The Streams

The Hydrologic Cycle :-

The movement and interchange of water between the ocean, atmosphere, and
land is known as the hydrologic cycle. Water vapor evaporates from the land and
ocean, condenses to form clouds, and falls as precipitation (rain and snow).
Water falling on land runs off over the surface as streams or infiltrates into the
ground to become groundwater. It returns to the atmosphere again by
evaporation and transpiration (the loss of water to the air by plants). The
distribution of water in the hydrosphere includes the oceans (96.5%), glacial ice
(1.76%), groundwater (1.70%), lakes and streams (0.14%), soil moisture
(0.005%), and the atmosphere (0.001%). Glacial ice and groundwater contain
98.8% of the freshwater on Earth.

The Running Water :-

A stream is a body of running water that is confined in a channel and moves

downhill under the influence of gravity.The stream begins in steep mountains and
flows out across a gentle plain into the sea. The headwaters of a stream are the
upper part of the stream near its source in the mountains. The mouth is the place
where a stream enters the sea, a lake, or a larger stream.

A stream normally stays in its stream channel , a long, narrow depression

eroded by the stream into rock or sediment. The stream banks are the sides of
the channel; the streambed is the bottom of the channel. Not all water that moves
over the land surface is confined to channels. Sometimes, particularly during
heavy rains, water runs off as sheetwash( like water on a road) , a thin layer of
unchanneled water flowing downhill. Sheetwash is particularly common in
deserts, where the lack of vegetation allows rainwater to spread quickly over the
land surface. It also occurs in humid regions during heavy thunderstorms when
water falls faster than it can soak into the ground.
Sheetwash, along with the violent impact of raindrops on the
land surface, can produce considerable sheet erosion, in which a thin layer of
surface material, usually topsoil, is removed by the flowing sheet of water.
Streams and their Features:-

● Stream : a flowing water within a channel

● Drainage Basin : a region from which a stream draws water
● Discharge: the volume of water flowing past a given point/cross section in
a specified length of a time
● Load: the total quantity of material that a stream transports by all methods
● Gradient: the steepness of the stream channel
● Base level: the lowest elevation to which the stream can erode downward
● Longitudinal profile: A sketch of a stream’s elevation from source to
mouth
● Tributary : a tributary is a small stream flowing into a larger one
● Runoff : water flowing on the surface of the Earth

Rills :- Overland sheetwash becomes concentrated in small channels, forming tiny

streams called Rills. Rills merge to form small streams, and small streams join to form
larger streams.

Development of Stream channel and Streams :-

Steamflow begins when water is added to the surface from rainfall, melting
snow,and groundwater. Drainage systems develop in such a way as to efficiently
move water off the land. Streamflow begins as moving sheetwash which is a thin
surface layer of water. The water moves down the steepest slope and starts to
erode the surface by creating small rill channels. As the rills coalesce, deepen,
and downcut into channels larger channels form. Rapid erosion lengthens the
channel upslope in a process called headward erosion. Over time, nearby
channels merge with smaller tributaries joining a larger trunk stream. And this is
the cause of the development of streams.
Stages of stream development

1. The Youth stage.

2. The Maturity stage.
3. The Old age.

1. The youth stage:

This is the earliest stage in the life of streams. It is best seen in the mountain
region, beginning from the place of origin during this stage, the river moves down
with "roaring noise at very high velocity. t remove forcefully any obstruction
coming its way. flow deeply down the narrow valley and jump again and again at
different places along its route creating waterfalls, rapids and cascades of variety
and beauty. prominent features of deposition are almost absent all along its
course in the youthful stage.
2. The maturity stage:
This is the later stage in the life of the river.It is represented in sub mountainous
areas, especially those between the plains and the foothills. The Velocity is
greater than an old age river but less than a youthful one. Erosion is present
though deposition of sediment also occurs. The channel is u shaped and wider
than youthful river yet deeper than an age channel due to lateral erosion.
Meanders may be present though they will not be as “curvy” as those found in
old age rivers.

