

 This results when the rate of cooling is very rapid.

 This texture is mostly seen in volcanic rocks, e.g. obsidian, pitchstone, nephelinite

Hemi crystalline/ Microcrystalline/Hypo crystalline/ merocrystalline:

 When the rock is composed of partly of crystals and partly of glassy material.
 e.g. dolerite, basalt

 This is mainly observed in the rocks which are crystallized near the surface or at an intermediate depth
from the surface.
Granularity: Size of the grains.
 Phaneritic rocks: In these rocks, mineral grains are large enough to be visible with unaided eyes.

 Phaneritic texture also indicates a low rate of nucleation, formed under plutonic conditions, and emplaced
on the surface due to upliftment

 Aphanitic rocks: They are fine-grained and have too small crystals to be identified with the unaided eyes or
even with the help of a hand lens.

 They are further classified into two sub-types such as:

 Microcrystalline: In this the grains are visible only under the microscope

 Cryptocrystalline: In this case, only felty mass is seen and mineral grains are not visible under the
microscope

 Coarse-grained crystals can be seen with unaided eyes and mineral grains in rocks are identified easily.

 Whereas, the study of fine-grained minerals in rocks requires a petrological microscope for their
identification.
Crystallinity is largely controlled and governed by following factors:

 Rate of cooling- The faster the cooling finer will be the crystals.

 Volcanic glass is formed by rapid cooling of the lava. The slower rate of cooling favors crystal growth of
the bigger crystals.

 Depth of cooling and volume of magma- Higher the depth, the slower will be the cooling rate as heat
dissipation is slow.

 Similarly, the volume of the magma has a significant bearing on crystal growth.

 The larger the volume slower will be the rate of cooling, hence larger crystals will be formed.

 Composition and viscosity of magma- Highly viscous lavas such as rhyolite or siliceous magma favors
formation of non-crystalline and/or glassy rocks.

 Contrarily, less viscous basaltic or mafic lavas/magmas give rise to crystalline rocks.
Shape of the Crystals:

 Petrologists use the shape of crystals and how the various minerals are arranged in an igneous rock to
decipher the crystallization history of a rock

 Euhedral: The euhedral term is used for the mineral grains that possess fully developed grain/crystal
outlines.

 All the faces are perfectly or near perfectly developed.

 Idiomorphic/automorphic/Panidiomorphic Texture: comprises the majority of grains with euhedral

shape (e.g. Lamprophyre).

 Subhedral: Subhedral refers to crystal forms with less or partly developed crystal faces or grain
boundaries.

 Hypidiomorphic/Subidiomorphic: granular texture (hypo-less or below) consists of dominantly of

mineral grains with partly developed or subhedral shape, e.g. gabbro, granite.
 Anhedral: The anhedral term is used for mineral grains lacking crystal outlines.

 When the majority of the grains are anhedral resulting, the texture is known as
allotriomorphic/xenomorphic

 e.g. aplite. This texture is also called aplitic because this is best developed in aplites (hypabyssal
equivalent of granite).
Three-dimensional Geometry of Grains:

Crystals tend to develop crystal grains in length, breadth, and height, thus, exhibits three-dimensional geometry
during the process of crystallization.

On the basis of mineral grain dimensions, the mineral grains in the igneous rocks can be grouped as:

1. Equidimensional: The mineral grains are equally developed in all the dimensions, e.g. garnet, olivine,
leucite.

2. Prismatic: The mineral grains show more distinct growth in one direction (along C axis) than the other two
directions/axes, e.g. augite, hornblende.
 If the width and breadth are insignificant as compared to the length, then it is called acicular or needle-
shaped, e.g. sanidine.

3. Tabular: The mineral grains have greater development in length as compared to width, e.g. plagioclase,
orthoclase.

4. Platy or sheet: The mineral grains are developed in length and breadth in relation to height e.g. mica.

5. Irregular: The mineral grains are irregularly developed in all the dimensions, e.g. quartz in granite.
Mutual Relationship between Crystal and NonCrystalline Material:

Intergrain Textures:

 Equigranular texture
 Inequigranular texture

1) Equigranular textures: When the majority of the grains are more or less of equal size, it is said to have
equigranular texture, e.g. granite, and gabbro.

It can be grouped into three sub-types:

 Microgranitic- It occurs in fine-grained rocks, where the shape of the grains is mostly anhedral or
subhedral.

 Orthophyric- If in a fine-grained rocks grains are mostly euhedral.

