Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

S < Lc, S = 40 * Cos-1 ((R-M)/R) / D S > Lc, M = Lc* (2S - Lc) / 05/09/2024
8R
 Super Elevation
2

Anybody moving rapidly along a curved path is subject to an

outward reactive force called the centrifugal force.
If the surface is flat, the vehicle is held in the curved path by side
friction between tires and pavement. The total of these friction
forces balances the centrifugal force.
Expressed in terms of the coefficient of friction f and the normal
forces between the pavement and the tires, the relationship is

m *v2/R = (NL + NR)*f = m*g*f

or
f = v2 / ( g * R)
05/09/2024
 3

 In order to resist the outward acting centrifugal force, and to

enable vehicles to round curves at design speed without
discomfort to their occupants, the pavements are “tilted” or
“superelevated” so that the outer edges are higher than the inner
edges.
 This tilting, plus frictional resistance between the tires and the
pavement provides a horizontal resistance to the centrifugal forces
generated by the 2circular movement of the vehicle around a curve.
e + f = V / (127*R)
where:
e = rate of super elevation(m per m)
f = side friction factor (or coefficient of lateral
friction)
V = speed (Km/hr)
R = radius of curvature (m)
05/09/2024
 Attainment of Super Elevation
4

 The transition from a tangent, normal crown section to a curved

superelevated section must be accompanied without any appreciable
reduction in speed and in such a manner as to ensure safety and
comfort to the occupants of the traveling vehicle.
 The normal cambered surface on a straight reach of road is changed
into a superelevated surface into two stages.
 In the first stage, the outer half of the camber is gradually raised
until it is level.
 In the second stage, the surface of the road is rotated about the
centerline of the carriageway, gradually lowering the inner edge and
raising the upper edge, keeping the level of the centerline constant.
05/09/2024
 5

 The distance required for accomplishing the transition from a

normal to a superelevated section, commonly referred to as the
transition runoff, is a function of the design speed and the rate of
superelevation.
 Superelevation is usually started on the tangent at some distance
before the curve starts, and the full superelevation is generally
reached beyond the point of curvature (PC) of the curve.
 In curves with transitions, the superelevation can be attained
within the limits of the spiral.

05/09/2024
 Maximum Super Elevation Value
6

 Practice in this regard varies from country to country.

 Maximum value is controlled by:
 Climatic conditions: frequency & amount of snow/icing
 Terrain condition: flat vs. mountainous
 Area type: rural vs. urban
 Frequency of very slow moving vehicles
 According to Transport Construction Design Enterprise (TCDE),

• emax = 10% AASHTO side friction values

m , coefficient of friction

0.55

• fmax = 0.16 0.50

0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

V, Design Speed (km/hr) 05/09/2024

 Application of Super Elevation
7

 Neutralizing the camber of the road gradually, bringing it in to a

straight line slope
 Increasing the slope gradually until design super-elevation is
attained

05/09/2024
 Super Elevation Diagrams
8

 If with transition,

05/09/2024
 Minimum Length for Super Elevation Attainment
9

 L > 200De

L is normally rounded
up to some convenient
length, such as a
multiple of 20 m.

05/09/2024
 Transition Curves
10

 Transition curves provide a gradual change from the tangent section to the
circular curve and vice versa.
 For most curves, drivers can follow a transition path within the limits of a
normal lane width, and a spiral transition in the alignment is not necessary.
 However, along high-speed roadways with sharp curvature, transition curves
may be needed to prevent drivers from encroaching into adjoining lanes.
 A curve known as the Euler spiral or clothoid is commonly used in highway
design.
 The radius of the spiral varies from infinity at the tangent end to the radius of
the circular arc at the end of the spiral.
 The radius of the spiral at any point is inversely proportional to the distance
from its beginning point.
05/09/2024
Advantages of Transition Curves
11

•Provides an easy-to-follow
path so that centrifugal force
increases and decreases
gradually; lesser danger of
overturning/ side-slipping
•Vehicle could keep to the
middle of lane while traversing
a curve
•Is convenient for the
application of super-elevation
•Improved visual appearance,
no “kinks”
05/09/2024
 Spiral Curve Nomenclature
12
PI: Point of Intersection
TS: Tangent to spiral
SC: Spiral to Circle
CS: Circle to Spiral
ST: Spiral to tangent
Ls: Total length of spiral
Lc: Length of circular curve
qs: Central angle of spiral arc of
length Ls
∆=total deflection angle of the
curve
Ys=tangent offset at SC
X s=
K=abscissa of shifted PC with
reference to TS
05/09/2024
 Spiral Curve Formulae
13

