The document discusses the parasitic nematode Wuchereria bancrofti which causes elephantiasis in humans. It is spread by mosquitoes and found primarily in tropical and subtropical regions. Adult worms live in the lymphatic vessels and microfilariae are found in peripheral blood at night. It describes the morphology of the adult worms and microfilariae.
The document discusses the parasitic nematode Wuchereria bancrofti which causes elephantiasis in humans. It is spread by mosquitoes and found primarily in tropical and subtropical regions. Adult worms live in the lymphatic vessels and microfilariae are found in peripheral blood at night. It describes the morphology of the adult worms and microfilariae.
The document discusses the parasitic nematode Wuchereria bancrofti which causes elephantiasis in humans. It is spread by mosquitoes and found primarily in tropical and subtropical regions. Adult worms live in the lymphatic vessels and microfilariae are found in peripheral blood at night. It describes the morphology of the adult worms and microfilariae.
The document discusses the parasitic nematode Wuchereria bancrofti which causes elephantiasis in humans. It is spread by mosquitoes and found primarily in tropical and subtropical regions. Adult worms live in the lymphatic vessels and microfilariae are found in peripheral blood at night. It describes the morphology of the adult worms and microfilariae.
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Hydra
• It is essentially a sedentary organism living attached
to stones, pebbles, and water plants, but can get released from the substratum and swim. The name Hydra was given by scientist Linnaeus because of its special power to regenerate its lost part like Hydre ( a nine-headed dragon serpentine of the Greek mythology). • Systematic position • Phylum: Coelenterata Class: Hydrozoa Order: Hydroida Suborder: Anthomedusae Genus: Hydra • Habit and Habitat • Hydras are solitary, sessile, freshwater animals, cosmopolitan in distribution. • They can be found in a large variety of freshwater habitats mostly occur in ponds, lakes, and slow- flowing parts of streams and rivers. • They may be found attached to and hanging downwards from the underside of solid objects in the water such as leaves, sticks, stones, weeds, etc. • They are carnivorous in habit and feeds on insect larvae and, especially, small crustaceans. • It reproduces asexually and sexually. • External morphology • 1. Shape and size • The body of hydra is a small, narrow, elongated , cyclindrical and tubular structure. • It measures about 1 cm in length when fully extended. • When retracted, the body becomes shortened and somewhat globular and measures only a few millimeters. • 2. Coloration • H. vulgaris is colorless, H. gangetica is white or pink in color, H. oligactis and H. fusca which is brown in color, and H.viridissima which is green in color (green hydra). • 3. Pedal Disc • The proximal or aboral end is termed as a pedal disc is flattened and plays an important role in temporary attachment. • It consists of the glandular zone involved in the secretion of adhesives that make it possible for the organism to attach to the • 4. Hyptostome, Mouth, and Tentacles • The distal or oral end of the body column consists of a conical hypostome. • Hyptostome contains a circular aperture or mouth at its apex which opens into the gastrovascular cavity or enteron. • Hypostome is surrounded by 6–10 slender, contractile, and tubular thread-like processes, called tentacles which can be stretched to several millimeters to capture prey. • Tiny stinging cells, called nematocysts, cover the tentacles and are very specialized, and engage in offense and defense, playing a role in feeding by paralyzing the prey. • 5. Buds • The external surface of the Hydra in some individuals may bear proximally lateral buds in various stages of development. • Hydras reproduce asexually, by budding. • 6. Gonads • Gonads may be found as projections from the external surface of the body during the breeding season. • When present, the male gonads or testes are found at the oral end as conical projection, whereas the single female gonad or ovary occurs near the basal disc • Internal structures • The internal or histological structures of Hydra are best seen in its longitudinal and transverse sections. • Gastrovascular cavity • The internal structures reveal the presence of a body wall and a central cavity or coelenteron (Or., Koilos, hollow+ enteron, gut), functionally referred to as the gastrovascular cavity. • It is surrounded by the body wall. The mouth leads into this cavity which extends into tentacles as their lumen. There is no anus and no excretory pore. • Body wall (Histology) • Hydra is a diploblastic animal, i.e., it is derived from 2 germ layers, the ectoderm, and endoderm. • These germ layers from 2 distinct cellular layers, the outer epidermis, and the inner gastrodermis, receptively of body wall and tentacles. • The body is a hollow tube consisting of two layers of cells, separated by a thin, delicate, transparent, and non-cellular mesoglea. Hydra reproduces asexually by budding and sexually by the formation of gametes. Asexual reproduction of Hydra by Budding • Figure: Hydra Budding. 