 Felsitic- If grains are very fine or microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline.

Inequigranular textures:
 In an igneous rock if the grain size difference becomes so pronounced that one set of grains is
distinctively larger and associated with another set that is much finer in size, then it is termed as
inequigranular.

 Two-stage cooling can create a bimodal distribution of grain sizes. Slow cooling followed by rapid is
the only plausible sequence and might occur when crystallization begins in a magma chamber, followed
by the opening of a conduit and migration of magma to the surface.

 Initially, the magma would be only slightly undercooled and a few coarse crystals would form, followed
by volcanism and finer crystals.

(a) Porphyritic texture: In this, the larger grains are surrounded by the groundmass consisting of smaller
grains (microcrystals) or glassy part.

 When there is a distinctly bimodal distribution in grain size, with one size considerably larger than the
other, the texture is called porphyritic.
 The larger crystals are called phenocrysts, and the finer
surrounding ones are called matrix or groundmass.

 This texture is visible both megascopically or in hand specimen

(megaporphyrtic) and microscopically (microporphyritic)

 Igneous rocks showing porphyritic textures are known as

porphyrites such as a granite porphyry, diorite porphyry and
rhyolite porphyry

 If the phenocrysts are set in a glassy groundmass, the texture is

called vitrophyric.

 Exceptionally large porphyritic crystals are termed megacrysts/ mega

phenocryst

 The term microphenocryst is subjectively used to distinguish finer

phenocrysts from coarser ones for which the term megaphenocryst is
used.
(b) Poikilitic texture:

 It is a type of inequigranular texture, where a large grain

contains numerous inclusion of another mineral that they
enveloped as they grew.

 The larger or host or house crystal is known as oikocryst and

the enclosed crystals are known as chadocrysts.

 Poikilitic texture can be of three types:

(i) Ophitic texture: Defined by a mineral pair of plagioclase

and pyroxene.

 Large pyroxene grains enclose small random plagioclase

laths.
 Example: Dolerite and basalt

(ii) Sub-ophitic Texture: The enclosure of plagioclase by

pyroxene is partial rather than complete.
(iii) Hyalophitic texture: It is similar to ophitic texture, but the difference is that the diversely oriented
plagioclase grains are completely surrounded by the glass.

( c) Intersertal/ Intergranular texture:

 The mafic rocks like basalt, often shows a variety of textures depending on the mutual relationship
between the grains and the groundmass, which comprise mainly plagioclase, pyroxene and glass.

 The volcanic glass may be replaced by secondary alteration products like palagonite.

 When the corners of randomly oriented plagioclase laths touch each other to form a network and the
polygonal interstitial spaces, often termed mesostasis, are filled by granular anhedral pyroxene, the
texture is known as intergranular texture.

 When the interlath polygonal spaces are filled-up by glass or its devitrified product, the texture is known
as intersertal texture.

 Mesostatsis: The last-formed, fine grained to microcrystalline, interstitial material forming between the
larger mineral grains in an igneous rock.

 The process of conversion of glass material to crystallized material is known as devitrification.

Intergrowth Textures:
 Intergrowth texture results from intergrowth which means the state of interlocking of grains of two
different minerals.

 Intergrowth texture results due to the simultaneous crystallization of two mineral components of the
magma at a particular temperature.

 When two minerals do not have time to form independent crystals, but rather form an intergrowth of
intricate skeletal shapes referred to as granophyric texture

 (a) Graphic/Granophyric texture: Fine to medium-sized intergrowth of quartz and orthoclase may take
place when they crystallize, called Granophyric texture.

 Skeletons of quartz crystals are embedded in the orthoclase

 Coarser variation of granophyric textures is known as graphic texture.

 Graphic texture is commonly found in granites.

(b) Myrmekitic texture: Myrmekitic texture
results from the intergrowth of quartz and
plagioclase (usually oligoclase).

 The intergrowth of quartz is in the form of

worm-like rods within the plagioclase.

 It is also referred as to symplectite.

 It is found in some granite and metamorphic

rocks.

(c ) Directive texture/Flow texture:

 When the magma during the process of its crystallization undergoes flow movement, the crystallizing
minerals tend to arrange themselves in a regular directive band which results in a flow texture.

 The direction of the flow may be interrupted by early formed crystals, but the flow bands will produce stream
line without distorting the bigger crystals, such texture is known as flow texture.
Trachytic texture: a texture wherein plagioclase grains show a preferred orientation due to flowage, and the
interstices between plagioclase grains are occupied by glass or cryptocrystalline material.