3. The old age:

This is the last stage seen in the life of rivers. It is best observed in flat lands near
the sea shore where the river ends its journey and enters the sea. Its velocity is
quite slow.The channel is wider than deep with a very broad and u shaped due to
erosion.capable of moving small size sediments. Small sediments are suspended
in slow moving water giving the river a "muddy" appearance.
TYPES OF STREAMS

1.Consequent stream
2.Subsequent stream
3.Insequent stream
4.Obsequent stream
5.Resequent stream
6.Antecedent stream
7.Superposed stream

1.Consequent stream:
It is the one which rises as a consequence that flows in the direction of initial dip.
2.Subsequent stream:
It is the one which joins the consequent streams and rises later as erosion
proceeds.
3.Insequent stream:
Is the one, that does not indicate any particular reason for it’s pattern and course
of flow such as that upon a homogenous terrain.
4.Obsequent stream:
Is the one which drains in the opposite direction as the original consequent.
5.Resequent stream:
Is the one which drains in the same direction as the original consequent river,
but at lower elevation.
6.Antecedent stream:
Antecedent streams are those which are able to maintain their original course
across the area of uplift.
7.Superposed stream:
Geologic events may strongly control the course of a stream. Over the older
rocks, the stream courses will not easily adjust to form a wholly new drainage
pattern appropriate to the structure of rocks. Such streams are called superposed
streams
 Drainage System

➔ Streams channels are organized into branching channel networks.

Together with the land surface slopes that contribute runoff by overland
flow, the channel network forms a drainage system.
➔ As downcutting deepens the main channel, the surrounding land surfaces
start to slope toward the channel. As a result, new side channels, or
tributaries, begin to form and flow into the main channel. Eventually, an
array of linked streams evolves, with tributaries flowing into a trunk stream.
The array of interconnecting streams together constitute a drainage
network. Like transportation networks of roads, drainage networks of
streams reach into all corners of a region, providing conduits for the
removal of runoff.

Types of Drainage Patterns :-

Based on the shape and formation of river patterns, there are different drainage
patterns. Broadly it is classified into two types –
1. Discordant Drainage pattern
2. Concordant Drainage pattern

Types of Drainage Pattern – Discordant Drainage Pattern

1. It does not correlate to the topology or geology of the area.
2. The river in the discordant drainage pattern follows its initial path
irrespective of the changes in topography.
3. Further classified into two types – Antecedent and Superimposed.
● Antecedent Drainage –
● Also called inconsequent drainage.
● A part of a river slope and the surrounding area gets uplifted and the
river sticks to its original slope, cutting through the uplifted portion
like a saw forming deep gorges like [Vertical erosion or Vertical down
cutting].
● Examples of antecedent rivers or drainage – Indus, Sutlej,
Brahmaputra, and other Himalayan rivers.
● Superimposed drainage –
● Also called superinduced drainage or epigenetic drainage.
● a river flowing over a softer rock stratum reaches the harder basal
rocks but continues to follow the initial slope.
● The stream has enough erosive power that it cuts its way through
any kind of bedrock, maintaining its former drainage pattern.
● It exhibits discordance with the underlying rock structure as it
originally developed on a cover of rocks that have now disappeared
and retains their courses unaffected by the newly exposed
structures.
● Examples of Superimposed drainage or rivers – The Damodar, the
Subarnarekha, the Chambal, the Banas, and the rivers flowing at the
Rewa Plateau.
Types of Drainage Pattern – Concordant Drainage Pattern :-
1. It correlates to the topology and geology of the area.
2. The path of the river is highly dependent on the topography and the slope
of the river.
3. These are the most commonly found drainage systems and are classified
into two types – Consequent drainage rivers and Subsequent drainage
rivers.
● Consequent Drainage Rivers
● A consequent drainage system is when the river follows the general
direction of the slope.
● Rivers of Peninsular India such as the Godavari, Krishna, and
Cauvery are consequent rivers descending from the western ghats
and flowing into the Bay of Bengal.
● Subsequent River System
● A subsequent river is streams that have generally developed after
the original stream (Consequent River)
● It is a tributary stream that is eroded along an underlying belt of
non-resistant rock after the main drainage pattern has been
established.
● For example – Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons, and Son are the
subsequent drainage rivers and meet the Yamuna and the Ganga at
right angles (the main drainage).

Types of drainage networks :-

The configuration of tributaries and trunk streams defines the map pattern of a
drainage network. The pattern that develops in a given region depends on the
shape of the landscape and the character of the substrate. Geologists recognize
several distinct geometries of drainage networks
● Dendritic: When rivers flow over a fairly uniform substrate with a fairly gentle
slope, a dendritic network develops. It looks like the pattern of branches
connecting to the trunk of a deciduous tree. In fact, the word dendritic comes
from the Greek dendros, meaning tree.