 A² = RcLs
 ᶿs = Ls/2Rc
 Xp = Lp – (Lp⁵/40A⁴) + (Lp⁹/3456A⁸)
 Yp = (Lp/6A²) – (Lp⁷/336A⁶) + (LpꞋꞋ/42240AꞋ°)
 P = Ys – Rc(1 - cos ᶿs)
 K = Xs - Rcsin ᶿs
 Deflection Angle, d = tan-1(Y/X)
 Chord, c² = X² + Y²

05/09/2024
 Exercises
14

1A). A two lane highway with one 3.6m lane in each direction goes
from normal crown with 2% cross slopes to 8% super elevation by
means of a spiral transition curve. Determine the minimum length
of the transition if the difference in grade between the center line
and edge of traveled way is limited to 1/200. Round up to the next
largest 20m interval.
1B). Draw the super elevation diagram for the transition described in
part 1A. The station of the TS is 120 + 00.

05/09/2024
 15

2A). A road Way goes from tangent alignment to a 250m circular

curve by means of 80m long spiral transition curve. The deflection
angle between the tangents is 45ᵒ. Use formulas to compute Xs, Ys,
p and k. Assume that the station of the P.I. measured along the back
tangent is 250 + 00. And compute the stations of TS, SC, CS and
P
ST.
2B). Prepare a table giving coordinates, spiral angles, deflection
angles and chords from the TS at 20m intervals.

05/09/2024
Solved Example
16

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Solution
17

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18

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19

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20

05/09/2024
 Vertical Alignment
21

 Consists of straight sections of the road known as grades, or

tangents, connected by vertical parabolic curves.
 In the establishment of a grade, an ideal situation is one in which
the cut is balanced against the fill without a great deal of borrow or
an excess of cut material to be wasted.
 All earthwork hauls should be moved in a downhill direction if
possible and within a relatively short distance from the origin, due
to the expense of moving large quantities of soil.
 Ideal grades have long distances between points of intersection,
with long curves between grade tangents to provide smooth riding
qualities and good visibility.
05/09/2024
 Grades and Grade Control

22

 Changes of grade from plus to minus should be placed in cuts, and

changes from a minus grade to a plus grade should be placed in fills.
 This will generally give a good design, and it will avoid the
appearance of building hills and producing depressions contrary to
the general existing contours of the land.
 In the analysis of grades and grade control, one of the most important
considerations is the effect of grades on the operating costs of the
motor vehicle.
 An increase in gasoline consumption, a reduction in speed, and an
increase in emissions and noise are obvious when grades are
increased.
05/09/2024
 23

 An economical approach would be to balance the added cost of

grade reduction against the annual costs and impacts of vehicle
operation without grade reduction.
 Minimum grades are governed by drainage conditions.

 Level grades may be used in fill sections in rural areas when

crowned pavements and sloping shoulders can take care of the
pavement surface drainage.
 However, it is preferred that the profile grade be designed to have a
minimum grade of at least 0.3 percent under most conditions in
order to secure adequate drainage.

05/09/2024
 Vertical Curves
24

 Parabolic curve is used almost exclusively in connecting profile

grade tangents.
 The primary reason for the use of this type of curve in vertical road
alignments is the convenient manner in which the vertical offsets
can be computed and the smooth transitions created from tangent to
curve and then back to tangent.

05/09/2024
 Design Criteria for vertical curves

25

 These are the top Criteria

 Provision of minimum stopping sight distance
 Adequate drainage
 Comfortability in operation
 Pleasant appearance

 The first criterion is the only criterion associated with crest vertical
curves, whereas all four criteria are associated with sag vertical
curves.

05/09/2024
 Types of Vertical Curves
26

 Vertical curves are of two types

 CrestCurves
 Sag Curves

05/09/2024
Vertical Curve Layout
27

05/09/2024
Vertical Curve Equations
28

05/09/2024
 Length of Vertical Curves
29

A). Crest Curves:

 For crest curves, the most important consideration in
determining the length of the curve is the sight distance
requirement.