 Intragrain texture/Evolution or unmixing:

 Exsolution textures represent chemical breakdown of an originally homogenous solid solution as it cools
down.
 Some intergrowth textures within individual mineral grains result from cooling after crystallization.

 Perthitic texture: Exsolution of alkali feldspar and albite produces perthites which comprises thin strings,
films and patches of albite oriented within the Kfeldspar host, e.g. orthoclase/ microcline

 Microperthitic texture is the texture which is resolvable under the microscope. It is commonly developed
in coarse plutonic rocks like granite, gabbro.

 Alkali feldspar/potassic feldspar-Host: Greater amount

 Sodic Plagioclase (Albite)-Guest
Antiperthite texture: It is the reverse of the perthitic texture.

 In this case the belbs and patches of orthoclase or microcline occur within plagioclase and gives rise to
antiperthic intergrowth.

 Sodic Plagioclase (Albite)

 Alkali feldspar/potassic feldspar
Alkali feldspar/potassic feldspar-Host: Greater
amount
Plagioclase-Guest
Structure of igneous rocks:

 The term structure is very much different from texture.

 Structure is used for larger features of rock, observed in the field on large outcrops like flow banding,
layering, vesicles, etc.

Vesicular and Amygdaloidal Structures:

 The lavas are heavily charged with gases and other volatiles.

 When the lava erupts on the surface, the volatile constituents (CO2, H2O) escape from the fluid with the
decrease of pressure, thus forming cavities, bubbles or vesicles of variable dimensions and shapes, such as
spherical, elliptical, cylindrical, or irregular in shape.

 The individual openings are known as vesicles and the structure as a whole is known as vesicular
structure

 But, if the vesicles are filled-up by some low temperature secondary minerals such as quartz, calcite,
zeolite etc it is termed as amygdale.

 Volcanic rocks containing amygdales are said to have amygdaloidal structure . The structure
 An amygdule is defined as a refilled vesicle.
Xenoliths and Xenocrysts:

 Xenolith is an accidental foreign rock fragment trapped in another rock of igneous origin.

 Xenolith itself may be igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic in origin. The term xenolith literally
means ‘foreign rock’ but, some xenoliths are not entirely foreign to their hosts.

 They may be genetically related and known as cognate because both of them may have crystallized
from the same magma.

 The unrelated xenoliths are always older than their host rocks because they existed before the magma
around them was solidified.

 Xenocrysts differ from the xenoliths. Xenolith is the term used for rock fragments, whereas, xenocryst
refers to individual mineral fragment.

 The xenocryst term is used for the crystals that was accidentally incorporated in the magma and
preserved in a partly resorbed state.

 They can have foreign sources or can be derived from the same country rock. Cognate are the
xenocrysts genetically related to the enclosing rock.
 Country rock may consist any other
kind of rock that was present before the
intrusion: sedimentary, igneous, or
metamorphic.

 In most cases, country rock is intruded

by an igneous body of rock that formed
when magma was forced upward
through fractures or melted its way up
through the overlying rock.

 The magma then cooled into solid rock

forming a mass distinct from the
enveloping country rock.

 Occasionally, a fragment of country

rock will break off and become
incorporated into the intrusion and is
called a xenolith.
Forms of Igneous rocks:

Discordant body: When the igneous bodies cross-cut the

structure of pre-existing rocks, it is said to be a discordant
intrusion or discordant intrusive body.

 The preexisting rocks can be igneous, sedimentary, or

metamorphic.

Concordant body: When the igneous bodies that are

intruded parallel to the structure of the country rocks, it is
said to be a concordant intrusion or concordant intrusive
body.

 If the country rock be made up of sedimentary bedding, a  In the case of igneous country rocks, all other
concordant intrusive mass should run parallel to the subsequent bodies of igneous origin are likely
bedding planes while a discordant body must cut across to be discordant in nature since the igneous
them. country-rock doesn’t ordinarily exhibit any
characteristic features to which the later
 If metamorphic rocks are forming the country, concordant injections may run parallel.
bodies must run parallel to the foliation or lineation
Dykes: Dykes are discordant igneous bodies of more or less tabular shape and they have cross cutting
relationships with the country rocks.

 Dykes are commonly formed due to the development of cracks within the country rocks and their subsequent
filling up with igneous intrusives.

