CHAPTER 4 PROTISTA: THE FIRST EUKARYOTES 1. INTRODUCTION The first eukaryotes to evolve.

. Consists of vast organisms, extremely diverse in body forms and sizes, types of reproduction, modes of nutrition and lifestyle. Difficult to characterize. Unicellular, colonial, ceonocyte, or simple multicellular organisms. Divide to 3 main groups: - animal-like (protozoa), - plant-like (algae) fungus-like. Eukaryote a term traditionally applicable to any organism in whose cell/s, chromosomal material is (or was) contained within one or more nuclei and separated from cytoplasm by two nuclear membranes (nuclear envelope). 2. ANIMAL-LIKE (PROTOZOA) In Latin means the first animal Originally given to animal-like organism that are unicellular. Currently, the term is used for protists that are heterotrophic and ingest food (as animals do). In this chapter, six phyla of protozoa are discussed: Amoebas - Foraminiferans - Actinopods - Zooflagellates - Ciliates - apicomplexans. 2.2 Amoebas (Phylum Rhizopoda) Unicellular organisms found in soil, fresh water, ocean and parasitic in other organisms. Asymmetric body form and continually change shape as they move (because of the plasma membrane extreme flexibility). Moves by pushing out temporary cytoplasmic projections called pseudopodia from the cell surface. Pseudopodia are also used to capture and engulf food by phagocytosis. Reproduce asexually by binary fission. Example of amoeba is Entamoeba hystolitica, which caused human dysentery (severe diarrhea with blood and ulcers in intestinal wall). It is transmitted as cyst (resistant, resting stage in life cycle of protists) in contaminated drinking water. Acanthamoeba can cause eye infections in contact lens users.

2.3 Forams (Phylum Foraminifera) Marine organisms that secretes chalky, many-chambered tests (shells) with pores through which cytoplasmic projections can be extended. The cytoplasmic projections form a sticky, interconnected net entangles prey. Many are endosymbiotic with unicellular algae that provide food by photosynthesis. Most foram species live on the ocean floor, others are part of the plankton. e.g. Globigerina, a common organism in plankton. Globigerina, a foram with a snaillike test. Dead forams settle on the bottom of the ocean. Their tests form a gray mud that is gradually transformed into chalk. With geological uplifting, the chalk formation can become part of the land, like the White Cliffs of Dover in England.

CHAPTER 4 PROTISTA: THE FIRST EUKARYOTES Forams can be used as index fossils, markers to help identify sedimentary rock layers. 2.4 Actinopods (Phylum Actinopoda) Mostly are marine plankton organisms with long, filamentous cytoplasmic projections called axopods that protrude through pores in their shells. A cluster of microtubules strengthens each axopod. Prey become entangled in these axopods and engulfed outside the main body of actinopods. most of actinopods e.g. Actinophrys have algal endosymbiont. Some actinopods known as radiolarians secrete elaborate and beautiful glassy shells made of silica. Radiolarians are important constituent of marine plankton. When radiolarians and other actinopods die, their shells settle and become an ooze (sediment) several meters thick on the ocean floor. A radiolarian: numerous threadlike axopodia radiate from the central body of this radiolarian, which is found in the Red Sea Heterotrophic. May be freeliving or endosymbionts. e.g trichonymphs live in the guts of termites. Some parasitic zooflagellates cause disease e.g. Trypanosoma; causes African sleeping sickness and transmitted by tsetse flies. Other parasit are Giardia or diplomonad e.g. Giardina intestinalis causes backpackers diarrhea. Meanwhile, Choanoflagellates are permanently attached by thin stalk to bacteria-rich debris. Their single flagellum is surrounded by collar of microvillus (strikingly resemble to collar cells in sponges). Trypanosoma, the kinetoplastid that causes sleeping sickness. 2.6 Ciliates (Phylum Ciliophora) Unicellular organisms, possess flexible outer coverage called pellicle to gives a definite but changeable shape. Cell surface covered with thousand fine, short, hairlike cilia that extend through pores in pellicle and permit movement. Many have trichocysts, organelles that discharge filaments to aid trapping and holding prey. Some are sessile, and although motile they prefer to remain attach to a rock/other surface. Ciliates have a wide range of habits and diets; most ingest bacteria or other tiny protists. Their cilia draw the food into a simple opening (in some species) or funnel-like oral groove (some other species).