● Radial: Drainage networks forming on the surface of a cone-shaped

mountain, such as a volcano, flow outward from the mountain peak, like spokes
on a wheel. Such a pattern defines a radial network.

● Rectangular: In places where a rectangular grid of fractures (vertical joints)

breaks up the ground, channels form along the pre-existing fractures, and
streams join one another at right angles, creating a rectangular network.

● Trellis: In places where a drainage network develops across a landscape of

parallel valleys and ridges, major tributaries flow down a valley and join a trunk
stream that cuts across the ridges. The place where a trunk stream cuts across a
resistant ridge is a water gap. The resulting map pattern resembles a garden
trellis, so the arrangement of streams constitutes a trellis network.
● Parallel: On a uniform, fairly steep slope, several streams with parallel
courses develop simultaneously. The group of streams constitutes a parallel
network. Downslope,the streams merge into fewer, but still parallel, channels.
Parallel networks typically form on the sides of steep escarpments of weak
substrate—if the surface of the substrate hosts no vegetation and many channels
form, the resulting landscape can be called badlands topography.

Drainage divides and basins -

Each stream, small or large, has a drainage basin , the total area drained by a
stream and its tributaries. A drainage basin can be outlined on a map by
drawing a line around the region drained by all the tributaries to a river . The
Mississippi River’s drainage basin, for example, includes all the land area
drained by the Mississippi River itself and by all its tributaries, including the Ohio
and Missouri rivers. This great drainage system includes more than one-third the
land area of the contiguous 48 states.

A ridge or strip of high ground dividing one drainage basin from another is termed
a divide.Regional divides separate two large drainage basins—for example, a
regional divide follows the crest of the Appalachians and separates Atlantic
Ocean drainage from Gulf of Mexico drainage. A continental divide separates
drainage that flows into one ocean from drainage that flows into another. In North
America, one continental divide running the length of the North American
Cordillera separates watersheds that ultimately drain into the Atlantic or Gulf of
Mexico from those that drain into the Pacific.
Geologic Work Of Stream

Running water is a geologic agent of great importance. It should be realized that

a great part of the earth’s landscape owes its present form to the action of water.
It is worth noting that most of the material now present in sedimentary rocks was
at one time moved by running water. Rivers annually transport to the sea over
1011 kN of sediment. A considerably great part of stream energy is consumed for
erosion and transportation of sediments. Building bridges, utilization of stream
power, creation of reservoirs for irrigation, flood control and water supply and
regulation of rivers for navigation etc. are all various applications devoted to
rivers.
The primary function of streams is to drain surplus waters from the lands.
While performing this function, the streams erode valleys for themselves, pick up
and transport rock debris, take some material into solution and build deposits of
sedimentary materials. Erosion, transportation and deposition are thus the major
divisions of stream work. Streams can best be studied by considering their
energy and its effects. The energy of a stream is its ability to perform the stream
work which consists of the removal of rock, sediment and dissolved matter.

❖ Basic terms needed to be understood in the geological work of a

stream:-

1. Channel : Every river has a well defined path of its own within the
boundaries. It is also called a course.
2. Velocity : Defined as the distance water travels in unit time within the
channel.
3. Gradient : Defined as a vertical fall in a stream distance as represented
in the descent of stream. At level lands, gradients may be low. In hilly
regions, it will be high.
4. Discharge : Defined as the volume of water that is possessed at a given
point in the channel in a unit time.
5. Competence : The capacity of a river to transport the material. When
velocity increases two fold , its competence increases four fold.

Type of Flow :-
1. Turbulent Flow :
● Occurs when water moves in a tiny circular path as it flows
downstream. & In turbulent, water molecules flow quite
irregularly involving a lot of disturbance from base to top.
● Much more mixing. In laminar,water moves in undisturbed
layered fashion.

2. Laminar Flow :

● Occurs when water moves in a straight path that is parallel to

the stream’s channel or bed. In laminar,water moves in
undisturbed layered fashion.
● Very Little mixing.

Stream Erosion :-
How Do Streams Erode?

The energy that makes running water move comes from gravity. As water flows
downslope from a higher to a lower elevation, the gravitational potential energy
stored in water transforms into kinetic energy. About 3% of this energy goes into
the work of eroding the walls and beds of stream channels. Running water
causes erosion in four ways:

● Scouring: Running water can remove and carry away loose fragments of
sediment, a process called scouring.

