Complements

Complements

Subtraction using addition

 Conventional addition using carry is easily implemented in digital
computers.
 Subtraction by borrowing is difficult and inefficient for digital computer.
 It is much more efficient to implement subtraction using addition of the
complements of the numbers.

Complements
Complements are used in digital computers for simplifying the subtraction
operation and for logical manipulation. There are two types of complements
for each base-r number system:
(1) the ’s complement and
(2) the ’s complement
When the value of the base of a number system is substituted, the two
types of complements are found of that number system.
 Complements

Example
For the decimal number system, the base, , so we have 10’s and 9’s
complements for decimal number system. Similarly, we have 2’s and 1’s
complements for binary number system and so on.
The ’s Complement
Given a positive number in base with an integer part of digits, the ’s
complement of is defined as– for and for . The following numerical
examples will help clarify the definition.

The 10’s complement of number, is

The number of digits in the number is .
The 10’s complement of number, is
No integer part, so .
The 10’s complement of number, is .
The 2’s complement of number, is
The 2’s complement of is .
 Complements

 From the definition and examples, it is clear that the 10’s complement of a
decimal number can be formed by leaving all least significant zeros
unchanged, subtracting the first nonzero least significant digit from 10, and
then subtracting all other higher significant digits from 9.
 Similarly, the 2’s complement can be formed by leaving all least significant
zeros and the first nonzero digit unchanged, and then replacing 1’s by 0’s
and 0’s by 1’s in all other higher significant digits.

N.B. The ’s complement of a number exists for any base ( greater than but not
equal to 1) and may be obtained from the definition given above.
The ’s Complement
Given a positive number in base with an integer part of digits and a
fraction part of digits, the ’s complement of is defined as . The following
numerical examples will help clarify the definition.
The 9’s complement of number, is
The number of digits in the number is . No fraction part, so .
 Complements

The 9’s complement of number, is

No integer part, so .
The 9’s complement of number, is .
The 1’s complement of number, is .
The 1’s complement of is .

 From the definition and examples, it is clear that the 9’s complement of
a decimal number is formed simply by subtracting every digit from 9.
 Similarly, the 1’s complement of a binary number is formed simply by
changing 1’s into 0’s and 0’s into 1’s.

Since the ’s complement is very easily obtained, it is sometimes

convenient to use it when the ’s complement is desired. From the
definitions and from a comparison of the results obtained in the examples,
 Complements

it follows that the r’s complement can be obtained from the ’s after the
addition of to the least significant digit. For example, the 2’s complement
of 10110100 is obtained from the 1’s complement 01001011 by adding 1
( to give 01001100.

It is worth mentioning that the complement of the complement restores the

number to its original value. The ’s complement of is and the complement
of is ; and similarly, for the ’s complement of is and the complement of is
.

Subtraction with ’s Complement

When subtraction is implemented by means of digital components (such
as computer), the method taught in elementary schools is found to be less
efficient than the method that uses complements and addition as stated
below.
The subtraction of two positive numbers , both of base , may be done as
follows:
 Complements

1. Add the minuend to the ’s complement of the subtrahend .

2. Inspect the result obtained in step 1 for an end carry:
(a) If an end carry occurs, discard it.
(b) If an end carry does not occur, take the ’s complement of the
number obtained in step 1 and place a negative sign in front.
The following examples illustrate the procedure:
Example-1: Using ’s complement, subtract .
Here, 72532
+ 96750
’s complement of end carry 1 69282
Answer: 69282
Example-2: Subtract .
Here, 03250
+ 27468
’s complement of no carry 30718
 Complements

Answer’s complement of
Example-3: Use ’s complement to perform with the given binary
numbers.
( 1010100
+ 0111100
’s complement of end carry 1 0010000
Answer:

(b 1000100
+ 0101100
’s complement of no carry 1110000
Answer’s complement of
Proof of the Procedure
The addition of to the ’s complement of gives. For numbers having an
integer part of digits, is equal to a 1 in the th position (what has been
called the “end carry”). Since both and
 Complements

are assumed to be positive, then:

(a) if , or
(b) if .
 In case (a) the answer is positive and equal to , which is directly
obtained by discarding the end carry .
 In case (b) the answer is negative and equal to . This case is detected
from the absence of an end carry. The answer is obtained by taking a ’s
complement and adding a negative sign in front.
− [ 𝑟 − ( 𝑀 +𝑟 − 𝑁 ) ]=− ( 𝑁 − 𝑀 ) .
𝑛 𝑛

Subtraction with ’s Complement

The procedure for subtraction with the ’s complement is exactly the same
as the one used with the ’s complement except for one variation, called
“end-around carry,” as shown below. The subtraction of , both positive
numbers in base , may be calculated in the following manner:
 Complements

1. Add the minuend to the ’s complement of the subtrahend .

2. Inspect the result obtained in step 1 for an end carry:
(a) If an end carry occurs, add 1 to the least significant digit (end-
around carry).
(b) If an end carry does not occur, take the ’s complement of the
number obtained in step 1 and place a negative sign in front.
The following examples illustrate the procedure:
Example-4: Repeat examples 1 and 2 using 9’s complements.

