Types of Data and Analysis

Hypothesis Testing Procedures
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Testing
Testing
Procedures
Procedures
Param
Parametric
etric Nonparam
Nonparametric
etric
WWilcoxon
ilcoxon Kruskal-W
Rank Kruskal-Wallis
allis
Rank Sum
Sum H-Test
H-Test
Test
Test
One-W
One-Way
ay
ZZ Test
Test tt Test
Test ANOVA
ANOVA
Many More Tests Exist!
Corresponding
Parametric Test Purpose of test
Nonparametric test
Mann-Whitney U test;
t test for independent Compares two
Wilcoxon rank-sum
samples independent samples
test
Wilcoxon matched pairs Examines a set of

Paired t test
signed-rank test differences
Assesses the linear

Pearson correlation Spearman rank
association between
coefficient correlation coefficient
two variables.
One way analysis of Kruskal-Wallis analysis Compares three or more

variance (F test) of variance by ranks groups
Compares groups
Two way analysis of Friedman Two way classified by two
variance analysis of variance
different factors
Types of Data and Analysis
Nominal
Ordinal
Non-parametric
Discrete
Parametric
Continuous
Types of Data
Nominal: No numerical value
Ordinal: Order or rank
Discrete: Counts
Continuous: Interval, ratio
Nominal Data
- Non numerical value
- Blood grouping: A, B, AB, O
- Grades in PHL 541: A+
- Urates in urine: ++, +++, +

Ordinal Data
Items on an ordinal scale are set into some kind of order by their
position on the scale. This may indicate such as temporal position,
superiority, etc.
The order of items is often defined by assigning numbers to them to

show their relative position. Letters or other sequential symbols may
also be used as appropriate.
You cannot do arithmetic with ordinal numbers -- they show sequence

only.
Example
• The first, third and fifth person in a race.
• Pay bands in an organization, as denoted by A, B, C and D.

Discrete Data
• A type of data is discrete if there are only a finite number of values possible or
if there is a space on
• the number line between each 2 possible values.
• Exmple. A 5 question quiz is given in PHL 541 class. The number of correct
answers on a student's quiz is an example of discrete data. The number of
correct answers would have to be one of the following : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5.
There are not an infinite number of values, therefore this data is discrete. Also,
if we were to draw a number line and place each possible value on it, we
would see a space between each pair of values.
• Exmple. In order to obtain a taxi license in Riyadh, a person must pass a

written exam regarding different locations in the city. How many times it would
take a person to pass this test is also an example of discrete data. A person
could take it once, or twice, or 3 times, or 4 times, or… . So, the possible
values are 1, 2, 3, … . There are infinitely many possible values, but if we
were to put them on a number line, we would see a space between each pair
of values.
• Discrete data usually occurs in a case where there are only a certain number
of values, or when we are counting something (using whole numbers).
Continuous Data
• Continuous data makes up the rest of numerical data. This is a
type of data that is usually associated with some sort of physical
measurement.
• Example. The height of trees at a nursery is an example of

continuous data. Is it possible for a tree to be 76.2" tall? Sure.
How about 76.29"? Yes. How about 76.2914563782"? Yes.
• One general way to tell if data is continuous is to ask yourself if it is

possible for the data to take on values that are fractions or decimals.
If your answer is yes, this is usually continuous data.
• Example. The length of time it takes for a light bulb to burn out is an
example of continuous data. Could it take 800 hours? How about
800.7? 800.7354? The answer to all 3 is yes
Classify each set of data as
discrete or continuous.
1) The number of suitcases lost by an airline.
2) The height of corn plants.
3) The number of ears of corn produced.
5) The time it takes for a car battery to die.
6) The production of tomatoes by weight.