● Breaking and lifting: In some cases, the push of flowing water can break
chunks of solid rock off the channel bed or walls. In addition, the flow of a current
over a clast can cause the clast to rise or lift off the substrate.

● Abrasion: Clean water has little erosive effect, but sediment-laden water acts
like sandpaper and grinds or rasps away at the channel bed and walls, a process
called abrasion. In places where turbulence produces long-lived whirlpools, in
which water swirls like a small tornado, abrasion by sand or gravel carves a
bowl-shaped depression, called a pothole, into the bed of the stream.

● Dissolution: Running water dissolves soluble minerals as it passes and carries

the minerals away in solution.

The efficiency of erosion depends on the velocity and volume of water and
on its sediment content. A large volume of fast-moving, turbulent, sandy water
causes more erosion than does a trickle of quiet, clear water. Therefore, most
erosion takes place during floods, which supply streams with large volumes of
fast-moving, sediment-laden water.
 Stream Transportation:-

How Do Streams Transport Sediment?

The Mississippi River received the nickname “Big Muddy” for a reason—its
water can become chocolate brown because of all the clay and silt it carries. All
streams carry sediment, though different streams carry different amounts at
different times. Geologists refer to the total volume of sediment carried by a
stream as its sediment load. The sediment load consists of three components:-

● Dissolved load: Running water dissolves soluble minerals in the sediment or

rock of its substrate, and groundwater seeping into a stream through the channel
walls and bed brings dissolved minerals with it. The ions of these dissolved
minerals constitute a stream’s dissolved load.

● Suspended load: The suspended load of a stream consists of tiny solid grains
(silt or clay) that swirl along with the water without settling to the streambed; this
sediment makes the water brown (Fig. 17.12a–c).

● Bed load: The bed load of a stream consists of large particles, such as sand,
pebbles, or cobbles, that bounce or roll along the streambed. Bed-load
movement commonly involves saltation, in which a multitude of grains bounce
along in the direction of flow within a zone that extends up from the streambed
for a distance of several centimeters to several tens of centimeters. Each
saltating grain in this zone follows a curved trajectory up through the water and
then back down to the bed. When it strikes the bed, it knocks other grains
upward and supplies new grains to the saltation zone.

When describing a stream’s ability to carry sediment, geologists specify its

competence and capacity. The competence of a stream refers to the maximum
particle size it carries—a stream with high competence can carry large particles,
whereas one with low competence can carry only small particles. A fast-moving,
turbulent stream has greater competence than does a slow-moving stream, and
a stream in flood has greater competence than does a stream with normal flow.
In fact, the huge boulders that litter the bed of a mountain creek move only during
floods. The capacity of a stream refers to the total quantity of sediment it can
carry. A stream’s capacity depends on both.

Stream Deposition:

Depositional Process :

A raging torrent of water can carry coarse and fine sediment— the finer clasts
rush along with the water as suspended load,whereas the coarser clasts may
bounce and tumble as bed load. If the flow velocity decreases, either because
the slope of the streambed decreases or because the channel broadens out and
friction between the streambed and the water increases, then the competence of
the stream decreases and sediment settles out. The size of the clasts that settle
at a particular locality depends on how slow the flow has become. Therefore,
coarser sediment tends to settle out upstream, where water flows faster, whereas
finer grains settle out downstream, where water flows more slowly, and the finest
sediment settles out when the stream flows into a standing body of water.
Because of this process of sediment sorting, stream deposits tend to be
segregated by size—gravel, sand, silt, and mud can collect in different locations.

The sediments transported by a stream are often deposited temporarily along

the stream’s course (particularly the bed load sediments). Such sediments move
sporadically downstream in repeated cycles of erosion and deposition, forming
bars and flood-plain deposits. At or near the end of a stream, sediments may be
deposited more permanently in a delta or an alluvial fan

Depositional Fluvial Landforms :

Bars :

Bars Stream deposits may take the form of a bar , a ridge of sediment, usually
sand and gravel, deposited in the middle or along the banks of a stream ( figure
10.14 ). Bars are formed by deposition when a stream’s discharge or velocity
decreases. During a flood, a river can move all sizes of sediment, from silt and
clay up to huge boulders, because the greatly increased volume of water is
moving very rapidly. As the flood begins to recede, the water level in the stream
falls and the velocity drops. With the stream no longer able to carry all its
sediment load, the larger boulders drop down on the streambed, slowing the
water locally even more. Finer gravel and sand are deposited between the
boulders and downstream from them. In this way, deposition builds up a sand
and gravel bar that may become exposed as the water level falls.