1. Non-reproducing, 2. Creating a bud, 3. Daughter growing out, 4. Beginning to cleave, 5. Daughter broken off, 6. Daughter clone of the parent. • Budding is a form of asexual reproduction that results from the outgrowth of a part of a cell or body region, leading to a separation from the original organism into two individuals. • Hydra reproduces asexually by budding. During the summer season, when the animal is well-fed and healthy, budding is the usual reproduction method. It occurs all time of the year. • A bulging appears due to the repeated mitotic division of epidermal interstitial cells near the middle or in the basal part of the body. • The bud enlarges, develops a mouth and a circlet of tentacles at its free end. • Once the bud is fully developed, it constricts as the base (point of attachment to the parent Hydra) and finally separates from the parent body to become an independent organism. • This process may take about 3 days from start to end. • Sexual reproduction in Hydra • Hydra reproduces sexually by the fusion of gametes when the environmental condition becomes unfavorable (generally in autumn). • Most of the species are Unisexual or Dioecious ( e.g., H. oligactis), in which sexes are separate. • Testes or male gonads are conical elevations of the body wall and are usually located near the distal or oral end of the body. The male is smaller in size and bears 1 to 8 conical testes containing spermatozoa, while the female is larger and has 1 0r 2 ovaries containting ova. Ovaries are ovoid structures located near the basal end of the body. • Even in hermaphrodite species, self-fertilization is avoided, because spermatozoa and ova mature at different times. The testes mature earlier than ovaries(Protandrous • 3. Fertilization • Fertilization occurs when ripe sperms cells are discharged from testis swim about in water until they approach an extruded ovum and surround it. • Several sperms may penetrate the gelatinous covering, but only one enters the ovum and fuses with it completely. This process is called fertilization, and the fertilized egg is called oosperm or Zygote. • The male and female nuclei unite to form the fusion or zygote nucleus. • The ovum will die and degenerates unless fertilization occurs within a short time after it is exposed. • 4. Development • The development begins soo after fertilization, while the egg or zygote still attached to the parent, by undergoing cleavage or segmentation. • a. cleavage • As the egg has little yolk, cleavage is total, and equal (holoblastic), resulting in blastomeres – cells of equal size. • b. Blastulation • The cleavage results in the production of a hollow spherical ball called the blastula or coeloblastula with a narrow cavity (blastocoel). • c. Gastrulation • Some cells of the blastular wall detach and migrate inwards (multipolar ingression). • While other cells form outer and inner cells by tangential division (primary delamination). As a result, the blastocoel is completely filled by new cells, and the hollow blastula converts into a solid gastrula. • Grastula is made of a single layer of outer cells forming ectoderm, and an inner solid mass of cells forming endoderm. • d. Encystation • Soon a new cavity, called archenteron, appears in the central solid mass of endodermal cells. • A two-layered protective cyst forms around the gastrula allowing the embryo to survive changes in the environment. The embryo remains dormant until environmental conditions improve. • It withstands drying and freezing and carries the race through droughts and winters. It is also probable that this resting stage serves for dispersal, for it can be carried by the wind, or in mud • e. Hatching • With the advent of the favorable conditions of water and temperature, development is resumed. • Interstitial cells arise in the ectoderm and mesogloea is secreted in between two cellular layers. • The embryo elongates, and a circlet of tentacles buds develops at one end with a mouth appearing in their midst. • As the embryo increases