2.5 Zooflagellates (Phylum Zoomastigina) Mostly unicellular (a few are colonial) with spherical or elongated body, a single central nucleus, and one/many long, whiplike flagella. Move by lashing flexible flagella (located at anterior end). Some engulf food by forming pseudopodia like amoeba; some by means of a definite mouth, or oral groove, and throat, or cytopharinx.

CHAPTER 4 PROTISTA: THE FIRST EUKARYOTES A vacuole forms around the food at the end of the opening, and the food is digested. Water regulation is controlled by contractile vacuoles. Being hypertonic to their environment, freshwater ciliates continually take water by osmosis; the contractile vacuole continually expels water back to the environment. Ciliates have two kinds of nuclei; one/more small, diploid micronuclei that function in reproduction and larger, polyploid macronucleus that control cell metabolism and growth. Most ciliates are capable of a sexual process called conjugation: two individuals come together and exchange genetic material. Individuals with different mating types are identical in appearance but genetically different. Plasmodium first enters liver cell, where its multiplies and then RBC, where its proliferates. When each infected RBC bursts, many new parasites are release. The simultaneous bursting of millions RBC causes the symptoms of malaria. The twohost life cycle of Plasmodium, the apicomplexan that causes malaria.

2.7 Apicomplexans (Phylum Apicomplexa) Large group of parasitic, sporeforming protozoa, some of which cause diseases in human. Lack of specific structures e.g. cilia, flagella or pseudopodia. Possess an apical complex of microtubules (only visible using SEM) that attaches the parasite to its host cell. At some stage in their life cycle, they produce sporozoits (small infective agents transmitted to the next host). Many apicomplexans spend part of their life cycle in different host species. e.g. Plasmodium which cause malaria in human: Plasmodium sporozoits enter human blood through the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito.

3. PLANT-LIKE (ALGAE) Group of mostly photosynthetic protists; range in size, uni/multicellular. Not considered as plant because lack of plant structures (root, stem, leave, cuticle, etc.). Also, most algae do not have multicellular gametangia (reproductive structure in which gametes are produced) Seven phyla of algae are discussed: -euglenoids -dinoflagellates -diatoms -golden algae -brown algae -green algae -red algae 3.1 Euglenoids (Phylum Euglenophyta) Most are unicellular flagellates, about one-third are photosynthetic Generally possess 2 flagella: one long and whiplike and one so short that it does not extend outside the cell. Reproduce asexually by longitudinal cell division Closely related to zooflagellates but consider as algal protists because many of them have chlorophyll a and b and carotenoids. Energy reserved stored as paramylon (kind of polysaccharide). 3

CHAPTER 4 PROTISTA: THE FIRST EUKARYOTES When grown in dark, some loses chlorophyll and become heterotrophic by ingesting organic matter or engulf bacteria by phagocytosis. Euglenoids inhabit freshwater ponds and puddles, particularly those with large concentrations of organic materials. For that they are used as indicator species of organic pollution. Some can be found in marine and mud flats. 3.3 Diatoms (Phylum Bacillariophyta) Unicellular, a few exist in colonies. Cell wall of each diatoms consists of two overlap shell (like petri dish) which deposited silica. Two basic groups of diatoms: radial symmetry (wheelshaped) and bilateral symmetry (boat or needleshaped). Some are part of floating plankton, others live on rocks and sediments. Move by gliding, facilitated by secretion of a slimy material from a small groove along the shell. Common in freshwater, abundant in cool ocean water. Contain chlorophyll a and c and carotenoids including fucoxanthin. Energy reserves stored as oil or chrysolaminarin. Reproduce asexually by cell division, each shell become larger half of new cell. Because the glass cannot grow, diatom get smaller with succeeding generation. Sexual reproduction trigger to restore the original size by producing shell-less gametes (n). The resulting zygote (2n) from gamete fusion grows before producing new shells. 3.4 Golden Algae (Phylum Chrysophyta) Complex group found in freshwater and marine Most species are biflagellate and unicellular, although some are colonial. A few lack of flagella and are similar of amoeba except they contain chloroplasts. Reproduction is asexual and involves the production of 4