The next flood on the river may erode most of the sediment in this bar and
move it farther downstream. But as the flood slows, it may deposit new gravel in
approximately the same place, forming a new bar.
A flood can wash away bars in a stream, depositing new bars as the water
recedes. ( A) Normal water flow with sand and gravel bar. ( B) Increased
discharge and velocity during flood moves all sediment downstream. Channel
deepens and widens if banks erode easily. ( C) New bars are deposited as water
level drops and stream slows down.

Placer Deposits :

Placer deposits are found in streams where the running water has mechanically
concentrated heavy sediment. The heavy sediment is concentrated in the stream
where the velocity of the water is high enough to carry away lighter material but
not the heavy sediment. Such places include river bars on the inside of
meanders, plunge pools below waterfalls, and depressions on a streambed.
Types of placer deposits. ( A) Stream bar. ( B) Below waterfall. ( C) Depressions
on streambed.

Braided Streams :

Deposition of a bar in the center of a stream (a mid channel bar ) diverts the
water toward the sides, where it washes against the stream banks with greater
force, eroding the banks and widening the stream. A stream heavily loaded with
sediment may deposit many bars in its channel, causing the stream to widen
continually as more bars are deposited. Such a stream typically goes through
many stages of deposition, erosion, deposition, and erosion, especially if its
discharge fluctuates. The stream may fill its main channel with sediment and
become a braided stream , flowing in a network of interconnected rivulets around
numerous bars

Meandering Streams :

Rivers that carry fine-grained silt and clay in suspension tend to be narrow and
deep and to develop pronounced, sinuous curves called meanders. In a long
river, sediment tends to become finer downstream, so meandering is common in
the lower reaches of a river.The course of a stream bed can be continuously affected
by erosion on the outside of a curve and deposition on the inside. This process will
transform a gentle curve into a hairpinlike meander. Meanders continuously change
location as they swing back and forth across a valley or migrate downstream over time.

Oxbow Lake :

An oxbow lake is formed when a meander begins to close on itself and the stream
breaks through and bypasses the meander. The cut‐off meander is dammed by
sedimentary deposits in the new channel—resulting in a body of water that is shaped
roughly like a U (the shape of an oxbow, a piece of wood used to harness an ox).
Oxbow lakes mark the location of former stream channels.

Point Bar :

A river’s velocity is higher on the outside of a curve than on the inside. This high velocity
can erode the river bank on the outside of a curve, often rapidly. The low velocity on the
inside of a curve promotes sediment deposition. The sandbars have been deposited on
the inside of curves because of the lower velocity. Such a bar is called a point bar and
usually consists of a series of arcuate ridges of sand or gravel.

Flood Plains :
A flood plain is a broad strip of land built up by sedimentation on either side of a
stream channel. During floods, flood plains may be covered with water carrying
suspended silt and clay . When the floodwaters recede, these fine-grained
sediments are left behind as a horizontal deposit on the flood plain.

Some flood plains are constructed almost entirely of horizontal layers of

fine-grained sediment, interrupted here and there by coarse-grained channel
deposits. Other flood plains are dominated by meanders shifting back and forth
over the valley floor and leaving sandy point bar deposits on the inside of curves.
Such a river will deposit a characteristic fining-upward sequence of sediments:
coarse channel deposits are gradually covered by medium-grained point bar
deposits, which in turn are overlain by fine-grained flood deposits.

● Active Floodplain - A riverbed made of river deposits is the active floodplain.

● Inactive Floodplain - The floodplain above the bank is an inactive floodplain.

Inactive floodplain above the banks basically contains two types of deposits flood
deposits and channel deposits.

● Delta plains - The floodplains in a delta are called delta plains.

Natural Levee :

● This is an important landform associated with floodplains.

● They are low, linear and parallel ridges of coarse deposits along the banks of
rivers on both sides due to deposition action of the stream, appearing as natural
embankments.

● At the time of flooding, the water is spilt over the bank. As the speed of flow of
the water comes down, large sized sediments with high specific gravity are
dumped along the bank as ridges.

● They are high nearer the banks and slope gently away from the river.

● Generally, the levee deposits are coarser.

Alluvial Fan :

● It is a cone-shaped depositional landform built up by streams, heavy with

sediment load.

● They are formed when streams flowing from mountains break into foot slope
plains of low gradient.

