PRACTICAL

RESEARCH
1
MARIA CECILIA V. LORISTO
 Analyzing the Meaning of the Data Gathered
 What I Need to Know
Collection of data which you have done in Module 6 is
only the beginning of your research process. Once you have
collected all the information you needed, you have to
organize them. Since your research is qualitative, this
module focuses on “analysis” which is more concerned with
the meaning of information gathered from different sources,
such as notes/observation, recorded interview/transcripts,
and/or focus group transcripts which will be explained in
this module.
Learning Competencies
At the end of this module, you are expected to
1. infer and explain patterns and themes from the data
collected;
2. analyze and relate the findings with the pertinent
literature; and
3. appreciate the process of analyzing the meaning of
data gathered.
 What is It
The starting point of data analysis in qualitative research is by
“getting to know” your data. This can be done by listening to your audios
or reading your transcripts (O’Connor & Gibson, 2003). After doing this, it
will give you a general idea of what people are saying and what results
you are looking for.
Formal Systems
There are formal systems for analysis of qualitative data that have
been developed in order to help researchers get at the meaning of their
data more easily (Rubin & Rubin, 1995). These systems involve:
➢ coding techniques for finding and marking the underlying ideas in the
data;
➢ grouping similar kinds of information together in categories; and
➢ relating different ideas and themes to one another.
 What is It
Manual Guide
O’Connor & Gibson (2003) provided the researchers a manual
to guide them in the process through a step-by-step guide to
analyze qualitative interviews (O’Connor & Gibson, 2003). The
components to this type of analysis include:
➢ organizing the data
➢ finding and organizing ideas and concepts
➢ building over-arching themes in the data
➢ ensuring reliability and validity in the data analysis and in
findings
➢ finding possible and plausible explanation for findings
➢ an overview of the final step
 What is It
Step 1: Organizing the Data
According to Huberman & Miles (1994, p.432) as cited by
O’Connor & Gibson (2003), valid analysis is hugely aided by data
displays that are focused enough to permit viewing of all full
data set in one location and are systematically arranged to
answer the research question at hand.
The best way to organize data is to go back to your
interview guide. Identify and differentiate between the
questions/topics you are trying to answer, and those that were
simply included in the interview guide as important, but for the
moment, not essential.
 What is It
Step 2: Finding and Organizing Ideas and Concepts
As postulated by Marshall & Ross (1995), identifying
salient themes, recurring ideas or language, and patterns of
belief that link people and settings together is the most
intellectually challenging phase of the analysis and one that
can integrate the entire endeavor (Marshall & Ross, 1995,
p.114).
What to look for:
• Words/Phrases Used Frequently. Look for the words that
are frequently used and keep a list of these words.
 What is It
Step 2: Finding and Organizing Ideas and Concepts
• Finding Meaning in Language. Sometimes, you will notice
about the person’s perceptions, attitudes, and feelings
about something simply by noticing the words they use to
express themselves.
• Watch for the Unexpected. This is where you learn new
things or things you didn’t expect to hear. It is important to
always follow up when your participant seems to be going in
a new or unexpected direction. These situations are called
“rich points” (Asar, 1998) and are often valuable.
 What is It
Step 2: Finding and Organizing Ideas and Concepts
• Hearing Stories. Stories are a way for the interviewee to
communicate the point of ideas or symbols indirectly. Many
events, themes, and meanings can come out of a story. It is
important to pay close attention to them and to their
meanings.
• Coding and Categorizing Ideas and Concepts. Once you have
identified the words/phrases used frequently, as well as the
ideas coming from how the interviewee has expressed
him/herself and from the stories that he/she has told you, you
have to organize these ideas into codes or categories.
 What is It
Step 3: Building Over-Arching Themes in the Data
Each of the response categories has one or more
associated themes that give a deeper meaning to the data.
Different categories can be collapsed under one main over-
arching theme.
Step 4: Ensuring Reliability and Validity in the Data
Analysis and in Findings
Validity: The accuracy with which a method measures
what it is intended to measure (Schopper et al., 1993) and
yields data that really represents “reality” (Goodwin et al.,
1987).
 What is It
Step 4: Ensuring Reliability and Validity in the Data
Analysis and in Findings
Validation does not belong in some separate stage of the
investigation, but instead as an ongoing principle throughout
the entire research process.
