Syntax:Parts of Speech II

By
Wren and Martin
 • A Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place or
thing.
• Note: The word thing is used to mean anything that we can
think of.
THE NOUN: Look at the following sentence:

KINDS OF • Asoka was a wise king.

• The noun Asoka refers to a particular king, but the noun
NOUNS king might be applied to any other king as well as to Asoka.
We call Asoka a Proper Noun, and king a Common Noun.
• Def. - A Common Noun is a name given in common to
every person or thing of the same class or kind.
Def. - A Proper Noun is the name of some particular person
or place.
 • Proper Nouns are always written with a capital letter at the
beginning.
• Proper Nouns are sometimes used as Common Nouns; as,
1. He was the Lukman (= the wisest man) of his age.
2. Kalidas is often called the Shakespeare (= the greatest dramatist) of
THE NOUN: India.

KINDS OF • Common Nouns include what are called Collective Nouns and
Abstract Nouns.

NOUNS • A Collective Noun is the name of a number (or collection) of persons

or things taken together and spoken of as one whole; as,
• Crowd, mob, team, flock, herd, army, fleet, jury, family, nation,
parliament, committee.
• An Abstract Noun is usually the name of a quality, action, or state
considered apart from the object to which it belongs; as.
• Quality - Goodness, kindness, whiteness, darkness, hardness,
brightness, honesty, wisdom, bravery
 • Another classification of nouns is whether they are
“countable” or “uncountable”.
• Countable nouns (or countables) are the names of objects,
THE NOUN: people, etc. that we can count, e.g., book, pen, apple, boy,
sister, doctor, horse.
KINDS OF • Uncountable nouns (or uncountables) are the names of
NOUNS things which we cannot count, e.g., milk, oil, sugar, gold,
honesty. They mainly denote substances and abstract things.
• Countable nouns have plural forms while uncountable
nouns do not. For example, we say “books” but we cannot
say “milks”.
 • Point out the Nouns in the following sentences, and say
whether they are Common, Proper, Collective or Abstract:
1. The crowd was very big.
2. Always speak the truth.
3. We all love honesty.

Exercise 4. Our class consists of twenty pupils.

5. The elephant has great strength.
6. Solomon was famous for his wisdom.
7. Cleanliness is next to godliness.
8. We saw a fleet of ships in the harbor.
9. The class is studying grammar.
10. A committee of five was appointed.
 • A word used with a noun to describe or point out, the person, animal,
place or thing which the noun names, or to tell the number or
quantity, is called an Adjective.
• Adjectives may be divided into the following classes:-
THE Adjectives of Quality (or Descriptive Adjective) show the kind or
quality of a person or thing; as,
ADJECTIVE : • Kolkata is a large city.

Kinds of • He is an honest man.

Adjectives • Adjectives of Quality answer the question : Of what kind ?

• Adjectives of Quantity show how much of a thing is meant as,

• I ate some rice.

• He showed much patience.

• Adjectives of Quantity answer the question: How much?

 • Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) are of three
kinds:-
• (i) Definite Numeral Adjectives, which denote an exact
THE number; as,

ADJECTIVE : • One, two, three, etc. -- These are called Cardinals.

• First, second, third, etc. -- These are called Ordinals.
Kinds of • (ii) Indefinite Numeral Adjectives, which do not denote an
Adjectives exact number; as, All, no; many, few; some, any; certain,
several, sundry.
(iii) Distributive Numeral Adjectives, which refer to each
one of a number; as., Each boy must take his turn.
• India expects every man to do his duty. Every word of it is
false.
• Either pen will do.
 • Supply suitable Adjectives:-
1. The town stood a --- siege.
2. The --- prize was won by a Hindu.
3. The --- woman lives in a wretched hut.
4. This is a very --- matter.
5. The battle of Waterloo ended in a --- victory.
Exercise 6. Suddenly there arose a --- storm
7. It is a --- lie.
8. The --- tidings were a heavy blow to the old man.
9. Here is a rupee: pay the fare and keep the --- money.
10. His reading is of a very --- range.
 • The words a or an and the are called Articles. They come
before nouns. There are two Articles - a (or an) and the.
• A or an is called the Indefinite Article, because it usually
leaves indefinite the person or thing spoken of; as, A
doctor; that is, any doctor.
• The is called the Definite Article, because it normally points
out some particular person or thing; as, He saw the doctor;
ARTICLES meaning some particular doctor.
• The indefinite article is used before singular countable
nouns, e.g. A book, art orange, a girl
• The definite article is used before singular countable nouns,
plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns, e.g., The
book, the books, the milk
 The Article is omitted-
(1) Before names of substances and abstract nouns (i.e. uncountable nouns) used in a general
sense; as,
• Sugar is bad for your teeth.
• Gold is a precious metal.
• Wisdom is the gift of heaven.