05/09/2024
 30

 AASHTO recommendations:
 For stopping sight distance over crest: h1 = 1.07m and h2 =
0.15m
 For passing sight distance over crest: h1 = 1.07m and h2 = 1.30m
05/09/2024
 31

 The above equations may also be given as under

 Substituting standard values of h1 and h2,

05/09/2024
 32

B). Sag Curves:

 For sag curves, the criteria for determining the length are vehicle
headlight distance, rider comfort, drainage control and general
appearance.
Headlight Sight Distance:

05/09/2024
33

05/09/2024
 34

The above equations may also be given as under

05/09/2024
 35

Comfort Criteria

05/09/2024
 36

Appearance Criteria.
This problem arises because short vertical curves tend to look
like kinks when viewed from a distance.
Appearance standards vary from agency to agency.
Current California standards, for instance, require a minimum
vertical curve length of 60 m where grade breaks are less than 2
percent or design speeds are less than 60 km/h.
Where the grade break is greater than 2 percent and the design
speed is greater than 60 km/h, the minimum vertical curve is
given by L = 2V, where L is the vertical curve length in meters
and V is the design speed in km/h.
05/09/2024
 Sight Distances at Underpass Structures
37

Case 1: S < L

where:
m = C – (h1+h2)/2
C = Vertical clearance distance

05/09/2024
 38

Case 2: S > L

8m
L  2S 
G
• AASHTO recommendations:
• h1 = 1.829m,
• h2 = 0.457m and
• C = 5.182m
05/09/2024
 Exercise
39

1. Compute the minimum length of vertical curve that will provide 220 m
stopping sight distance for a design speed of 110 km/h at the intersection
of a +3.50% grade and a -2.70% grade.
2. Compute the minimum length of vertical curve that will provide 190 m
stopping sight distance for a design speed of 100 km/h at the intersection
of a -2.60% grade and a +2.40% grade.
3. Compute curve elevations and offsets from tangents at 25 m intervals,
including full stations, for a 350 m vertical curve joining a +2.70% grade
with a -1.50% grade. Assume the P.I. is at station 150 + 00 and elevation
25.00 m. Results should be in tabular form, with columns for stations,
tangent elevations, offsets, and curve elevations starting at the BVC and
ending at the EVC of the curve.
4. Plot the profile for the curve data in part 3.
05/09/2024
Solved Example
40

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41

05/09/2024
42

05/09/2024
43

05/09/2024
44

05/09/2024
 Cross Sections
45

 Highway cross sections consist of traveled way, shoulders ,

widenings, medians and drainage channels.
 Shoulders are intended primarily as a safety feature. They
provide for accommodation of stopped vehicles, emergency
use, and lateral support of the pavement.
 Shoulders may be either paved or unpaved.

 Drainage channels may consist of ditches (usually grassed

swales) or of paved shoulders with curbs and gutters.
 The primary consideration in the design of geometric cross
sections for roads is drainage. Design details vary depending
on the type of facility and agency.
05/09/2024
 46

Typical two-lane highway cross section, with ditches.

05/09/2024
 47

Typical two-lane highway cross section, curbed

05/09/2024
 48

Typical divided highway cross section, depressed median, with ditches

05/09/2024
 Chapter 4: Earth work Computations
49

 Earthwork includes all clearing, grubbing, roadway and drainage

excavation, excavation for structures, embankments, borrow, overhaul,
machine grading, sub grade scarifying and rock fills.
 The quantity and cost of earthwork are calculated in terms of cubic meters
of excavation in its original position on the basis of cross-section notes
from field measurements.
 Modern grading operations are carried on by power equipments including
power shovels, bulldozers, blade graders, rollers, etc.
 Excavated materials are usually of three types.
(1) common excavation,
(2) loose rock, or
(3) solid rock. 05/09/2024
 Shrinkage and swelling
50

 When earth is excavated and hauled to form an embankment, the

freshly excavated material generally increases in volume.
 However, during the process of building the embankment it is
compacted, so that the final volume is less than when in its original
condition.
 This difference in volume is usually defined as “shrinkage”. In
estimating earthwork quantities, it is necessary to make allowance
for this factor.
 The amount of shrinkage varies with the soil type and the depth of
the fill. An allowance of 10 to 15 percent is frequently made for
high fills and 20 to 25 percent for shallow fills.
 The shrinkage may be as high as 40 or 50 percent for some soils.

