Qualitative Research

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to

understand:
• Meaning and nature of qualitative research
• Difference between qualitative and quantitative research
• Rationale and uses of the qualitative research
• Categories and methods of the qualitative research
• Analysis of qualitative data
• Limitations of the qualitative research
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is mainly useful in understanding consumer

behaviour and attitudes, for instance; it probes rather than counts.
It is impressionistic rather than conclusive.
It comprises three major techniques – personal interviews
(unstructured or semi-structured), focus group interviews and
projective techniques.
Meaning and Nature

Qualitative research looks to achieve the primary objectives of a

research using methods that can help in elaborating interpretations
of some phenomena without using numerical measurements.
It is exploratory in nature, and thereby provides an in-depth
understanding and clear insights of the research problem.
Definition of Qualitative Research

Shank defined qualitative research as ‘a form of systematic empirical

inquiry into meaning’ (p. 5).
• By systematic he meant ‘planned, ordered and public’, following the
rules agreed upon by members of the qualitative research
community.
• By empirical, he meant that this type of inquiry is grounded in the
world of experience.
• According to researchers, inquiry into a meaning helps in
understanding how others make sense of their experience.
Definition of Qualitative Research

Denzin and Lincoln (2000) claimed that qualitative research involves

an interpretive and naturalistic approach: ‘This means that qualitative
researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make
sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people
bring to them’ (p. 3)
Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research

Criteria Qualitative research Quantitative research

Objective To provide a clear understanding of the To provide a conclusive outcome of the

research problem; to discover new ideas; research problem by testing research
hypotheses
Nature of research Exploratory: Researchers are not sure what Conclusive: Researchers know what they are
they are looking for looking for
Research design Exploratory Descriptive and Causal
Approach Listen, observe, and interpret Measure, test and generalize
Researcher involvement High Low

Type of data Qualitative subjective data, Quantitative data

Preferred sample Experts Participants with adequate knowledge
elements
Sample size Small Large
Questions type Open ended; “what”, “how” and “why” Closed ended; “how many”, “how much”, and
questions. E.g. Satisfied or not, why/why not “how often” questions. E.g. degree of
satisfied, etc. satisfaction.
Questionnaire type Unstructured Structured
Methods of data Interviewing, focus group, ethnographies Online and offline surveys
collection
Analysis of data Non-statistical; subjective Statistical; objectives
Research outcome Providing basic understanding of research Recommend a solution to the problem
problem
Methodological Triangulation

Applying a qualitative approach along with a quantitative approach

considerably strengthens any research. Combining these two
methodologies has been termed convergent methodology, multi-
method/multi-trait, convergent validation or triangulation.
Methodological triangulation is defined as ‘the combination of
methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon.’
Rationale and Uses of Qualitative Research

1. Qualitative research will be helpful when research objectives are

not specific, when there is a need to understand some real-life
happenings, some phenomena and the inner motivations.
2. It is required when there is a need to develop new concepts;
when the researcher wants to study a behaviour or pattern, which
possibly may be context dependent.
3. It could also be used when there is a need to define a problem,
otherwise quantitative methods would not yield the desired
results.
Rationale and Uses of Qualitative Research

4. Some other situations where a researcher may want to use

qualitative research are as follows:
o When research problem is not well defined.
o When the primary objective of the research is to better
understand or clarify a phenomenon.
o When the research problem or objective is to see how a
phenomenon actually happens or how it happens in its natural
settings.
o When the current approaches to studying some problem are
outdated or they are not giving satisfactory results.
o Qualitative research is also effective in developing new theory
or under-explored areas of interest.
o It may suggest essential variables that might have been
overlooked in any research domain.
CATEGORIES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

There are following four many categories of qualitative research:

1. Phenomenology – related to psychology and philosophy
2. Ethnography – related to anthropology
3. Grounded theory – related to sociology
4. Case studies – related to psychology and business
METHODS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Sl. No. Method Description

They’re personal interviews with one respondent at a time, either face to

1 In-depth interviews face or over phone. They are conversational in nature, and help the
interviewer to understand the beliefs and motivations of the respondents.
The researcher may approach a respondent with a predetermined list of
issues or questions, but lets the discussion evolve depending upon how the
respondents responds.

A limited number of respondents from the target market are selected to

2 Focus groups participate in a planned discussion. During these discussions, members
can interact and influence each other. These discussions can elicit
consumer perceptions on any topic of interest. The number of participants
may vary from 6-10. The environment of these discussions is free and non-
threatening making discussion and interaction more effective.

Some surveys are designed with open-ended questions where respondents

3 Open-ended surveys are supposed to write or speak up their minds. For example, an interviewer
can ask a sample of female target audience as to which colour they like
most? With pink, blue, red, green as answers to this question. The
respondents can choose one out of the four. Then s/he can ask why do
they like pink? With some space beneath this question for respondents to
write, in their own words.
METHODS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Sl. No. Method Description

4 Observation The process of observation deals with the functioning of the five sensory
organs (sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing). It is a subjective method to
collect systematic information. Humans, cameras (CCTV), and some other
technological devices can be used to collect data from observation.

Case study Case studies are detailed study of one or a group of individuals’ behaviour
or experience. This can also be used to explore more about or describe a
5
phenomenon. They are focussed on high level of details to understand
behaviour. They are used to answer how or why questions.

Record Keeping Using existing documents like researches done by various private and
governmental agencies, government data published from time to time,
6
books, journals, magazines. This data can be used to devise new
researches, or used to throw light on existing researches.
METHODS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Sl. No. Method Description

Here words and images from documents, music, art, film or other media
7 Content Analysis including social media is used to interpret and analyse social life. The
researcher can see what words, images, and symbols are used and in what
context they are used. This information can then be used to analyse and
interpret the underlying culture.