(a) 72532
+ 96749
’s complement of 1 69281
end-around carry +
1
69282
Answer: 69282
 Complements

(b) 03250
+ 27467
’s complement of no carry 30717

Answer’s complement of

Example-5: Repeat example 3 using 1’s complements.

( 1010100
+ 0111011
1’s complement of 1 0001111
end-around carry
1
0010000
Answer:
 Complements

(b 1000100
+ 0101011
’s complement of no carry 1101111
Answer’s complement of

Proof of the Procedure

The addition of to the ’s complement of gives. For numbers having an
integer part of digits, is equal to a 1 in the th position (what has been
called the “end carry”). is a fraction part of digits. Since both and

(a) if , or
(b) if .
 In case (a) the answer is positive and equal to , which is obtained by
adding 1 to the least significant digit (end-around carry).
 Complements

 In case (b) the answer is negative and equal to . This case is detected
from the absence of an end carry. The answer is obtained by taking a
’s complement and adding a negative sign in front.
−[ 𝒓 −𝒓 − ( 𝑴 +𝒓 − 𝒓 − 𝑵 ) ]= − ( 𝑵 − 𝑴 ) .
𝒏 −𝒎 𝒏 −𝒎

Comparison Between 1’s and 2’s Complements

A comparison between 1’s and 2’s complements reveals the advantages
and disadvantages of each.

1’s Complement 2’s Complement

1. The 1’s complement is easy to 1. The 2’s complement is hard to

implement by digital components implement by digital components
since the only thing that must be since it may be obtained in two
done is to change 0’s into 1’s and ways: (i) by adding 1 to the least
1’s into 0’s. significant digit of the 1’s comple-
ment, and (ii) by leaving all leading
hen changing all 1’ into 0’s and all 0’s into 1’s. 0’s in the least significant positions
and the first 1 unchanged, and only
 Complements

1’s Complement 2’s Complement

1. then changing all 1’ into 0’s and all

0’s into 1’s.
2. For subtraction of two numbers by 2. For subtraction of two numbers
complements, the 1’s comple-ment by complements, the 2’s comple-
requires two arithmetic addition ope- ment requires only one arithmetic
rations when an end-around carry addition operation.
occurs.
3. It is used in logical manipulations 3. It is used only in conjunction with
for logical inversion operation. arithmetic applications.
4. It has two arithmetic zeros i.e., the 4. The 2’s complement has only one
1’s complement zero can be positive arithmetic zero.
or negative, which may complicate
matters.
5. The sign-1’s-complement represe- 5. The sign-2’s-complement repres-
ntation can accommodate numbers entation can accommodate numbers
in the range to . in the range to .
 Complements

Where bits are reserved for the number and one bit for the sign. Thus
total number of bits, .
S
y S S y y

R R y′ y′

S
y′
R t1
R
S R y Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 t
0 1 0 0 y
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 ∆t1 ∆t1
1 0 1 1
y′
1 1 0 d
1 1 1 d ∆t2 ∆t2
 SR
00 01 11 10 S
y y
0 d 1

1 1 d 1 y′
R

Y = S + R′ y
SR = 0

S S S y y
y
R R y′ y′
Ck Ck

y′
R Clock input
 J K y Y
0 0 0 0 JK
00 01 11 10
0 0 1 1 y
0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

J S y y

K R y′ y′
Ck

Clock
 Preset (Pr)

J
y

Ck

y′
K
Preset

Clear (Cr)
J J Pr y y
Clock Ck Ck Cr Pr y
K y′ y′ Enable 1 1 1 Y
K Cr 0 0 1 0
Clear
Preset 0 1 0 1

Clear
 Pr

J
y

Ck

y′
K

Master Slave

Cr
 Preset Preset

D J Pr D D Pr
y y y y
Ck
y′ y′ Ck y′ y′
K Cr Cr
Clock
Clock
Clear Clear

D
D y Y y 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 Y=D
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1
 Preset Preset

T J Pr y T T Pr
y y y
Ck
Clock y′ y′ Ck y′ y′
K Cr Cr
Clock

Clear Clear

T y Y T
y 0 1
0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1
Y = Ty′ + T′y
1 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 0