 These are wall like masses of igneous rocks cutting across country rock which may be of igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic rock.
Simple dyke: Results from a single intrusion/injection of magma.

Multiple dykes: Results from two or more intrusions of the same

magma (same composition).

Composite dykes: Results from two or more intrusions of magma

of different composition.

Differential dykes: It was intruded as a homogenous magma, but

from which two or more varieties of rock have been formed in situ.

 Dykes are generally a few feet in thickness and commonly

occur in groups which may exhibit some pattern.

 Radiating dykes: When different dykes seem to radiate from a

common centre

 Arcuate dykes: When several dykes form arc-like structure.

Ring dykes: When arcuate dykes occur in a form of more or less a complete circle or ring

Cone sheets: Cone sheets refer to sheets of an igneous body that occurs in the form of inverted, co-axial
cones, with thin layers of country rocks lying in between them.

Both the cone sheets and ring dykes have near-circular outcrop on the surface, but the ring dykes are nearly
vertical. The cone sheets converge toward the apex of the cone.
Sills:

 Sills are tabular concordant igneous rock bodies lying parallel to the structure of the country rocks.

 parallel to the planar structure: such as the bedding and foliation plane of the country rock.

 They are commonly sheet-like masses, occurring within the country rocks, having a variable thickness

 The rocks in the sill are younger

than the rocks on either side of it.
Simple Sill: Results from a single intrusion/injection of magma.

Multiple Sill : Results from two or more intrusions of the same magma (same composition).

Composite Sill: Results from two or more intrusions of magma of different composition.

Non Tabular Intrusive bodies:

Batholith:
 Batholith is the largest intrusive of all igneous bodies (covers an area of
>100 km2)
 They occur as huge linear structures extending several hundreds of
kilometers and up to 100 kilometers wide.

 Batholiths are always made up of granitic (felsic) and intermediate rock

types and are often referred to as granite batholiths.

 They are formed at some depth below the Earth’s surface and exposed only
after the removal of overlying cover of the rock masses.

Stock: It is an intrusive mass of plutonic igneous rocks, but, smaller in size than
the batholith (less than 100 km2) and usually possesses more or less circular or
Laccoliths:

 Laccoliths are more or less concordant

intrusive dome-like masses of igneous rock
arching upward and have a more or less flat
floor.

 These are the intrusive bodies that have their

lower surface flat and have domed top.

 In a typical laccolith, the diameter is only few

times greater than the thickness.

 Batholiths are formed, necessarily under Typical Laccolith: Diameter is only a few times greater
than thickness.
deep-seated, plutonic conditions, and are
found exposed on the surface of the earth only Typical sill: Diameter is many times greater than
after prolonged and conspicuous erosion, the thickness.
best example being Ladakh and Karakoram
batholiths.

 Felsic in composition.
Lopoliths:

 The word lopolith is derived from the Greek word lopas means basins.

 Lopoliths are more or less saucer or basin-shaped concordant igneous bodies that are concave upwards
in the form of basins.

 Lopoliths are usually mafic in composition and characteristically much larger than laccoliths.
Phacoliths:

 Phacoliths are concordant, crescentic-shaped

igneous intrusive bodies.

 It is confined to the crest anticline and trough

of syncline.

 Basaltic in composition.

Chonolith: Chonolith is an igneous intrusion

whose form is so irregular that it can not be
classified as a laccolith, dike, sill, or any other
recognised body.

Bysmalith: Bysmalith is a special type of laccolith

which is a roughly vertical cylindrical igneous
intrusion bounded by steep faults.
THE IUGS CLASSIFICATION
 Over time, a number of classification schemes have been applied to
igneous rocks, resulting in a plethora of equivalent or overlapping rock
names

 In the 1960s and 1970s, the International Union of Geological Sciences

(IUGS) formed a Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks
to attempt to develop a standardized and workable system of igneous
rock nomenclature.

Calculations and Plotting

 The IUGS system requires that we determine three mineral

components and plot the percentages of those com ponents on a
triangular diagram to determine the proper name.

 The three components are labeled X, Y, and Z. The percentage of X (at

the upper apex) is zero along the Y-Z base, and increases progressively
to 100% at the X apex. Any horizontal line represents a variation in the
Y/Z ratio at a constant value of X.
 These lines can be used like graph paper to plot a point, and a few of
these lines have been labeled.

 In order to plot a point on a triangular diagram using par ticular values

of X, Y, and Z they must total 100%.