05/09/2024
 51

% sh. = ( 1 – (γB / γC) ) * 100

Where: γB = Bank unit weight

γC = Compacted unit weight

% sw. = ((γB / γL ) - 1 ) * 100

Where: γB = Bank unit weight

γL = Loose unit weight

05/09/2024
 Cross-Sections and Templates
52

 To determine earth excavation and embankment requirements by

manual means, a section outline of the proposed highway,
commonly referred to as a template section, is placed on the original
ground cross-section.
 Then the areas in cut and the areas in fill are determined; and the
volumes between the sections are computed.

05/09/2024
 Cross section data format
53

A typical cross section

05/09/2024
 Volume of Earthwork
54

1st. Determine the end areas of each template section.

2nd. Calculate average areas between successive template sections.
3rd. Calculate volume of each section.
4th. Sum up all the volumes to get the net earth work volume.
Station Length, m End Area, sq.m. Average End Volume,
Area, sq.m. cub.m.
034 + 456 -
034 + 467 11
034 + 484 17
034 + 503 19
034 + 524 21
Net Volume = ∑ volumes

05/09/2024
 Haul and Overhaul
55

 In grading contracts for roads it is usually fixed that the contractor

shall be paid a certain price per cubic meter for excavating, hauling,
and dumping the material, regardless of distance hauled, provided it
does not exceed a specified limit called free haul.
 The free haul distance may be as low as 150m and as high as 900m
or more.
 If there is an overhaul on some of the material, that is, if the
distance from excavation to embankment is beyond the free haul
limit, then an extra charge may be allowed.
 A mass diagram is helpful in determining the amount of overhaul
and the most economical distribution of the excavated material.

05/09/2024
 Limit of Economic Haul
56

 When there are long hauls, it may be more economical to waste and
borrow materials rather than pay for the cost of overhauling.
 Equating the cost of excavation plus overhaul to the cost of
excavation from both the roadway and borrow pit, one can estimate
the limit of economic haul for making the embankment.
 Let
 c = cost of roadway excavation per cubic meter
 b = cost of borrow per cubic meter
 h = cost of overhaul, on the bases of 1m3 per station
 x = economical length of overhaul

05/09/2024
 57

 Over haul cost = Waste and borrow cost

 Limit of economic distance, then, can be determined by adding free

haul distance to the economic haul (X).
LED = FHD + X

05/09/2024
 Mass Diagram
58

 A mass diagram is a graphical representation of the amount of

earthwork and embankment involved in a project and the manner in
which the earth is to be moved.
 Its horizontal or x-axis represents distance and is usually expressed
in meters or stations. It is drawn to the same horizontal scale as the
profile.
 The vertical or y-axis represents the cumulative quantity of
earthwork in cubic meters. The quantity of excavation on the mass
diagram is considered positive, and embankment as negative.
 Preliminary to drawing the mass curve it is convenient to tabulate
the cumulative volumes of cuts and fills at each station.
05/09/2024
 59

 The mass diagram allows a highway engineer to determine direction

of haul and the quantity of earth taken from or hauled to any
location.
 It shows “balance points”, the stations between which the volume of
excavation (after adjustment for “shrinkage” or “swell”) and
embankment are equal.
AC = free-haul distance;
HJ – AC = overhaul distance;
BB = free-haul volume;
A’A = C’C = overhaul
volume;
OD = length of balance.
05/09/2024
 60

 The average length of haul of the solidity from o to a to make the

fill from c to d is the distance between the centers of gravity of cut o
to a and fill c to d.
 The gravity lines are found as follows: Bisect AA’ at M and draw a
horizontal line intersecting the mass curve at H and J. These points
H and J are assumed to be vertically below the desired centers of
gravity. Therefore the average haul is given by the length of line HJ,
and the overhaul is this distance HJ less the free haul distance AC.
The overhaul distance (in stations) multiplied by the net volume
gives the station-volumes of overhaul.

