HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

ECG2033

CHAPTER 3
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
The term GEOMETRIC DESIGN pertains to:
i) Dimension
ii) Arrangements

Geometric design effect highway:

i) Operation
ii) Safety
iii) Capacity
The goal is to provide:
i) Safe
ii) Efficient
iii) Economic system

Features to be considered are:

i) Horizontal curvature
ii) Vertical curvature
iii) Cross section element
iv) Highway grade
v) the layout of intersection
The important design factors which control
the geometric element are:
i) Design speed
ii) Design hourly volume
iii) Design vehicle
iv) Topography
v) Control of access
vi) Environmental & other factors
ROAD ALIGNMENT
A major factors in determining how safe & efficient it
will meet traffic demands
It depends on:
i) Topography
ii) Nature of traffic
iii)Functional use of road
Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal curve: A curve in plan to provide change in
direction based on the central line of

the road
In the design of horizontal curve it is necessary to
establish the proper relation between:
i) Design speed
ii) Curvature
iii) Super elevation
iv) Side friction
Tangent or straight section of highway are connected
with circular curves to create a flowing & smooth
alignment.

Most high-speed highways have long tangent

distances that are connected by very gradual long
sweeping curves.

When a curve traverses a horizontal curve, the

centrifugal force acts horizontally outwards through
the center of gravity of the vehicle.
Centrifugal forces, P
P = Wv2 Where; W = weight of vehicles (kg)

gR v = speed of vehicles (m/s)

g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
R = radius of circular curve (m)

Centrifugal Ratio (C.R):

The ratio of centrifugal force to the weight of
vehicles, P/W
Inner side G Outer side

h
W

b
RA RB

Force Acting on Vehicle

Centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a
horizontal curves has 2 effects:
1) Tendency to overturns
The overturning moment (P x h) is resisted by
restoring moment, (W x b/2)

Ph = W x (b/2)
P/W ≤ b/2h
Where;
h = height of the center of gravity above the road surface
b = wheel track of the vehicle
When the centrifugal ratio attains the values of b/2h.
There is a danger of overturning.
2 ) Tendency to skid laterally
-Lateral skid;
P = f (RA + RB)
=fW
P/W ≤ f
Where;
f = coefficient of the lateral friction
RA + RB = normal reactions at the wheels A & B such that R A + RB equal to the weight
of the vehicle.
To avoid overturning & lateral skidding, centrifugal
ratio should always be less than:

P/W < b/2h ; P/W < f

Transition (Spiral) Curves
A vehicles cannot instantaneously change from a
straight path to a circular one of constant radius
Thus a transition curve employed which changing the
radius from infinity at the start to that of the circular
one at the end.
It is provided to adjoin between a straight road with
circular curve of a road.
Purpose:
i) To provide the gradual change in speed as vehicle
transverse from straight to circular curve.
ii) To provide gradual steering of a vehicle.
iii) To provide a gradual build-up of super-elevation
for safety & comfort.

The degree of curvature varies from zero at the tangent

end of the spiral transition curve with the straight to
the degree of the circular arc at the circular curve end.
Types of transition curves:
i) Spiral curve
ii) Lemniscate curve
iii) Cubic parabola curve

Circular
n Tra
io nsi
s it tio
an n
Tr
R
R

Strai
t
Straigh

ght
Compound curve
Consist of 1 circular curve & 2 transition curves.
Calculations:
1) Length of transition curve, LT
LT = V 3 (m)
46.7qR

Where;
R = radius
q = radial acceleration
2) Length of circular curve, LC

LC = R (θ - 2φ) x π/180 (m)

φ = LT/2R x 180/π (degree)

Where;
θ = degree of curvature for circular curve
φ = degree of curvature for transition curve

3) Total length of road alignment, L

L = 2LT + LC
Vertical Alignment
It consists of a series of gradients connected by vertical
curves
Gradients are normally expressed as a percentages, i.e :
vertical rise for each 100m of horizontal distance.
By convention, they are considered to be positive when
ascending & negative when descending.
Max. gradients are established by reference to:
i. Vehicle performance
ii. Functional purpose of the route.
Vertical curvature
A change from one gradient to another is affected by the use of vertical curves.
The design is based on:
i. Type of curves
ii. Sight distances
iii. Riding comfort
iv. Drainage
v. Aesthetic considerations
Several types used:
i. cubic parabola
ii. Simple parabola
iii. Circular arc
The length of vertical curves should be as long as possible & above the
minimum values for the design speed where economically feasible.
Superelevation
Def : The raise of the outer edge of the pavement in
order to counteract the effect or C.R and to reduce the
tendency of the vehicle to overturn or skid.

Centrifugal force acting on the vehicle tends to cause an

outward skidding away from the center of the curve.