in size, the shell or cyst ruptures, and a young Hydra with tentacles hatches out. Soon it grows into an adult. • There are no free larval stages in the development Wuchereria bancrofti • Systematic Position • Phylum: Nematoda • Class: Phasmidia • Order: Filaroidea • Genus: Wuchereria • Species: bancrofti • Wuchereria bancrofti is a filarial nematode that causes Wuchereriasis or filariasis(commonly called elephantiasis) in human beings. The name of this worm is given Wuchereria bancrofti in honor of the two scientists Wucherer and Bancroft. Wuchereria bancrofti or Bancroft filarial worm is a parasitic filarial nematode spread by a mosquito vector. • Habitat • Adult worms are found in the lymphatic vessel, especially the lymph nodes. • The microfilariae are found in the peripheral blood, occasionally at night from 10pm to 4am. • W. bancrofti is largely confined to tropics and subtropics. They are found in India, West-Indies, Puerto Rico, Southern China, Japan, Pacific Island, West and central Africa, South America. • The disease is endemic in 83 countries with more than 1.2 billion at risk. • More than 25 million men suffer from genital symptoms and more than 15 million people suffer • Morphology of W. bancrofti • 1. Adult worms • W. bancrofti exhibits considerable sexual dimorphism. • These are minute, long hair like transparent (often creamy in color) nematodes. • They are filiform in shape with both ends tapering. • The head end terminating in a slightly round swelling, and surrounded by two rows of 10 sessile papillae. The posterior end contains anus at its terminal end. • The male measures 2.5-4 cm in length with 0.1 mm in thickness. The tail end is curved ventrally and contains two spicules of unequal length. • The females are longer than males measure 8-10 cm in length with 0.2- 0.3 mm in thickness. Its tail end is narrow and abruptly pointed. The females are oviparous. • The adults obtain their nourishment from the lymph of the lymphatic system. • The life span of the adult worms is long, probably several years (5-10 year or even more). • 2. Microfilariae (Embryos): • The first stage of larva is called microfilariae. • They are very active in their habits and can move both with and against the blood stream, when sustained, they appear as colorless and transparent bodies with blunt heads and pointed tails. • The embryo measures about 290 mm in length by 6-7 mm in breadth. • 3. Third stage of larva (infective form): • This larva the infective form of the parasite is found only in mosquito. • They are elongated, filariform, measures 1.4-2 cm in length and 18-23 mm in breadth. • Life cycle: • W. bancrofti completes its life cycle in two hosts: – Definite host: Human – Intermediate host: mosquito, belonging to genus Culex, Aedes and Anopheles. • Life cycle in Human: Entrance in the human and development into adult worms – Infection is acquired by the bite of infected mosquito during which L3 larva are deposited on the skin. – The L3 larva are not directly injected into the blood stream. – The L3 larva are deposited on the skin near the site of the puncture. – Later attracted by the warmth of the skin, the larva enters through the puncture wound or penetrates through the skin on their own. – The L3 larva after penetrating the skin, reaches the lymphatic channels, settles down at some spot (inguinal, scrotal or abdominal lymphatics), metamorphose and becomes sexually mature. – The male fertilizes the female and the gravid females discharge microfilariae which usually appear in the peripheral blood in 8-12 month of infection. – These micro filariae circulate in the blood for 6 months to 2 years and then die if not taken by mosquito. • Life cycle in Mosquito: Stages in the development of micro filaria – Microfilaria ingested by the mosquito lose their sheath within 2 to 6 hours of their arrival in the stomach. – Then they penetrate the gut wall and migrate to the thoracic muscle, where they rest and begin to grow. – In the next 2 days, microfilaria become thick, measuring 124-200 mm in length 10-17 mm in breadth. This is the first stage larva L1. – During 3-7 days of time, the larva grows rapidly, moults once or twice and measures 225-330 mm in length by 15-30 mm in breadth. This is the second stage larva L2. – Metamorphosis completes by 10-11days with distinct features This is the third stage larva L3. – These L3 larva are the infective form which enters the proboscis sheath of the mosquito on or about the 14th day. – When the mosquito bites a man during the blood meal, the L3 larva are released from the tip of proboscis of mosquito and the cycle is repeated. • Pathogenesis