05/09/2024
 61

 It should be noted that the foregoing graphical method of

determining the center of gravity of the masses in cut and fill is
inaccurate when there is abruptness in the mass curve. In such
cases, a more accurate method is to divide the volume in parts and
take moments about a vertical line of reference just as is done in
finding the center of gravity of a system of forces.
 The mass diagram may be used to indicate the most economical
procedure for disposing of excavated material, what part of it should
be moved forward or backward, and whether borrowing and wasting
are advisable.

05/09/2024
 62
 Thus if the balance line OD is continued horizontally to point X, it will be
seen that the cuts and fills from o to f are balanced, but the solidity
represented by the ordinate at G is excess cut (from f to g) which may be
carried forward, backward, or wasted.
 If the project ends at point g or if there are no fills immediately ahead,
then this excavated material should be carried backward to help make the
fill from b to c (it being downhill and within the free-haul limit), while an
equivalent amount of volume from the cut o to a would be wasted, thus
reducing the station-volume of overhaul.

05/09/2024
 Example
63

The following are cross section notes for a transition from cut to fill. The
road bed is 12 m width in cut and 14 m width in fill. Compute :
A. The volumes of cut and fill by the average end area method.
B. The net amount of waste or borrow, allowing 16% shrinkage.
C. Limit of economic distance
D. Free haul volume
E. Over haul volume N.B. Assume:
 Free haul distance = 200
F. Total project cost • Excavation cost including free haul = 70
br/cub.m.
• Borrow including hauling = 80 br/cub.m.
• Over haul cost = 0.65 br/cub.m./ sta.
• Cost of waste = 55 br/cub.m.
• Length of one station = 20 m.
05/09/2024
64

05/09/2024
 Solution
1st. Determine the end areas of each template
65 section.
2nd. Calculate average areas between successive template sections.
3rd. Calculate volume of each section and apply corrections for swelling &
shrinkage.
4th. Sum up all the volumes to get the net earth work volume.
5th. Draw mass diagram (i.e. station vs. cumulative volumes)

05/09/2024
 66

 After drawing the mass diagram to a selected scale, we can read the
free haul volume, and over haul volumes corresponding to a given
free haul distance, which usually is part of contract document.

05/09/2024
Chapter 5: Highway Drainage
67

05/09/2024
 68

 Provision of sufficient drainage is an important factor in the location

and geometric design of highways.
 Drainage facilities on any highway or street should adequately
accommodate the flow of water away from the surface of the
pavement to properly designed channels.
 Inadequate drainage will eventually result in serious damage to the
highway structure.
 In addition, traffic may be slowed by accumulated water on the
pavement, and accidents may occur as a result of hydroplaning and
loss of visibility from splash and spray.

05/09/2024
 Sources of water
69

 The highway engineer is concerned primarily with two sources of

water; surface water and ground water.
 Surface water occurs as rain or snow. Some of this is absorbed into
the soil, and the remainder remains on the surface of the ground and
should be removed from the highway pavement.
 Drainage for this source of water is referred to as surface drainage.
 Ground water is that which flows in underground streams. This
may become important in highway cuts or at locations where a high
water table exists near the pavement structure.
 Drainage for this source is referred to as subsurface drainage.

05/09/2024
 Surface Drainage
70

 Include all means by which surface water is removed from the

pavement and right of way of the highway or street.
 A properly designed highway surface drainage system should
effectively intercept all surface and watershed runoff and direct this
water into adequately designed channels and gutters.
 Water seeping through cracks in the highway riding surface and
shoulder areas into underlying layers of the pavement may result in
serious damage to the highway pavement.
 The major source of water for this type of intrusion is surface runoff.