 If they do not, then they must be normalized to 100%. This is

accomplished by multiplying each by 100/(X+Y+Z).

 As an example, point A has the components X = 9.0, Y = 2.6, Z = 1.3.

We can normalize these values to 100 by multiplying each by 100/(9.0 +
2.6 + 1.3) = 7.75.

 the normalized values: X=70%, Y=2Q%, and Z=10%. If we count up 7

lines from the Y-Z base we get a line representing a constant 70% X.

 Next counting 1 line from the X-Y base toward Z, we get a line
representing 10% Z.

 Their intersection (point A) is also intersected by the line representing

20% Y because the sum must be 100%.
 The IUGS classification is based on the modal amounts of the common minerals, which are divided into
five groups:

Q: quartz
A: alkali feldspar, including albite with up to five mole percent anorthite
P:plagioclase with composition An 5 to An 100
F:feldspathoids: nepheline, sodalite, analcite, leucite, cancrinite

M: mafic minerals: olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, and opaque minerals, and accessory minerals
such as zircon, apatite, sphene, allanite, garnet, and carbonate.

 The majority of igneous rocks found at the earth's surface have at least 10% Q+A+P or F+A+P.

 Because quartz is not compatible with feldspathoids, they will never occur in equilibrium together in the
same rock.

 If a rock to be classified has at least this 10% of these constituents, ignore M and normalize the
remaining 3 parameters to 100% (once again, by multiplying each by 100/(Q'+P'+A') (or
100/(F'+P/+A/)).
 Rocks containing less than 90 percent mafic
minerals are classified according to the
amounts of Q, A, P, and F minerals they
contain, whereas rocks containing more than
90 percent mafic minerals are classified ed
according to the proportions of major mafic
minerals.
A classification and nomenclature of
volcanic rocks. After IUGS
Bowen's reaction series:

 The pioneering studies by Dr. N. L. Bowen

in 1922 enunciated the Bowen’s reaction
series or principle which developed
fundamental ideas on the magmas, their
trend of evolution, and origin.

 Bowen's reaction series is a means of

ranking common igneous silicate minerals
by the temperature at which they
crystallize.

 Minerals at the top have a relatively high

crystallization temperature, which means
that they will be the first minerals to
crystallize from a magma that is cooling.

 This sequence of crystallization is also

known as Bowen’s reaction series or
Bowen’s reaction principle.
 In this series, the minerals are so arranged that each
is supposed to react with the magmatic fluid so as to
produce the new mineral placed below it.

 Bowen’s reaction series illustrates how magma may

solidify as a single rock type or it may also give rise
to many rock types.

 If they are chemically compatible with the magma as

it continues to cool, they will grow larger by
addition of external layers of additional material.
[They then may become the phenocrysts in a
porphyritic igneous texture.]

 If they are chemically incompatible, they will react

with the melt.

 What ultimately determines this chemical

compatibility is in large part the total silica content
of the melt.
 Discontinues reaction series:

 On the left side is discontinuous series which represents transformation of structure and composition of
ferromagnesian minerals with decreasing temperatures.

 Minerals on the left part of the "Y" of the diagram are what are called ferromagnesian minerals, because
they contain iron and magnesium in their composition.

 This part of the series is referred to as the discontinuous series, since these minerals, if chemically
incompatible with the melt as it cools, will usually completely react to form totally new minerals with
different crystal structures: an olivine (island silicate) completely re-reacting with the melt may
recrystallize into pyroxene (single-chain silicate), and a pyroxene may completely recrystallize into a
hornblende (a double-chain silicate) or ultimately a biotite (a sheet silicate), IF enough free silica (and
time!) is available during cooling.

 At a certain temperature, a magma might produce olivine, but if that same magma was allowed to cool
further, the olivine would "react" with the residual magma, and change to the next mineral on the series (in
this case pyroxene).

 Continue cooling and the pyroxene would convert to amphibole, and then to biotite.
 In discontinuous reaction series, the new minerals are formed when the magma reacts with the earlier
formed minerals at a particular temperature.

 The minerals in the Bowen’s reaction series indicate a generalized order in which each mineral
crystallizes from a cooling basaltic magma. Unless the early-formed crystals are removed from the melt
the composition can be changed further.

 As soon as olivine is formed, unless it is removed from the crystallisation site, it reacts with the magma
so as to produce the next mineral in series.

 Thus, with the falling temperature Mg-rich olivine (mineral fosterite) is converted to Fe-olivine (mineral
fayalite).