In order to counteract the effect of C.F to reduce the

tendency of vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer edge of
the pavement is raised with the respect to the inner
edge.
Analysis of the forces acting on the vehicle as it moves
around a curve indicates that theoretical
superelevation is:

e + f = v2/gR Where;
v = speed (m/s)
e + f = V /127R
2
V = speed (km/hr)
Minimum safe radius can be calculated from the
standard curve formula:

Rmin = V2/127 (e + f )
Derivation of superelevation:
y
Fy

P
x
fFy
∂

∑Fx = 0 ; + -
f Fy + W sin∂ - Pcos ∂ = 0 --------------(1)
∑Fy = 0 ; + -
Fy - W cos∂ - Psin ∂ = 0 --------------(2)
At vertical condition, sin ∂ is too small & can be ignored
so,
Fy – W cos∂ - Psin∂ = 0
Fy = W cos∂ --------------------(3)

Substitute (3) into (1)

f(W cos ∂) + Wsin ∂ - P cos ∂ = 0
Pcos ∂ = fWcos ∂ + W sin ∂ -----------------(4)
Devide (4) by Wcos ∂

Pcos ∂/Wcos ∂ = fWcos∂ / Wcos∂ + Wsin∂/Wcos∂

P/W = f + tan∂ ---------------(5)

As we known,
P/W = V2 / gR = centrifugal ratio
V2/gR = f + tan∂

Where,
f = lateral friction
tan ∂ = e
So,
V2 /gR = f + e

Standardized the units,

V in km/hr R=m
G = 9.81 m/s2

V2 km2/hr2 / [(9.81 m/s2 x m) x (1km/1000m) x

(1km/1000m) x (3600s/1hr) x (3600/1hr)]

V2 /127gR = e + f ----------proved
Hands- off speed,VHO
Def : The speed at which the vehicle is balanced by
superelevation.
At this speed, vehicles maintains course without

steering
Thus, there is no friction force, f & C.R is
balanced by super-elevation
DoT UK recommends that superelevation balance
40% of C.R
 e/(e + f) = 0.4

Derivation of VHO :
From the horizontal curve formula :

e + f = V2 / 127 R

R = V2 / 127 (e + f)
---------------(1)
Neglecting the friction :
R = VHO 2 / 127e -------------(2)

Let;
e / (e + f) = 0.4
Substitute (2) into (1)
VHO 2 / (127 e) = V 2 / [127 (e + f)]

VHO 2 = V 2 x 127e / 127 (e + f)

= V 2 e / (e +f)

= V 2 x 0.4

VHO = 0.63 V --------------proved

Example 1
A simple circular curve of a single carriageway is to be designed
with a design speed of 110 km/hr. The super elevation on a circular
curve is 5.8%, that balances 40% of the centrifugal ratio, the angle
of intersection is 500 and the radial rate of acceleration is 0.4 m/s2.
Calculate:

i) Hands off speed

ii) Radius of the curve
iii) Length of transition curve
iv) Total length of the curve road alignment

(12 marks)
Tutorial 6

a) A simple circular curve for a dual carriageway road is to be

designed for a design speed of 110km/hr. The
superelevation, e on the circular curve is 0.075, f is the coefficient
of side friction, e/e+f of the centrifugal ratio is 45%, the angle of
intersection,θ is 550 and the radial acceleration, q is 0.35 m/s2.
Calculate:
i) Radius of curve
ii) Hands-off speed
iii) Length of transition curve
iv) Total length of road alignment

(10 marks)
b) With the aid of sketch, illustrate the forces acting on a moving vehicle and derive
the following equation for a vehicle movement along a circular, superelevated
path:

e + f = V2/127R

Where:
e = the superelevation
f = Coefficient of side friction
V = the vehicle speed
R = the radius of curvature

Given an instance in which a vehicle is travelling at a hand-off speed

VHO. Revise the afore-mentioned equation

(12 marks)
[April 2009 Q3(b)]
Sight Distance
Def ; The length or highway visible ahead to the driver
of a vehicle.

 Safe highways must be designed to give drivers a

sufficient distance of clear vision ahead so that can
avoid hitting unexpected obstacles & can pass slower
vehicles without danger.
Criteria for measuring S.D :
1 – Height of driver eye : The eyes of the average
driver in a passenger vehicle are considered
to be 0.92m (3.5ft) above the road surface.

2 – Height of object : A height of object of 0.15m

(6”) is assumed for measuring stopping sight
distance & the height of object for passing sight
distance is 1.32 m ( 4.25ft) both measured from the
road surface.
Stopping sight distance
Def : Minimum distance required to
stop the vehicle travelling at or near the
design speed before it reaches an
objects (vehicles or other objects) in its
paths.
Minimum stopping sight distance:
Is based on the sum of 2 distance:
1 – The distance traveled from the time the object is
sighted to the instant the brakes are applied.
2- The distance required for stopping vehicle after the
brakes are applied.
Perception time – the time required for a driver to
realize that brakes must be applied.
Brake reaction time also depends on several factors
including the skill of the driver, the type of the
problem,etc.
Total reaction time – the time taken from the instant
the object is visible to the driver to the instant the
brakes are effectively applied.