Reliability: The consistency of the research findings
(Kvale, 1996). Ensuring reliability requires diligent efforts and
commitment to consistency throughout interviewing,
transcribing, and analyzing the findings.that really represents
“reality” (Goodwin et al., 1987).
 What is It
Step 4: Ensuring Reliability and Validity in the Data
Analysis and in Findings
As themes and patterns emerge from the data, it is
important to go through the data, carefully searching for
negative instances of the patterns. These are sometimes called
“outliers” (Miles & Huberman, 1994). It is often too easy to
discard these since they don’t fit into the patterns and themes
of the data; however, it is just as important that these are
carefully examined and that possible explanations for these
outliers are thought out (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
 What is It
Step 4: Ensuring Reliability and Validity in the Data
Analysis and in Findings
The dynamics of the interaction between the interviewer
and the interviewee will be influenced by the personal
characteristics of both parties. Differences in age, gender,
education, background, and language will all have an effect on
the outcome of the interview (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
Triangulation: Findings are more dependable when they
can be confirmed from several independent sources. Their
validity is enhanced when they are confirmed by more than
one “instrument” measuring the same thing.
 What is It
Different types of triangulation
➢ Triangulation from different sources: for example, interviewing
different members of the community who can give different
perspectives on a specific question or topic. Personal journals are
also an example of this.
➢ Triangulation from different methods: looking at the same
questions/topics but trying to answer them using different research
methods, such as surveys, focus groups, and individual interviews
(often blending qualitative and quantitative methods).
➢ Triangulation from different researchers: having two different
researchers conduct the same interview, for example, or analyze the
same data is a good way to test validity.
 What is It
What can you expect from triangulation?
Corroboration of the findings: they are both valid and
reliable.
OR
Inconsistent or conflicting findings: these can elaborate the
findings and often lead to more complex and context-
respective explanations. Through triangulation, it is not
uncommon to find things that were missed in the original
data collection process. Sometimes, it means that our
assumptions were off base, and that we need to change our
questions or do more research.
 What is It
Obtaining Feedback from Participant
The best way to examine the validity of the
research findings and of the researcher’s
interpretation of them is for the researcher to go back
and ask those individuals who participated in the
study or who can speak on behalf of them.
“Local informants can act as judges, evaluating the
major findings of a study” (Denzin, 1978).
 What is It
Obtaining Feedback from Participant
Focus Groups: After all the interviews have been
completed, a series of focus groups will be conducted
in order to obtain feedback from community members
on the accuracy, the validity, and the appropriateness
of the research findings. The implications of the
research findings and how the dissemination of
information should be done will also be discussed.
 What is It
External Validation of Coding Strategies
Not only is it important to ensure validity in the research process
and findings but also in the data analysis process. One way to do this is
to compare how you (the researcher) have categorized and coded the
results into themes with how a colleague would have done it. Randomly
select a few passages from questions/topics that you have already coded
and analyzed. Give the list of your codes/categories to a colleague as well
as all of the responses for that question/topic. Have them code the
responses and you can compare the coding with your own as a measure
of validity and reliability of coding strategies. Remember, however, to
always protect the identity of your participant, even if you are working
with a trusted colleague.
 What is It
Step 5: Finding Possible and Plausible Explanations for
Findings
So, What Did You Find?
➢ Start by making a summary of your findings and your themes.
Ask Yourself Some Questions
➢ Are these findings what you were expecting, based on the literature?
➢ Were there any major surprises in the findings?
➢ How are they different/similar to what is stated in the literature from
other similar studies?
Important Sources to Answer Those Questions
Literature
Go back to the literature and compare your findings. This may also
help you find possible explanations for them.
 What is It
An Overview of the Final Steps
What are the Implications of the Findings?
Once you have developed your over-arching themes, you need to
think about the implications. Why is your work important, why should
anyone pay attention to it? What are the implications within each
community? How are the partners within the communities reacting to
the findings?
This is where the ACTION comes in from Participatory Action
Research. The findings from the research should help us not only in
identifying strategies to bring about change, or to be more responsive to
a community’s needs, but also help us find realistic ways of
implementing those strategies.