 This further continues till the whole of olivine is converted into Mg-pyroxene, under ideal physico-
chemical conditions.

 As the crystallization of magma proceeds, there is a tendency for equilibrium to be maintained between
solid and liquid phases. Thus, the early-formed crystals react with the liquid and changes in composition
takes place in order to maintain this equilibrium.
Continuous reaction series:

 on the right side is the continuous series which represents the

cooling and crystallisation of the minerals of plagioclase series
with decreasing temperature.

 In the continuous reaction series as the name suggests the

minerals continuously react with the magma forming the next
mineral in the plagioclase series.

 On the contrary in the discontinuous reaction series the new

minerals are formed when the magma reacts with the earlier
formed minerals at a particular temperature.

 The minerals on the right arm of the "Y" are the plagioclase
feldspars, which form a continuous from 100% Ca-plagioclase
(anorthite) with the highest melting point, to 100% Na-
plagioclase (albite) with the lowest melting point.

 The first crystals forming may entirely or only partially re-react

with the melt, but without destroying the basic feldspar crystal
structure.
 Both the two series, i.e. discontinuous series
and continuous series converge and merge into
single series which also forms a part of
discontinuous reaction series.

 The lower portion of Bowen's Reaction Series is

dictated more by chemistry than is the upper
part. Biotite, orthoclase feldspar and muscovite
are the only minerals here that contain large
amounts of potassium.

 These also have much higher silica contents

than the minerals at the top of the series (e.g.,
pure olivine is about 38% SiO2, while pure
orthoclase is 65% SiO2).

 It is this increase in silica content that lowers

the melting point; note that quartz, at the bottom
of the series, is, of course, 100% SiO2, and has
the lowest melting point (about 700°C).
 As a result, rocks that crystallize from mafic melts (45-55% silica) will tend to be made up of minerals
that are high in Bowen's reaction series - such as olivine, pyroxene and Ca-rich plagioclase feldspar.

 Rocks from felsic melts (>65% silica) will be composed mostly of minerals from the bottom of the
series - biotite, Na-plagioclase, muscovite, orthoclase and possibly quartz.

 Rocks from intermediate magmas will contain minerals from the middle of the sequence. Worth noting
is that these are the major minerals that will appear in the rocks; there will be numerous accessory
minerals present that are not in Bowen's reaction series, such as magnetite (Fe3O4) or zircon (ZrSiO4);
these are present in small quantities only in most cases, but can be very informative about fine details of
the rock history and properties.

 Simply put, the high temperature minerals, the first ones to crystallize in a mass of magma, are most
unstable at the Earth's surface and quickest to weather because the surface is most different from the
conditions under which they were created.

 On the other hand, the low temperature minerals are much more stable because the conditions at the
surface are much more similar to the conditions under which they formed.
Magma:
 Magma is a hot molten material, generated beneath the earth’s crust.

 It is a mixture of molten or semi-molten rock, volatiles, and solids.

 Magma is often collected in a magma chamber found beneath the surface of the Earth.

 Magma may solidify at deep inside the Earth.

 It may intrude the adjacent rocks or feed a volcano.

 We have read that about 700 types of igneous rocks have been reported on the earth.

 You must be thinking that so many different types of magma may be forming various types of rocks!

 Different types of igneous rocks are formed due to differentiation of magma.

Primary magma: It refers to the initial composition of magma before it underwent any differentiation
process.
Primary magma must have >10% MgO by weight.

Primary magma is also known as primary melt.

Primitive magma: This term refers to the primary magma derived from mantle.

 The composition of primitive magma gives an idea of the composition of the mantle which gave rise to
melt.

 This is important in understanding the evolution of magma. Primitive magma has undergone minimal
differentiation. It is also known as primitive melt.

Parental magma: Parental magma is derived from primary magma.

 Primary magma by the process of differentiation evolves into parental magma. In other words, they are
modified by the process of differentiation.

 Parental magma is capable of producing all rocks belonging to igneous rock series by the process of
differentiation.
Physical Properties of Magma:
Temperature: Magma temperatures are difficult to measure directly.

 The laboratory measurements and field observations indicate that the temperature of magma crystallizes
between temperatures ranging from 1200oC to 650oC.

 Temperature of magmas indicate that the eruption temperature of various magmas is as follows:

• Basaltic magma - 1000 to 1200oC

• Andesitic magma - 800 to 1000oC

• Rhyolitic magma - 800 to 650oC.