● Normally a very coarse load is carried by streams flowing over mountain

slopes. This load gets dumped as it becomes too heavy to be carried over
gentler gradients by the streams

● Furthermore, this load spreads as a broad low to a high cone-shaped deposit

called an alluvial fan that appears as a series of continuous fans.

Delta :

● Deltas are fan-shaped alluvial areas, resembling an alluvial fan ● This alluvial
tract is, in fact, a seaward extension of the floodplain

● The load carried by the rivers is dumped and spread into the mouth of the river
at sea. Further, this load spreads and piles up as a low cone

● Unlike in alluvial fans, the deposits making up deltas are very well sorted with
clear stratification. The coarsest sediments are deposited first and the finer
sediments are carried out further, into the sea.
● Types of delta :

1. Bird's foot delta :

where delta formation is river dominated & less subjected to tidal or Wave
action, a delta may take on a bird’s foot Shape.

2. Arcuate delta :

it is the most common type of delta. This is a fan-shaped delta. It s a curved

or bowed delta with the convex margin facing the sea. Arcuate deltas have a
smooth coastline due to the action of the waves and the way they are formed.

3. Cuspate delta :

A few rivers have tooth-like projections at their mouth, known as the

cuspate delta. Cuspate deltas are formed where the river flows into a stable
water body (sea or ocean). The sediments brought down by the rivers collide with
the waves. As a result, Sediments are spread evenly on either side of its
channel.

The Base Level Concept :

● The base level of a stream refers to the lowest point that a stream can
erode its channel. This can be a fixed point, such as the ocean or a lake, or
it can be a temporary point, such as a dam or a natural rock barrier. The
 base level of a stream determines the maximum depth that the stream can
erode its channel and the slope of the channel.
● If the base level of a stream is lowered, such as by the lowering of a lake
level, the stream will begin to erode deeper into its channel. Conversely, if
the base level of a stream is raised, such as by the construction of a dam,
the stream will deposit sediment and create a shallower channel.
● The concept of base level is important in understanding the long-term
evolution of stream channels and the formation of features such as
canyons and river deltas. Over time, streams will adjust their channel
slopes and patterns in response to changes in base level, which can be
influenced by both natural and human factors.

Valleys and Canyons :

● Land far above base level is subject to down cutting

● Rapid down cutting creates erode trough

○ Valley- gently sloping trough sidewalls define a v-shape

○ Canyon – steep trough sidewalls from cliffs

● determined by rate of erosion vs. strength of rocks

Peneplanation :

"Peneplanation" is a geological term that refers to the process by which a large

area of land is eroded to a relatively flat surface through the action of water and
other agents of erosion. It is a type of landscape evolution that involves the
wearing down of high points and filling in of low points over long periods of time,
resulting in a featureless and nearly flat landscape.It is a gradual process that
takes place over long periods of time, and is characterized by the removal of soil,
rock, and other debris by the flowing water.

Streams can cause peneplanation through a number of mechanisms. One of the

most important is the process of downcutting, which involves the cutting of a
stream channel into the underlying bedrock. As a stream cuts down into the
bedrock, it also erodes the surrounding hillsides, carrying sediment downstream
and gradually lowering the overall elevation of the landscape.

Another mechanism by which streams can cause peneplanation is through the

process of lateral erosion. This occurs when a stream flows along the side of a
hill or mountain, eroding the soil and rock on one side and depositing it on the
other. Over time, this can lead to the formation of a broad, flat floodplain that is
nearly level with the surrounding terrain.

Peneplanation due to stream erosion can have a significant impact on the

landscape, as it can create large areas of flat or gently rolling terrain that are ideal
for agriculture and other human activities. It can also create important habitats
for wildlife, such as wetlands and floodplains. However, it can also lead to
environmental challenges, such as increased erosion and sedimentation, as well
as the loss of natural habitats and biodiversity.

Monadnock/inselberg :

A Monadnock is also called inselberg . It is an isolated rock hill, knob, ridge, or

small mountain that rises abruptly from a gently sloping or virtually level
surrounding plain.

● Southern Africa's similar formation of granite is known as koppie. If the

inselberg is dome shaped and formed from granite or gneiss,it can also be called
a bornhardt, though not all bornhardts are inselbergs .