Respondent is given a single word and asked to say whatever words come
8 Word Association test to her/his mind without any delay.

It involves the use of an incomplete sentence which the respondent is

Sentence Completion test asked to complete a short and simple sentence immediately; reveal
attitudes which respondents may be reluctant to disclose
9
The Conditions for a Successful Interview

 Availability of information with the respondent

 Cognition
 Motivation
The Interviewer’s Task

The interviewer’s task has four aspects:

i. locating sample members,
ii. obtaining interviews,
iii. asking questions and
iv. recording the answers.
The Interviewing Errors

 First, errors may arise if the interviewer is unable to establish a

proper rapport with the respondent.
 Errors in interviewing may also arise if the interviewer has
deliberately or inadvertently not followed the instructions.
 Further, if the interviewer gives undue emphasis to a particular
word or a part of the question, it might be suggestive to the
respondent.
 If the interviewer omits any questions in haste, the answers will
not be complete. This will cause an error of omission.
 Finally, the interviewer may commit some error in recording the
responses.
Selection of Interviewers

This applies more in the case of surveys where the interviewers are to
collect data from different respondents. The major characteristics that
an interviewer should possess include:
 The interviewer should be in good health.
 The interviewer should be an extrovert.
 The interviewer should be well dressed and have a pleasing
personality.
 The interviewer must know and understand the local or regional
language.
 An interviewer must be educated and well qualified to conduct the
interview.
 Finally, an interviewer must be capable of communicating with the
respondent.
Training of Interviewers

 Initial training
 Training for individual studies
Supervision of Interviewers

A supervisor’s work should include:

 Gathering and training interviewers on the fundamentals of
interviewing, including application forms.
 Alerting and briefing interviewers for a particular job.
 Allocating territory, in some cases requiring map work of a fairly
detailed nature.
 Carefully studying the first day’s work, and correcting errors.
 Editing all work.
 Validating some of the reports (10 per cent or whatever percentage
is required).
 Keeping careful production records.
 Reviewing time sheets.
 Rendering a detailed bill for the work
Non-response

The term ‘non-response error’ represents a failure to obtain information

from the respondents of the population that were selected for the
sample.
Since non-response error is one of the most serious sources of error
confronting the researcher, the Council of American Survey Research
Organisation (CASRO) has developed a standard definition of response
rate. The definition is:
Number of completed interviews with responding units
Response rate =
Number of eligible responding units in the sample
The two main sources of non-response bias are not-at-homes and
refusals.
Depth Interviews

Unstructured Interview - are not subject to a well-defined

and rigid procedure, and are known as informal interviews.
When a researcher is interested in detailed investigation of
perceptions, attitudes or motivations of the respondents, a
formal or structured interview will not be suitable. For this,
an unstructured interview is more flexible and is thereby
used.
Focus Group Interviewing

In a focus group interviewing method, the interviewer collects a small

number of relatively homogeneous group of consumers for discussion
on a particular subject.
The optimal size of a focus group is usually taken to be about six to
eight people. Any number less than this is insufficient for the focus
group. On the other hand, if the number is, say 10 or 12, it is regarded
as too large.
Conducting the Focus Group Interview

To start a focus group interview in a reasonably sound manner, it is

desirable that the moderator first explains the subject for discussion in
her/his own words. S/he should initiate the discussion and allow the
group interview to proceed spontaneously, without any intervention.
However, when s/he feels that the group discussion has digressed from
its theme, s/he should intervene and bring it back on the track. S/he
may introduce certain stimuli, such as products, packages, pictures or
advertisements, which may stimulate members of the group to
participate in the discussion more actively.
The moderator is like a conductor, orchestrating an improvisation. The
task calls for adeptness and awareness of what is going on, what
people are doing and feeling. It means giving everyone a chance
without taking dull roll calls.
Advantages of Focus Group Interviewing

1. Group interview studies are often fast and cheap; a study based
on three or four group interviews can be conducted in a very short
period.
2. The group interview technique is appropriate for generating
hypotheses; more so in cases when the available information is
scanty.
3. This technique brings the respondent who supplies information
and the client who uses it closer.
4. This technique is quite flexible, which is not the case when a
structured questionnaire is used.
5. The group interviewing technique, like the individual depth
interviewing, is appropriate to handle contingencies.
6. Respondents in a group interview stimulate one another.
Disadvantages and Misuses of Focus Group
Interviewing

1. The technique is used for too many things. It does not indicate how
extensive the attitudes expressed by the participants are.
2. The data are not at all projectable.
3. Much of the results depend on the moderator.
4. Problem relating to recruitment of participants would arise when a
large number of groups are to be formed.
5. Some of the advantages of the focus group technique also lead to
misuses. For example, a manager may use this technique to
support her /his preconceived notions.
Online Versus Offline Focus Group

Basis of difference Online focus groups Offline focus group

Ideally 4 to 6 people 6 to 8 people

Group sample size

1.5 hours to 2 hours 2 hours to 2.5 hours

Duration

All participants are linked through All participants are invited to one place.
Settings webcams.

Nationwide sample Local sample

Sample diversity

Less High
Cost

Yes Not necessary

Technology
requirement
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES

 Word Association Test

 Sentence Completion Test
 Thematic Apperception Test
 Story Completion Test
 Cartoons (blank balloons)
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

There are four inferential processes of analysing qualitative data:

1. Categorisation,
2. Abstraction,
3. Comparison and
4. Refutation that link the final result of research to its data.
LIMITATIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

 Time-consuming process
 Results are not verified in qualitative research
 Labour-intensive approach
 Difficult to investigate causality
 Difficult to generalise the findings of qualitative research
 Small sample size
 Non-representative sample
 No conclusive findings