3.2 Dinoflagellates (Phylum Dinoflagella) Most are unicellular, a few are colonial. Their cell often have intracellular shells of interlocking cellulose impregnate with silicates. Typical dinoflagellates have 2 flagella; one is wrapped around a transverse groove, the other is located in a longitudinal groove. Most are photosynthetic (have chlorophyll a and c, and carotenoids including fucoxanthin) Energy reserves store as oils & polysaccharides. Many are endosymbiont (zooxanthellae) that reside in mollusks, jellyfish and corals. Pfiesteria shumwayae, a dinoflagellate. Beating of the spiral flagellum, which lies in a groove that encircles the cell, makes this alveolate spin (colorized SEM). Reproduction is primarily asexual by longitudinal cell division, some are sexually reproduce. A few dinoflagellates have occasional populations (blooms) which are frequently color coastal waters orange, red or brown (red tides) : toxic attack the nervous system of fishes = fishes kills.

CHAPTER 4 PROTISTA: THE FIRST EUKARYOTES 3.6 Green Algae (Phylum Chlorophyta) Have pigments, energy reserve products and cell wall that are chemically identical to plants. Photosynthetic with chlorophyll a and b and carotenoids. Main energy reserves stored as starch. Possess cell walls with cellulose, although some lack walls. Most are flagellated or produce flagellated cells during life history. Reproduction is varied sexual 3.5 Brown Algae (Phylum Phaeophyta) as well as asexual and their life cycle exhibit alternation of The largest and most complex generation. of all algae (commonly called Asexual may be binary fission, seaweed), multicellular, size range from few cm to 75 m. fragmentation and formation of spore. Sexual reproduction Body forms maybe branched involve formation of gamete in filaments, tufts, fleshy ropes, or unicellular gametangia. thick, flattened branches. 3 types of sexual reproductions: Kelps, the largest brown algae a) Isogamous: Gametes posses leaflike blades, stemlike identical in size and appearance stipes and rootlike holdfasts. b) Anisogamous: Gametes are Often have gas-filled floats to different provide buoyancy. in size Have chlorophyll a and c, c) Oogamous: nonmotile egg, carotenoids including motile male gamete fucoxanthin. Energy reserves Found in both aquatic and stored as laminarin terrestrial environments (carbohydrate). Important as the base of the food Reproduction is varied and web complex; the reproductive cells, both asexual zoospores and 3.7 Red Algae (Phylum sexual gametes are usually Rhodophyta) flagellated. Multicellular, composed of Essential as primary food interwoven filament producers and provide habitat Attach to rocks or other for invertebrates, fish and mammals. substrate by basal holdfast Alternation of generations: A Complex reproduction, with type of life cycle characteristic of alternation of sexual and plants and few algae and fungi in asexual stage no flagellated which they spend part of their cell in life history. life in a multicellular n Chloroplast contain gametophyte stage and part in a phycoerythrin, phycocyanin, multicellular 2n sporophyte stage chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids. 5 flagellated, motile spore called zoospores. Produce the same photosynthetic pigments as diatoms. Energy reserves stored as oils & carbohydrates. A few species ingest bacteria and particles of food. Important group of producers in marine ecosystems. They comprise a significant portion of the oceans nanoplankton. Dinobryon, a colonial golden alga found in fresh water (LM).

CHAPTER 4 PROTISTA: THE FIRST EUKARYOTES 4 Energy stored as floridean starch (like glycogen). Found in warm tropical ocean, fresh water and in soil When moisture & food become inadequate, cells aggregate to hundreds-thousands (pseudoplasmodium) but each still retains individual identity. The pseudoplasmodium constructs a fruiting body that bears spore. After being released, each spore opens and single haploid amoeboid cell emerges (asexual reproduction). The haploid amoeboid cell can survive as the feeding stage. 4.3 Water Molds (Phylum Oomycota) Have coenocytic mycelium and the cell wall may be composed of cellulose, chitin or both. Reproduce asexually by forming zoospores when food is plentiful. When environmental condition worsen, they reproduce sexually by forming oospores. The life cycle of a water mold. Water molds help decompose dead insects, fishes, and other animals in fresh water. (Note the hyphal mass on the goldfish in the inset.)