● Monadnock ,isolated hill of bedrock standing conspicuously above the general

level of the surroundings area

● Monadnocks are left. As erosional remnants of because of their more

composition; commonly they consist of quartzite or less joined massive volcanic
rocks

Formation :

Inselbergs arise from rocks which erode at a slower rate than of the
surrounding rocks. The landform consists of an erosion resistant rock which
protects a softer rock that remains isolated as limestone. the resistant rock
remains isolated as ongoing erosion erodes the less resistant rock around it.

Stream Terraces :

● Stream terraces are elevated platforms or flat areas adjacent to rivers or

streams that are formed by the erosion and deposition of sediment over
time. They are characterized by a series of flat or gently sloping benches or
steps that are found along the sides of a river valley, and are often
composed of a mix of sand, gravel, and other types of sediment.
● Stream terraces are formed through a variety of processes. One common
mechanism is the cutting and downcutting of a river channel, which leads
to the formation of steep banks and a valley floor that is lower than the
surrounding terrain. Over time, sediment is deposited along the banks of
the river, creating a broad, flat bench or terrace. This process can occur
repeatedly over time, leading to the formation of multiple terraces at
different elevations.
● Another mechanism by which stream terraces are formed is through
changes in the rate of erosion and sedimentation. For example, if a river is
flowing at a high velocity and carrying a large amount of sediment, it may
deposit sediment along the banks of the river, creating a new terrace.
Conversely, if the river slows down or changes course, sediment may be
eroded from the existing terrace, leading to its gradual erosion and
disappearance.
Rapids and Waterfalls :

Rapids are sections of a river where the water flows faster than the surrounding areas
due to the gradient of the river bed. They are often characterized by white water and
turbulence caused by rocks and obstacles in the river bed that disrupt the flow of water.
Rapids can be formed by a variety of factors, including the slope of the river bed, the
amount of water flowing through the river, and the presence of obstacles such as
boulders or logs.

Waterfalls, on the other hand, are formed when a river flows over a steep drop in
elevation. As the water falls, it erodes the rock below, causing the waterfall to retreat
upstream over time. Waterfalls can be formed by a variety of geological processes,
including erosion from glaciers, volcanic activity, and tectonic movements. Some of the
most famous waterfalls in the world include Niagara Falls, Victoria Falls, and Angel
Falls.

Rejuvenation :

What is rejuvenation?

● “ An increase in energy of a river caused by rise or fall in its base level or an

uplift in land”

● If a relatively flat landscape is uplifted, this will allow a river flowing on that
landscape to start eroding vertically instead of laterally. Hence, the river begins to act
more like its youthful stage and is said to be rejuvenated

● One way to uplift a surface is through isostatic rebound this occurs after a
surface sheds a tremendous weight such as the mass of ice sheets during the last ice
age. The depressed land surface begins to slowly rise up over the course of thousands
of years. This creates landforms such as raised beaches for uplift is the movement of
tectonic plates in certain fashion

River Rejuvenation

Rejuvenation makes the river suddenly start eroding its bed vertically (downcutting)
faster as it gains gravitational potential energy. Steps where the river suddenly starts
flowing faster, and terraces derived from old flood plains.
 ● A region may be uplifted at any stages . This lowers the base level and
streams begin active downward erosion again. Rejuvenated terrains usually have
complex landscapes because remnants of older land forms are locally preserved

● The river adjusted to its new base level, at first in its lower reaches and then
progressively inland. As it does so a number of landforms may be created

○ Knick points

○ River terraces

○ Incised meanders

Landforms of rejuvenation

Knick point :-

● is identified by a break in slope and is usually marked by a waterfall.

● Reflects the process of vertical erosion due to the renewed ability to erode
vertically.

River terraces :-

● Are the remains of the former floodplain- now abandoned as the river has eroded
too deeply to access it

● Is indicative of rapid down cutting.

● If it is slower as a result of more gradual uplift, the terraces will be present on

different sides of the channel at different levels

Incised meanders :-

● Entrenched when the cross section is symmetrical

● Ingrown where the cross profile is asymmetric

 Significant breaks in slope(knick points) along a river’s long profile may be due to
rejuvenation Vertical erosion and, starting from the sea, the river adjusts to the new
base level. The knick point(where the old profile joins the new)thus moves upstream.
Rejuvenation may also be caused by the sea eroding through and creating a breach in
the coastal geology, Eg river lyn on the north devon coast.
GEOLOGY ASSIGNMENT
STREAMS

MURSHID K

INTEGRATED MSC GEOLOGY

ROLL NO : 248