Viscosity: The viscosity of a melt is a measure of its resistance to flow.

 It is quantified as the resistance offered to its flow (opposite of fluidity) which controls the mobility of
magma.

 It is a function of a number of properties, most importantly the composition of the melt, including the types
and amounts of dissolved gases such as H2O and CO2 , and its temperature.
 The volatiles impart low viscosity to the magma.

 Felsic (with higher SiO2) magma has higher viscosity as compared to mafic magma.

 The basaltic magma tends to have low viscosity as compared to rhyolitic magma.

 Temperature also controls the viscosity of magma.

 Cooler magmas are more viscous than hotter magmas of the same composition.

 viscosity is an important property in determining the eruptive behavior of magmas.

Density:
 Density is an important property that affects the behavior of magmas in various ways: it is one of the
factors controlling whether magmas rise through the crust, whether crystals settle out, and whether ions
diffuse readily.

 The density of magma is 2.65 gm/cm3 and that of mantle is 3.3gm/cm3.

 In general, mafic magmas are denser than felsic ones, mainly because mafi c magmas are typically richer
in heavy oxides such as CaO and FeO,

 whereas felsic magmas are richer in lighter oxides such as SiO2 , Al2O3 , and Na2O.

 The density of basaltic magma ranges in density from 2.65 to 2.80 gm/cm3;

 andesitic magma- 2.45 to 2.50 gm/cm3;

 rhyolitic magma- 2.18 to 2.25 gm/cm3.

 Apart from composition, temperature and pressure are important factors in controlling density.

 The magma tends to expand on the increase in temperature causing a lowering of density.

 On the contrary higher pressure increases the density of the magma.

Components of Magma:

 The magmas consist of complex mixtures of materials in all the three states:

 Liquid portion is the melt which consists mainly of mobile ions of the eight most common elements
found on Earth’s crust, e.g. oxygen, silica, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium.

 Solid includes silicate minerals that have already crystallised from the melt.

 Gaseous components are volatiles, as discussed above.

 Most common volatiles present are water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), and sulphur dioxide
(SO2).

 Other minor constituents are HCl, H2S, HF, N2, Cl, F, Br.

 Magmas do not have a fixed composition.

 Petrologists describe the chemical composition of magma in terms of the weight percentage of various
major oxides.
 The chemical composition of any magma is made up
of 10 elements, including Silicon (Si), Titanium (Ti),
Aluminum (Al), Iron (Fe), Magnesium (Mg),
Calcium (Ca), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K),
Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O).
Magmatic Differentiation:

 Magmatic differentiation may be defined as a process operating within the magma (involving solid,
liquid, and gaseous phases) by which homogenous parent magma breaks up into fractions with diverse
compositions and forms different rock types.

 Magmatic differentiation refers to all the mechanisms by which a parent magma may give rise to igneous
rocks of various compositions.

 These processes include the crystallization of mineral phases and separation of the residual liquid
(fractional crystallization), separation of two melts (liquid immiscibility), mixing of separate magmas,
and assimilation of country rock either as a solid or as a partial melt into the parent magma.

 It is also possible to produce a diversity of rock types by partially melting solid rock and removing the
melt, leaving behind a refractory restite.

 Restite is the residual material left at the site of melting during the in place production of magma.
Partial melting:

 also referred to as partial fusion or anatexis , is the process by which melt is produced in a proportion
less than the whole.

 Partial melting controls the composition of an initial magma when it is formed deep within the earth.

 Equilibrium melting: The partial melt that forms continually reacts and equilibrates with the remaining
solid until the moment the melt is removed. Up to the point of segregation, the bulk composition of the
system remains constant.

 Fractional melting: The partial melt is removed in infinitely small increments so that it cannot interact
with the residual solid.

 The bulk composition of the solid continually changes because melt, which is of a different composition
than the initial solid, is lost from the system.
Crystallization Processes

 Crystallization of solid phases from a melt also presents opportunities to form rocks of a different
composition than the original melt.

Equilibrium crystallization:

 Crystals remain in contact with the residual liquid after they form and continually react and equilibrate with
the liquid.

 In order to maintain equilibrium between the early formed crystals react with the liquid and the changes in
composition of magma take place.

 In this case, the bulk composition of the final solids are the same as the original melt composition, and no
magmatic differentiation takes place.
Fractional crystallization:
 Crystals are removed from the residual liquid as soon as they are formed, either by gravitational settling or floating.