FUNGUS-LIKE Resembles fungi because they are not photosynthetic and some have fungus-like bodies consisting of threadlike structures called hyphae. Not fungi because they have centrioles and produce cellulose for cell wall (fungi lack centrioles and have chitin as cell wall). Three phyla are discussed: -plasmodial slime molds -cellular slime molds -water molds

4.1 Plasmodial Slime Molds (Phylum Myxomycota) Feeding stage is plasmodium (multinucleate mass) slimy, streams over damp, leaf litter, etc. Plasmodia form a network and as it creeps it ingests bacteria, yeasts, spores and decaying organic matter. Produce haploid spore within sporangia when insufficient 5 ENDOSYMBIONT THEORY food & moisture. The theory said that certain When the condition is favourable, eukaryotic organelles (esp. the haploid spore germinates mitochondria & chloroplast) (may be swarm arose from endosymbiotic cell@biflagellate or relationship between larger cell myxamoeba@amoeboid) and and smaller prokaryote. acts as gamete and fuse to form Mitochondria are thought to a zygote. originated from aerobic bacteria while chloroplast 4.2 Cellular Slime Molds from cyanobacterium. (PhylumAcrasiomycota) Primary endosymbiosis arose During feeding stage, each chloroplast in red algae, green cellular slime mold is an algae and plants. individual amoeboid cell that Multiple secondary behaves as solitary organisms. endosymbiosis led to chloroplast Each amoeboid have haploid in euglenoids, dinoflagellates, cell and reproduces by binary diatoms, golden algae and brown fission like amoeba algae.

CHAPTER 4 PROTISTA: THE FIRST EUKARYOTES Diversity of plastids produced by secondary endosymbiosis. Studies of plastidbearing eukaryotes suggest that all plastids evolved from a gram negative cyanobacterium that was engulfed by an ancestral heterotrophic eukaryote (primary endosymbiosis). That ancestral eukaryote diversified into red algae and green algae, some of which were subsequently engulfed by other eukaryotes (secondary endosymbiosis). Suspension agent for liquid vitamin and antibiotics. Gelling agent for facial beauty mask Industrial Used to manufactured acid cleaner, film and leather finishing Brewing Create creamer beer foam with smaller ,long lasting bubbles COMPARISON of the PHYLA of ALGAE
Phyla Chloropyta Food reserves Starch Chloroph ylls Chloroph yll b Chloroph yll c1 , c2 Flagella 2,4 or more at apex, or none 2,1, or none, usually unequal, lateral, or at or near apex None

USES OF SOME ALGIN Food - As thickening agent in food such as topping, meringue and candies - As emulsifier and suspension agent in soft drink and salad dressings - As stabilizer in chocolate drinks and ice creams Paper Provide better ink and varnish handout; provides uniformity in ink acceptance : improved the coating of frozen food cartoons Use for coating greaseproof paper Textiles Thicken print paste and improves dye dispersal Reduce weaving time and eliminate damage to printing rolls Pharmaceuticals and cosmetics Thickening agent in weightcontrol products, toothpaste and cough syrup Smoothing agent lotion and cream Binder in manufacturing pills Blood anticoagulant

Chloromopyt a

Oil, fats, mannito l laminari n

Rhodopyta

Euglenopyta Dinophyta

Floridea n starch, mannito l Paramyl on Starch

Chloroph yll d

Chloroph yll b Chloroph yll c2

Crytpopyta Prymnesioph yta (haptophyta) charophya

Starch Laminari n Starch

Chloroph yll c2 Chloroph yll c1 , c2 Chloroph yll b

2,1,3 or at r near apex 2;1 trailling, 1 girdling; few with none 2; apical or lateral 2; apical, equal 2;subapi cal

CHAPTER 4 PROTISTA: THE FIRST EUKARYOTES