 What is It
Communicating the Information
Determine (before writing the final report) who will
have access to the information and how those
people/communities will be affected by it.
Keeping in line with the foundational principles of the
research project, we aim to disseminate the results carefully,
sensitively, and in conjunction with those affected. It is
important to remember that some study results are sensitive
to some people and communities. Hence, ask yourself,
“What is the most appropriate way to let people know of the
results of the study?”
 What is It
Communicating the Information
There are many options:
➢ Newspaper
➢ Newsletter
➢ Mail
➢ radio or video
➢ council meeting
➢ focus groups
➢ community workshops/seminars
➢ formal report
These decisions may also have funding implications to be
considered.
 What is It
Organizing the Information into a Final Report
This includes not only the results but also how the entire research
process was carried out, what went right, what went wrong, highlighting
the strengths and limitation as well as what you would do differently and
how it could be improved. One of the most important things to take into
consideration when writing the final report is knowing who your target
audience is going to be (who is actually going to be reading the report?)
In the final report, you are summarizing why the research
question(s) you were looking at was an important one, how you went
about answering it (methods), what your findings were, the implications
of those findings, recommendations, and strategies, and areas of future
research that you were able to identify.
 Writing Conclusions, Recommendation, and References
 What I Need to Know
Hooray! You are already at the last part of your research.
This module will guide you on how to knit together all the
findings in your study in order to come up with a conclusion.
From there, you can recommend any achievable actions that
can be taken in order to serve the purpose of your study.
Additionally, considering research ethics, a researcher
must identify and acknowledge the sources of information
used in the study. Thus, further discussion on this topic is
included in this module.
Learning Competencies
At the end of this module, you are expected to
1. identify the ways of making conclusions;
2. formulate recommendations based on the
conclusions;
3. list the references used in the research study; and
4. appreciate the formulation of logical conclusions and
recommendations as well as the techniques in listing
references.
 What is It
Conclusions
The conclusion is intended to help the reader appreciate why the
research should matter to them after they have finished reading the
paper. A conclusion is a synthesis of key points. For most essays, one
well-developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion; although in
some cases, a two- or three-paragraph conclusion may be required (USC
Libraries, 2014).
You need to draw together the threads of research to arrive at
some general conclusions. In other words, you summarize the ideas of
the research in terms of research problem, or objectives and tie up both
ends neatly. The conclusions are drawn by logical inference from
findings (Mutai, 2001).
 What is It
Conclusions
The conclusion culminates the research report and is of
utmost importance to one’s readers because it answers the
questions that sparked the collected data and its analysis in
the first place. In concluding one’s report, it is important to
discuss the practical application and implications of one’s
findings in the real world. Although one is supposed to have
interpreted evidence at every step of one’s analysis, one’s
conclusions pull the strands together in a broader perspective
and indicate possible action, where appropriate (Mugenda &
Mugenda, 2003).
 What is It
Conclusions
In the main text of the conclusion section, one needs to draw
together the threads of the research to arrive at some general
conclusions and, perhaps, suggest some ways forward. Rather than
let the report fizzle out as it reaches the end, this part of the report
should be constructive and positive. Conclusions should not contain
any ideas not previously raised in the report. It should state in
unqualified terms what the findings are. The findings should then be
related to other evidences or hypotheses as described in the main
body, including a comparison with other similar studies. Where
appropriate, a variety of options arising from the study should be
explained.
 What is It
Conclusions
The content of the conclusion logically precedes it. In tying these
materials together, the conclusion can perform the three functions, as
follows:
1) Recapitulate the ideas of the paper: This is done in the manner where
the researcher returns to the first paragraph or so, review, summarize
and ties up both ends neatly.
2) Extend a challenge: This is usually reserved for the problem-solving
paper. Such a conclusion may call on the reader himself to help make
the solution to take effect by telling him/her what to do.
3) Draw inferences: If opposing ideas have been presented, the
conclusions may challenge the reader to accept one or other ideas, or at
least to consider their relative value (Mutai, 2001).