of Wuchereria Bancrofti: • The pathogenic effect of Wuchereria bancrofti are produced by the adult either living or dead. Light infection produces no serious symptoms. It causes filarial fever, head ache and mental depression. In heavy infection, the adult, living or dead blocks lymphatic vessels and glands, resulting in various pathological conditions. • When the disease has caused the enlargement of such organs as the scrotum, breasts or legs, it is called elephantiasis. The adult worm causes an inflammatory reaction of lymphatic system, obstruction of lymph in the organs results in their enlargement called lymphedema. • Symptoms of filarial infection include fever, tenderness of infected parts, eosinophilia inflammation and transient swelling. • Treatment of Disease Caused by Wuchereria Bancrofti: • No proper medicine is available to eradicate the filaria worms. • However, following filarial drugs can be used: • 2. Heterazan compound (Diethyl carbamaide) can be used to check microfilariae. • 3. (Paramelaminyl phenyl stibonate) is effective on infective larvae and immature adult worm. • Control of Disease Caused by Wuchereria Bancrofti: • 1. Eradication of mosquito by insecticide or by other control measures. • 2. Reducing infection amongst mosquitoes. • 3. Treatment of carriers by using heterazan and cyanine. • 4. Movement from areas of infection. • 5. Protection from mosquitoes, using mosquito net or mosquito repellent while sleeping in night, and • 1. Habit and Habitat of Hirudinaria Granulosa: • Hirudinaria granulosa is a common Indian cattle leech found in Nepal India Patkistan Bangladesh etc. In fresh water, it occurs in water tanks, ponds, lakes, swamps, and slow streams. It is sanguivorous (blood-sucking) sucking the blood of fishes and frogs, ands also of cattle or human beings when they enter the pond. • Leeches show a great diversity in their habits and habitat. Some species are marine, some are freshwater, while others are terrestrial. Leeches are hermaphrodite but cross-fertilization takes place by copulation. Development is direct . • External structure • Shape and size • The body is soft slimy elongated bilaterally symmetrical dorsoventrally flattened and metamerically segmented. • In a state of extension the body is dorsoventrally flattened but in a state of contraction, the body becomes more or less cylindrical. The body is broadest near the posterior end, while narrowest near the anterior end. It has great power of contraction and expansion. A full grown specimen may attain the length of 30 to 35 cm. • (ii) Colouration: • The body of leech shows protective colouration (Camouflaging). The dorsal surface is generally olive-green and the ventral surface is orange-yellow or orange-red and the two sides bear distinct stripes of orange or yellow and black. On the dorsal side is a median longitudinal black stripe. • (iii) Segmentation: • The body of leech is divided metamerically into 33 segments. • In case of leech the external segmentation does not correspond with the internal segmentation. Each segment is broken up externally by grooves into rings called annuli. • The first and second segments have one annulus each, the third has two annuli, segments fourth to sixth have three annuli each, segments seventh to twenty-second are broad having five annuli each, segments twenty-third to twenty-sixth have two annuli each, segments twenty-seventh to thirty-third have one annulus each, they form the posterior sucker. • However, segments with less than five annuli are referred to as incomplete, while those with five annuli are called complete segments. A temporary clitellum is formed around the 9 th 10th and 11th segments during breeding season. • Suckers: • Each end of the body of leech bears a hollow muscular organ, the sucker. The anterior sucker or cephalic or oral sucker is formed by the fusion of the prostomium with First three segments. It is oval in shape. • The posterior sucker or anal sucker is circular in outline and forms the highly muscular disc at the posterior end of the body of leech. It is formed by the fusion of last seven segments. It is much better developed and larger in size than the anterior sucker. Both suckers are directed ventrally, the leech can firmly grip the substratum by its suckers. The two suckers are primarily meant for adhesion and locomotion. Anterior sucker also helps in feeding. • Eyes: • On the dorsal side are five pairs of eyes, one pair on each of the first and second segments, and one pair on the first annulus of • (vii) External Apertures: • External apertures in the body are as follows: • (a) Mouth: • It