 An adequately designed surface drainage system will therefore

minimize this type of damage.
05/09/2024
 Continued
71

 The surface drainage system for rural highways should include

sufficient transverse and longitudinal slopes on both the pavement
and shoulder to ensure positive runoff and longitudinal channels
(ditches), culverts, and bridges to provide for the discharge of the
surface water to the natural waterways.
 Storm drains and inlets are also provided on the median of divided
highways in rural areas.
 In urban areas, the surface drainage system also includes enough
longitudinal and transverse slopes, but the longitudinal drains are
usually underground pipe drains designed to carry both surface runoff
and ground water.
 Curbs and gutters also may be used in urban and rural areas to control
street runoff, although they are more frequently used in urban05/09/2024
areas.
 Transverse Slopes
72
 The main objective for providing slopes in the transverse direction is to
facilitate the removal of surface water from the pavement surface.
 This is achieved by crowning the surface at the center of the pavement,
thereby providing cross slopes on either side of the centerline or
providing a slope in one direction across the pavement width.
 The need for high cross slopes to facilitate drainage is somewhat in
conflict with the need for relatively flat cross slopes for driver comfort.
 Selection of a suitable cross slope is therefore usually a negotiation


between the two requirements.
7

 It has been determined that cross slopes of 2 percent or less do not

significantly affect driver comfort
05/09/2024
 Longitudinal Slopes
73

 A minimum gradient in the longitudinal direction of the highway is

required to obtain adequate slope in the longitudinal channels,
particularly at cut sections.
 Slopes in longitudinal channels should generally not be less than 0.2
percent for highways in very flat terrain.
 Although zero percent grades may be used on uncurbed pavements
with adequate cross slopes, a minimum of 0.5 percent is
recommended for curbed pavements.
 This may be reduced to 0.3 percent on suitably crowned high-type
pavements constructed on firm ground.

05/09/2024
 Longitudinal Channels
74

 Longitudinal channels (ditches) are constructed along the sides of

the highway to collect the surface water that runs off from the
pavement surface, subsurface drains, and other areas of the highway
right of way.
 When a highway pavement is located at a lower level than the
adjacent ground, such as in cuts, water is prevented from flowing on
the pavement by constructing a longitudinal drain (intercepting
drain) at the top of the cut to intercept the water.
 The water collected by the longitudinal ditches is then transported to
a drainage channel and next to a natural waterway or retention pond.

05/09/2024
 Curbs and Gutters
75

 Curbs and gutters can be used to control drainage in addition to other

functions, which include preventing the encroachment of vehicles on
adjacent areas and delineating pavement edges.
 Curbs and gutters are used more frequently in urban areas,
particularly in residential areas, where they are used in conjunction
with storm sewer systems to control street runoff.
 When it is necessary to provide relatively long continuous sections of
curbs in urban areas, the inlets to the storm sewers must be designed
adequately (for both size and spacing) to prevent impounding of large
amounts of water on the pavement surface.

05/09/2024
 Run off Determination
76

 The amount of runoff for any combination of intensity and duration

depends on the type of surface.
 For example, runoff will be much higher on rocky or bare impervious
slopes, roofs, and pavements than on cultivated land or heavy forest.
 The highway engineer is therefore interested in determining the
proportion of rainfall that remains as runoff.
 This determination is not easy, since the runoff rate for any given
area during a single rainfall is not usually constant.
 We will look at the two commonly used methods among the various
methods to determine run off.

05/09/2024
 Rational Method
77

 This method is based on the premise that the rate of runoff for any
storm depends on the average storm intensity, the size of the
drainage area, and the type of drainage area surface.
 Note that for any given storm, the rainfall intensity is not usually
constant over a large area, nor during the entire storm’s duration.
 The rational formula therefore uses the theory that, for a rainfall of
average intensity (I) falling over an impervious area of size (A), the
maximum rate of runoff at the outlet to the drainage area (Q) occurs
when the whole drainage area is contributing to the runoff.
 This requires that the storm duration be at least equal to the time of
concentration, which is the time required for the runoff to flow from
the farthest point of the drainage area to the outlet.
05/09/2024
 78

 This condition is not always satisfied in practice, particularly in large

drainage areas.
 It is therefore customary for the rational formula to be used for
relatively small drainage areas not greater than 200 acres.
 The rational formula is given as:

Q  0.00278  CIA
C1 A1  C2 A2  
Where: C
•
A1  A2  
Q = Runoff (m3/sec)
• C = Coefficient, representing ratio of runoff to rainfall
• I = Intensity of rainfall (mm/hr) for a duration equal to concentration time.
• A = Catchment area tributary to the design location, ha
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 Runoff Coefficient
79

 The runoff coefficient (C) is the variable of the Rational Method least
susceptible to precise determination and requires judgment and
understanding on the part of the designer.
 A typical coefficient represents the integrated effects of many
drainage basin parameters, such as the effects of soil groups, land
use, and average land slope.