 What is It
Problems to Avoid in Making Conclusions
The following problems should be avoided in writing
the conclusion (Ebrahim, 2018):
1) Failure to be concise: The conclusion section should be
concise and to the point. Conclusions that are too long have
unnecessary details. The conclusion section is not the place
for details about the methodology or results. Although one
should give a summary of what was learned from the
research, this summary should be relatively brief, since the
emphasis in the conclusion is on the implications,
evaluations, insights, and others that one makes.
 What is It
Problems to Avoid in Making Conclusions
2) Failure to comment on larger or more significant issues: In
the introduction, one’s task is to move from general (the
field of study) to specific (the research problem). However, in
the conclusion, one’s task is to move from specific (the
research problem) back to general or field – i.e., how the
research contributes new understanding or fills an
important gap in the literature. In other words, the
conclusion is where one places the study research within a
larger context.
 What is It
Problems to Avoid in Making Conclusions
3) Failure to reveal problems and negative results: Negative
aspects of the research process should never be ignored.
Problems, drawbacks, and challenges encountered during the
study should be included as a way of qualifying the overall
conclusions. If one encountered negative results of findings that
are validated outside the research context in which they were
generated, one must report them in the results section of the
paper. In the conclusion, use the negative results as an
opportunity to explain how they provide information in which
future research can be based on.
 What is It
Problems to Avoid in Making Conclusions
4) Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned: In
order to be able to discuss how the research fits back into
the field of study and possibly the world at large, one needs
to summarize it briefly and directly. Often, this element of
the conclusion is only a few sentences long.
 What is It
Problems to Avoid in Making Conclusions
5) Failure to match the objectives of the research: Often,
research objectives change while the research is being
carried out. This is not a problem unless one forgets to go
back and refine the original objectives in the introduction.
As these changes emerge, they must be documented so that
they accurately reflect what one was trying to accomplish in
the research and not what one thought might be
accomplished when one began.
 What is It
Recommendations
One’s summary and conclusions should lead logically
to one’s recommendations. Recommendations must be
consistent with the purpose of the study, its objectives, the
evidence presented by the data, and the interpretations
given. Recommendations should be practical and achievable
(Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003).
The recommendations concerning the action to be
taken follow the conclusions. Where recommendations
involve policy decisions, state them completely as possible
including who should do what, when and why (Mutai, 2001).
 What is It
Common recommendations that researchers often make include the
following:
1) Areas of further research: Emphasizing the questions in
the study that remain unanswered and therefore ought to be
explored further.
2) Methodological issues: These could be addressed and
refined to improve future research in the areas of study.
3) Actions that should be taken to address the problem
based on the research findings: Solving specific problems
could involve designing and implementing an intervention
of a project (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003).
 What is It
Writing the References
As per the considerations of research ethics, the researchers
should identify and acknowledge various sources they have used in their
work/write up. Referencing is a system used by the academicians to
indicate the source of the ideas, theories, quotes, facts or any other
evidence, data, and information that have been used for any write up or
assignment. It is an essential part of any scientific writing and one must
do this in all the academic assignments. It is the accepted way of giving
credit to the ideas and evidence on which one’s argument is based.
References are listed in an organized, structured, and consistent way, at
the end of the write up/assignment. In thesis, the list of references
appears before the appendices.
 What is It
Commonly Used Referencing System or Style of Writing References
Vancouver style
Most journals in medical sciences use the Vancouver system
to write the references. In this system, the citation in the text
is done by reference number. In the list, the references are in
a numeric order (Arabic) in which they are first cited in the
manuscript. References are numbered consecutively in the
order that they are first mentioned in the text. Each
reference number is placed in parentheses or superscripted
throughout the text, tables, and legends.
 What is It
Commonly Used Referencing System or Style of Writing References
Vancouver style
In Vancouver style, the names of all the authors are
written when there are six authors. If there are more than six
authors, “et al.” is used after writing the first six authors.
While using the Vancouver style, if an author’s name is used
in the text, it is mandatory to use the citation number as
well. For example, “as Kaur2 emphasized the high
prevalence of depression in elderly...”
 What is It
Commonly Used Referencing System or Style of Writing References
APA style
The APA style is a structured format for all sorts of
academic writings, including the journal articles, books, and
other commentaries devised by the American Psychological
Association (APA) Table 1. The style guide titled as ‘Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association’ was first
published in 1929 as a seven-page document. After eighty years,
the sixth edition of the manual was published in 2009. This style
is very widely used in social and behavioral sciences like
psychology, sociology, social work, nursing, and education.