Total reaction time = perception time + brake reaction time

Design speed Min. Stopping

(km/hr) Sight Distance (m)

120 285
100 205
80 140
60 85
50 65
40 45
30 30
20 20
Passing/overtaking Sight Distance
Def: When the sight distance is long enough to enable
a vehicle to overtakes & pass another vehicle on a two-
way lane highway without interference from an
oncoming vehicle.

The minimum passing sight distance for two lane

highway is determined as the sum of:

d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 = OSD
d1 = time taken by a vehicle while its driver decides
whether it is safe to pass the vehicle in front.

d1 = Vb x t
Where; Vb = vehicle speed which is travelling

d2 = time taken by the overtaking vehicle in carrying

out the actual passing maneuver.

d2 = Vb x T
Where; T = Time taken during the overtaken.

T = √4S / a
d3 = time between the overtaking vehicle & oncoming
vehicle at the instant the overtaking vehicle has
returns to its own lane. Normally called safety
dimension.

d3 = 2 S
Where; S = distance of travelling during the overtaking

S = 0.7Vb + 6
d4 = time taken by the overtaking vehicle at the design
speed of the road while actual overtaking
maneuver taking place.

d4 = Vt x T
Where; Vt = vehicle speed which is overtaking

d1 d2 d3 d4

Components of Passing Sight Distance

Example
1) A car travelling at a speed 110 km/hr overtakes a lorry
tarvelling at 60km/hr. If the acceleration of the car is
2.0 m/s2 and the time taken, t = 2 sec, determine the
safe overtaking sight distance.

(10 marks)
Tutorial 6
A car travelling at a speed of 90km/hr overtakes a lorry
travelling at 50 km/hr. If the acceleration of the car is
2.0 m/s2 and the time taken t= 2 sec, determine the safe
overtaking sight distance
(10 marks)
Braking distance
d= v2/(2fg) = V2 / 254 f
where;
d = braking distance
v = vehicle velocity when the brakes are applied

(m/s or ft/s)
V = vehicle velocity (km/hr)
g = acceleration of gravity
f = coefficient of friction between tires &
roadway
It is assumed that the friction force is uniform through
the braking period (the fact is it varies as some power
of velocity)
Physical factors affecting coefficient of friction is:
i) condition and pressure of tires
ii) type and condition of the road surface
iii) climate condition such as rain, snow, and ice.
Skidding resistance
Definition:
The friction developed between the area of tire in
contact with the road surface control the force
developed during driving maneuvers such as steering,
acceleration & braking.

Skidding occurs when the limiting friction between

the tires & the road surface is exceeded.
Skid resistance varies considerably with weather, being
low in wet surface.
On wet roads, the film of water tends to impede the
contact between tire & road.
Any fine dust become slippery after long dry spell.
Topography
Influenced road design & its geometric element such as alignment,
gradient, sight distance & cross-section.
3 groups of topography profile:
i) Flat
The naturals ground, cross slopes are generally
below 3%
ii) Rolling
The naturals ground, cross slopes are generally 3% -
25%
iii) Mountainous
The naturals ground, cross slopes in a mountainous
terrain are generally above 25%
Drainage systems
Importance of highway surface & subsurface drainage:
i) Moisture (water) in soil sub-grade may cause
considerable instability thus lead to pavement
failure to the sub-grade
ii) Water can cause reduction in strength of many
pavement materials like stabilized soil.
iii) Erosion of soil from the unsurface roads & slopes of
embankment due to surface water.
iv) Surface may reduce the tire-road interface contact,
which
v) Variation in moisture contents
Surface drainage system
Definition:
Measures taken to control the flow of surface water.
Should be design to remove all surface water effectively &
economically.
Design are logically divided into three phases:
1) An estimate of the quantity of water that may be
expected
2) The hydraulic design of each element of the system
3) The comparison of alternative drainage system
(materials & other variable to select the most
economically system)
Subsurface drainage system
Definition:
Measurement taken to control the flow of groundwater
Function- to prevent damage cause by water.
Sub-drainage is related to the control of groundwater
& necessary part of the complete drainage system.
Material used are include:
i) Vitrified clay pipe
ii) Porous concrete pipe
iii) Perforated corrugated metal pipe
Purpose of sub-drains:
1) Control of seepage or side-hill locations
2) Lowering the groundwater table as in swampy
areas
3) Base & shallow sub-grade drainage
END OF CHAPTER 3…