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 Rainfall Intensity
80

 Runoff is obtained by considering expected sever storm.

 Return period of 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, and 100 years
 Quantity of runoff depends on intensity and duration.
 Duration = Time of Concentration
 The time required for water from the remotest place to reach a
specific point on the drainage system.
 =T +T
1 2

• T1= over land flow time

• T2= time of flow in the longitudinal drain

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Concentration time for over land flow (T1)
81
The concentration time for the
over land flow (T1) is a
function of the flow velocity,
which in turn depends on water
course slope and the type of
land cover.
The flow velocity for different
types of land covers and slopes
can be read from this chart.
Then, the flow time, T1 is
given as equal to Width
divided by flow velocity.

Watercourse slope vs. Velocity Chart

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Over land flow time chart
82
The concentration time
for the over land flow
(T1) can alternatively be
taken from this chart

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Concentration time for the longitudinal drain (T2)
83

 The time of concentration for the longitudinal drain can be

calculated using the following equation.

T2

• Where:
• L= length of the longitudinal drain(km)
• Sav = average slope (m/m)

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 84
 Ethiopia can be divided into the following hydrological regions
displaying similar rainfall patterns. The information is reviewed with
the current available data up to 2010, and future data may indicate the
need for a further refinement in both values and regional boundaries.

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Intensity – Duration – Frequency Curve for Regions A1
85

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Intensity – Duration – Frequency Curve for Regions A2
86

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Intensity – Duration – Frequency Curve for Regions A3
87

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Intensity – Duration – Frequency Curve for Regions A4
88

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Intensity – Duration – Frequency Curve for Regions B1
89

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Intensity – Duration – Frequency Curve for Regions B2
90

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Intensity – Duration – Frequency Curve for Regions C
91

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Intensity – Duration – Frequency Curve for Regions D
92

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 Open Channel Design
93

Triangular ditch Rectangular ditch Trapezoidal ditch

 An important design consideration is that the flow velocity in the
channel should not be so low as to cause deposits of transported material
nor so high as to cause erosion of the channel.
 The velocity that will satisfy this condition usually depends on the shape
and size of the channel, the type of lining in the channel, the quantity of
water being transported, and the type of material suspended in the water .
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 94

 The most appropriate channel gradient range to produce the required

velocity is between 1 percent and 5 percent.
 For most types of linings, sedimentation is usually a problem when
slopes are less than 1 percent, and excessive erosion of the lining will
occur when slopes are higher than 5 percent.
 Attention also should be paid to the point at which the channel
discharges into the natural waterway.
 For example, if the drainage channel at the point of discharge is at a
much higher elevation than the natural waterway, then the water
should be discharged through a spillway or chute to prevent erosion.

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 Design Principles
95

 The hydraulic design of a drainage ditch for a given storm entails the
determination of the minimum cross-sectional area of the ditch that
will accommodate the flow due to that storm and prevent water from
overflowing the sides of the ditch.
 The most commonly used formula for this purpose is Manning’s
formula, which assumes uniform steady flow in the channel and gives
the mean velocity in the channel as:
1
V  R 2 / 3 S 1/ 2
n Where:
• V= mean velocity (m/sec)
Q V  A • R= hydraulic radius (m)= Area/wetted perimeter
• S=slope of the channel (m/m)
• n=Manning’s roughness coefficient
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Design Chart for OC Ditch
96

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 Example
97

Surface water from a road side is drained to a longitudinal side

drain. The contributing areas for the drain are 3.6 m width
pavement, 1.2 m width shoulder 5 m width adjoining land to the
road and a grass covered reserved land of 30 m width with a cross
slope of 2% towards the ditch. The runoff coefficients are given
below. The length of land contributing to this side drain is 600 m.
The average slope of the bed of the channel is 1.5 %.
Given: CPavement = 0.85
Cshoulder = 0.65
CReserved land = 0.45
CAdjoining land = 0.45

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 Reading Assignment
98

Subsurface Drainage

Chapter 6: Intersection and Interchanges

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