Answers
1) Discrete: The number of suitcases lost must be a whole
number.
2) Continuous: The height of corn plants can take on

infinitely many values (any decimal is possible).
3) Discrete: The number of ears of corn must be a whole

number.
4) Continuous: The amount of time can take on infinitely

many values (any decimal is possible).
5) Continuous: The weight of the tomatoes can take on

infinitely many values (any decimal is possible).
What is a parameter and why
should I care?
Most statistical tests, like the t test, assume some kind of underlying
distribution, like the normal distribution
If you know the mean and the standard deviation of a normal distribution then
you know how to calculate probabilities
Means and standard deviations are called Parameters; all theoretical

distributions have parameters.
Statistical tests that assume a distribution and use

parameters are called parametric tests
Statistical tests that don't assume a distribution or use

parameters are called non-parametric tests
Parametric Test Procedures
1- Involve Population Parameters

Example: Population Mean
2- Require Interval Scale or Ratio Scale

Whole Numbers or Fractions
Example: Height in Inches (72, 60.5, 54.7)
3- Have Stringent Assumptions

Example: Normal Distribution
Nonparametric Test Procedures
A nonparametric test is a hypothesis test

that does not require any specific
conditions about the shape of the
populations or the value of any population
parameters.
Tests are often called “distribution free” tests.

Why non-parametric statistics?
Need to analyse ‘Crude’ data (nominal, -ordinal)
Data derived from small samples
Data that do not follow a normal distribution
Data of unknown distribution

Wilcoxon rank sum test
(or the Mann-Whitney U test)
In statistics, the Mann-Whitney U test (also called the

Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon (MWW), Wilcoxon rank-
sum test, or Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test) is a
non-parametric test for assessing whether two
samples of observations come from the same
distribution.
It requires the two samples to be, independent and the

observations to be ordinal or continuous
measurements, i.e. one can at least say, of any two
observations, which is the greater.
It is one of the best-known non-parametric
significance tests.
It was proposed initially by Wilcoxon (1945), for

equal sample sizes, and extended to arbitrary
sample sizes and in other ways by Mann and
Whitne (1947).
MWW is virtually identical in performing an

ordinary parametric two-sample t test on the
data after ranking over the combined samples.
As the one-way ANOVA is an extension of the
two independent groups t-test,
The Kruskal-Wallis test is an extension of the
Mann-W hitney U test.
The Kruskal-Wallis test handles k-independent

groups of samples.
Like the Mann-Whiteny U test, this test uses

ranks.
Chisquare
Chisquare
 Comparisons between proportions or percentages
 Research questions about two or more separate or

independent groups
 Research questions about two dependent or

correlated groups

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Hypothesis Testing Procedures

Wilcoxon matched pairs Examines a set of

Assesses the linear

One way analysis of Kruskal-Wallis analysis Compares three or more

- Blood grouping: A, B, AB, O

- Grades in PHL 541: A+

- Urates in urine: ++, +++, +

The order of items is often defined by assigning numbers to them to

You cannot do arithmetic with ordinal numbers -- they show sequence

• Pay bands in an organization, as denoted by A, B, C and D.

• Exmple. In order to obtain a taxi license in Riyadh, a person must pass a

• Example. The height of trees at a nursery is an example of

• One general way to tell if data is continuous is to ask yourself if it is

2) The height of corn plants.

3) The number of ears of corn produced.

5) The time it takes for a car battery to die.

6) The production of tomatoes by weight.

2) Continuous: The height of corn plants can take on

3) Discrete: The number of ears of corn must be a whole

4) Continuous: The amount of time can take on infinitely

5) Continuous: The weight of the tomatoes can take on

Means and standard deviations are called Parameters; all theoretical

Statistical tests that assume a distribution and use

Statistical tests that don't assume a distribution or use

1- Involve Population Parameters

2- Require Interval Scale or Ratio Scale

3- Have Stringent Assumptions

A nonparametric test is a hypothesis test

Tests are often called “distribution free” tests.

Need to analyse ‘Crude’ data (nominal, -ordinal)

Data derived from small samples

Data that do not follow a normal distribution

Data of unknown distribution

In statistics, the Mann-Whitney U test (also called the

It requires the two samples to be, independent and the

It was proposed initially by Wilcoxon (1945), for

MWW is virtually identical in performing an

The Kruskal-Wallis test handles k-independent

Like the Mann-Whiteny U test, this test uses

 Comparisons between proportions or percentages

 Research questions about two or more separate or

 Research questions about two dependent or

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