is a narrow triradiate aperture situated in the centre of the funnel like pre- oral chamber of the anterior sucker. • (b) Anus: • It is a very small aperture situated mid-dorsally on the twenty-sixth segment at the base of the posterior sucker. • (c) Nephridiopores: • There are seventeen pairs of nephridiopores lying on the ventral surface of the body, of which one pair lies on the last annulus of each of the segments from sixth to twenty-second. • (d) Male generative aperture: • It is situated in a groove between the second and third annuli of the tenth segment on the mid-ventral line of body. A filamentous penis is sometimes seen protruding through this aperture. • (e) Female generative aperture: • It is usually smaller than the male aperture. It is situated mid-ventrally in a groove between the second and third annuli of the eleventh segment of the • Divisions of Body of Hirudinaria: • The body of leech is composed of 33 segments and is divisible into the following six regions: • 1. Cephalic or Head Region: • It is composed of the first five segments. It includes the prostomium, anterior sucker, the mouth and the eyes; • Nephridiopores are absent . • 2. Preclitellar Region: • It includes three segments, i.e., VI, VII, and VIII, all bearing nephridiopores. • 3. Clitellar Region: • It is composed of three complete segments, i.e., IX, X and XI. There is no permanent clitellum in Hirudinaria but temporary clitellum develops only during breeding season. Nephridiopores are also present in this region, the male and female apertures are situated mid-ventrally on the X and XI segments respectively. • 4. Middle Region: • It is the largest region of the body and consists of eleven complete segments (XII to XXII) and possess nephridiopores. • 5. Caudal Region: • This region is short and consists of four segments i.e., XXIII to XXVI. Segment XXVI bears the anal aperture on the dorsal side. There are no nephridiopores. • 6. Posterior Sucker: • It is composed of seven segments (XXVII to XXXIII) arranged in concentric rings and each • Copulation and Fertilisation in Hirudinaria Granulosa: • Copulation takes place in the months of March and April; during copulation two leeches come together by their ventral surfaces pointing in opposite directions, so that the male aperture of each is opposite the female aperture of the other. The penis of each is inserted into the vagina of the other and spermatophores are deposited, so that there is mutual exchange of of seminal fluid. • Copulation may occur on land or in water, it lasts for an hour after which the two worms separate. Fertilisation occurs in vagina, i.e., it is internal. The fertilised eggs are discharged through the female genital aperture into the cocoon (ootheca) where further development occurs. • Copulation and Fertilisation in Hirudinaria Granulosa: • Copulation takes place in the months of March and April; during copulation two leeches come together by their ventral surfaces pointing in opposite directions, so that the male aperture of each is opposite the female aperture of the other. The penis of each is inserted into the vagina of the other and spermatophores are deposited, so that there is mutual insemination. • Copulation may occur on land or in water, it lasts for an hour after which the two worms separate. Fertilisation occurs in vagina, i.e., it is internal. The fertilised eggs are discharged through the female genital aperture into the cocoon (ootheca) where further development occurs. • Cocoon or Ootheca Formation in Hirudinaria Granulosa: • The cocoons of Hirudinaria are formed in April, May and June. The clitellum forms around segments nine to eleven during breeding season, its glands secrete a frothy girdle which hardens to form a cocoon, the clitellar glands secrete albumen into the cocoon used as nourishment by the developing embryo. • The fertilised eggs are extruded into the cocoon. The leech wriggles out backwards from the cocoon, the two ends are closed by polar plugs secreted by the prostomial glands. The cocoon is light yellow , about 25-30mm long and 12-15mm diameter. The cocoons are always laid in moist mud but never in water and become harder on exposure to air. Cocoon formation takes about six hours. • Development of Hirudinaria Granulosa: • Development of young proceeds within the cocoon. In each cocoon one to twenty-four embryos develop and swim in the cocoon feeding on albumen, they finally escape from the cocoon. Development is direct, there is no larva, and it is completed in about fourteen days. • Economic important • As food • As predator • As transmittor of disease • Medical importance