 What is It
Commonly Used Referencing System or Style of Writing References
APA style
While citing reference in text, where one needs to cite one work by
one author, the following format is used: “Author’s Surname (year)”. For
example, “Sharma (2014) reported that 43% of antenatal females
experience intimate partner violence.” When the citation has three, four,
or five authors, cite all authors when the reference appears for the first
time; in the subsequent citations, include only the surname of the first
author followed by “et al.” and the year. For example:
“Kaur, Sharma, Bakshi and Sinha (2012) reported high prevalence of
stress among nurses…” (used as first citation in the text)
“Kaur et al. (2012) also found…” (used in the subsequent citation per
paragraph thereafter).
 What is It
Commonly Used Referencing System or Style of Writing References
APA style
For a web page with no author, cite the first few words
of the title and the year using double quotation marks
around the title. The government documents, books,
technical/research reports, or brochures can also be
considered for writing the references. If a person is named
on the title page, use him or her as author. If no person is
named, use the government agency, department, or branch
as a group author.
 What is It
Commonly Used Referencing System or Style of Writing References
APA style
The reference list is written at the end of the article. The list
provides the necessary information required to identify and retrieve
each source. In APA style, the reference list should include only those
references which are actually used in the preparation of article. Hence,
the APA style requires the use of reference list, not bibliography. The
order of the reference list is prepared by arranging all entries in
alphabetical order by the surname of the first author followed by the
initials of the author’s given name. The rule is to alphabetize letter by
letter. When there are several works by the same author, they are to be
arranged by year of publication; the earliest comes first.
 What is It
Commonly Used Referencing System or Style of Writing References
APA style
For example, “Sharma N (2010)” precedes “Sharma N (2014)”. One-
author entries precede multiple-author entries beginning with the same
surname even if the multiple-author work was published earlier. For
example, “Kaur (2014)” shall precede “Kaur, Singh, and Sharma (2010)”.
This style mandates writing the names of all the authors in the reference
list up to seven authors. If there are more than seven authors, the
following format is used:
Kaur, S., Sharma, N., Sharma, S., Thakur, M., Agnihotri, N. Thakur M,.…
Saini, S. (2015). Effectiveness of peer evaluation in nursing training.
Education and Research Journal, 6, 167-177.
 What is It
Commonly Used Referencing System or Style of Writing References
APA style
For government agency with no author, it can be written as U.S.
Food and Drug Administration, 2004.
  What is It

Note: To check more examples of APA style and other examples for Vancouver style and
Harvard style, you may browse and read the full paper at
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335652047_Writing_References.
 What is It
Commonly Used Referencing System or Style of Writing References
Harvard style
This is also known as Author and Date system. The
Harvard system puts the authors and the date of work being
referred to at the appropriate point in the text rather than
using a number. This is called a “citation”. All the works cited
are then listed at the end of the report/paper in an
alphabetical order according to the authors’ surname. The
reader can then refer from the text to the reference. The
reference list must contain all the works cited in the text.
 What is It
Commonly Used Referencing System or Style of Writing References
Harvard style
It is economical in terms of time. It is very flexible as
entries can be added, deleted, or changed with a minimum
of disruption to the rest of the document. In addition, the
reader can tell immediately who the author is and when the
study was published. It emphasizes the name of the author
and the publication year in the text with full bibliographic
details in a reference list.
 What is It
Commonly Used Referencing System or Style of Writing References
Harvard style
While using Harvard style, if a citation is to be used in
text, depending on the style of your sentence, you will either
include both the author and year in brackets or just the year
in brackets, with the author forming part of your sentence.
For example, “interpersonal stress is very common in first
year students (Sharma, 2010),” or “in a descriptive study by
Sharma (2010), interpersonal stress was emphasized in first
year students.”
 What is It
Commonly Used Referencing System or Style of Writing References
Harvard style
Further, the style mandates the use of specific page number
as well if one is using a direct figure or idea from a particular
page, for example “(Kaur, 2014)”. For a work done by more
than one author, the name of all authors is to be given in text
up to three authors. If there are more than three authors,
then write the name of the first author followed by “et al.”