 In this process, the bulk composition of the remaining liquid changes as crystals form and are removed.

 In the case of plagioclase, for instance, the first formed crystals are those richest in calcium, as reaction proceeds
with falling temperature, the crystals become progressively sodic.

 Fractional crystallization or crystallization differentiation takes place through mechanisms like:

 Gravity settling

 Filter Pressing

 Flowage of magma

 Crystal zoning
Assimilation
 Magmas may also change their composition by assimilating material from their country rocks.

 Assimilation is the process whereby foreign rock masses are incorporated by magma.

 This also includes the mingling of two liquid magmas, i.e. magma mixing.

 Assimilation is an important factor in bringing about diversity in the igneous rocks.

 Since these processes involve the remixing of rocks with magmas, therefore, they represent the reverse of
the differentiation processes resulting in heterogeneity and incomplete and nonuniform mixing.

 The process of assimilation too is governed by the laws of Bowen’s reaction principle.

 The reaction between magma and host or wall or country rock is a normal phenomenon during igneous
intrusion.

 In the course of this reaction, the magma becomes contaminated by incorporating materials originally
presenting the wall rock
Magma mixing
 Magma mixing can take place when two or more magmas with different chemical compositions come
in contact with one another beneath the surface of the Earth.

 The mixing of the magmas produces compositions intermediate between the end members. If the
composition of magmas are very contrasting (rhyolite and basalt), there are several factors that could
prevent their mixing.

 The possible reasons for this may be contrast in temperature, density and viscosity.

 But there is evidence that magmas do sometimes mix.

 If there is lesser difference between the chemical compositions between two magmas probability of
their mixing will be more.
Magma is in Fluid State: The following processes are operational when the magma is in fluid or liquid state.

Liquid immiscibility: A mixture of two different components may be homogenous at a particular

temperature, but with a falling of temperature they become immiscible and separate as droplets or bubbles
from other by the difference in specific gravity.

 If the two liquids formed have very different densities, then they may separate very effectively, as oil does
from water. If the magma is very viscous and crystal-rich, the two liquids may not separate as well, and
small droplets be evident in the interstices between early crystallizing minerals

Liquid fractionation: This is considered an important and effective mechanism in the differentiation of
homogenous magma.

 In the case of thermal gradient, the compound with which the solution is nearly saturated tends to
accumulate in cooler horizons; gravitational diffusion involves the separation and stratification of
elements in a homogenous magma under the influence of gravity.

Movement of volatiles: Volatiles are excellent solvents.

 They are capable of making selective transfer of material from lower to higher levels, thus developing
inhomogeneity in magma.
Gravity settling: Crystal fractionation involves sinking,
floating or suspension of early-formed crystals within a
magma body.

 Monomineralic rocks such as dunite, pyroxenite, and

anorthosite are formed by this process caused by the
gravitational sinking of olivine, pyroxene, and calcic
plagioclase respectively.

 The rocks formed by the accumulation of crystals are

described as cumulates.

 The separation of accumulated crystals changes the

composition of the melt which leads to the evolution and
diversification of magma.
Filter Pressing:
 The liquid remaining before crystallization may be complete and can be squeezed out in a process called
filter pressing.

 A buoyant liquid in a mush of loosely packed crystals may migrate to a zone of lower pressure, just as
water is driven out of a pile of accumulating and compacting sediments.

 This involves mechanical separation of coexisting magma from the crystal mesh.

 As the crystallization continues a loose mesh or framework of crystals with residual liquid is formed.

 At this stage if the deformation of the crystallizing mass occurs, the residual liquid will be squeezed out
leaving behind the early formed crystals.

 This process of separation of solid crystals from the fluid magma is known as filter pressing.
Flowage of magma:
 Another mechanism, flow segregation, may separate crystals from the remaining melt during flow
through a dike or along the walls of a pluton.

 Nearest the contact with country rock, the velocity gradient is steepest and a zone of maximum shear is
present.
 You may observe that as the fluid moves along a pipe or a narrow channel, its flowage behavior at the
center and away from the contact walls is different.

 This mechanism can result in the preferential accumulation of early-formed minerals. The rate of flow of
magma changes rapidly towards the walls of an intrusion than at its center.

 Crystal Zoning:

 It is a common phenomenon in igneous rocks. If equilibrium during the crystallization is disturbed, the
successive liquids and corresponding zones will have a different composition.

 For example, calcic plagioclase will successively be rimmed by more sodic-rich species.