Omission of • Honesty is the best policy.

(2) Before plural countable nouns used in a general sense; as,
the Article • Children like chocolates.
• Computers are used in many offices.
(3) Before most proper nouns (except those referred to earlier), namely, names of people (e.g.
Gopal, Rahim), names of continents, countries, cities, etc. (e.g. Europe, Pakistan, Nagpur),
names of individual mountains (e.g. Mount Everest), individual islands, lakes, hills, etc.
(4) Before names of meals (used in a general sense); as,
• What time do you have lunch?
• Dinner is ready

(5) Before languages; as, We are studying English. They speak Punjabi at home.
 (6) Before school, college, university, church, bed, hospital, prison, when these places are visited or used for their primary
purpose; as,

• We go to church on Sundays.

• He stays in bed till nine every morning.

• My uncle is still in hospital.

• Note- The is used with these words when we refer to them as a definite place, building or object rather than to the

Omission of
normal activity that goes on there; as,

• The school is very near my home.

• I met him at the church.

the Article •

•
The bed is broken.

I went to the hospital to see my uncle.

(7) Before names of relations, like father, mother, aunt, uncle, and also cook and nurse, meaning 'our cook', 'our nurse', as,

• Father has returned.

• Aunt wants you to see her.

• Cook has given notice.

(8) Before predicative nouns denoting a unique position, i.e., a position that is normally held at one time by one person only;
as, He was elected chairman of the Board.

• Mr. Banerji became Principal of the College in 1995.

(9) In certain phrases consisting of a transitive verb followed by its object; as,

• to catch fire, to take breath, to give battle, to cast anchor, to send word, to bring word, to give ear, to lay siege, to set
sail, to lose heart, to set foot, to leave home, to strike root, to take offence.
 • Insert Articles where necessary:-
1. While there is life there is hope.
2. Her knowledge of medicine had been acquired under aged
Jewess.
3. Sun rises in east.

Exercise 4. The brave soldier lost arm in battle.

5. The doctor says it is hopeless case. .
6. I like to live in open air.
7. Get pound of sugar from nearest grocer.
8. Set back clock; it is hour too fast.
9. The poor woman has no rupee.
10. You must take care.
 • Def.- A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun to show in what relation
the person or thing denoted by it stands in regard to something else.
• Examples: 1. There is a cow in the field. 2. He is fond of tea.
• 3. The cat jumped of the chair. The words in, of, off are here
used as Prepositions.

• in sentence I, the Preposition joins a Noun to another Noun; in sentence 2, the

Preposition joins a Noun to an Adjective; in sentence 3, the Preposition joins a Noun to a
Verb.

• The Noun or Pronoun which is used with a Preposition is called its Object. It is in the
Accusative case and is said to be governed by the Preposition. Thus, in sentence 1, the
noun field is in the Accusative case, governed by the Preposition in.
THE • A Preposition may have two or more objects; as, The road runs over hill and plain.
PREPOSITION
• A Preposition is usually placed before its object, but sometimes it follows it; as,
• 1. Here is the watch that you asked for. 2. That is the boy (whom) I was
speaking of.
• 3. What are you looking at?
• When the object is the Relative Pronoun that, as in sentence 1, the Preposition is always
placed at the end.
• The Preposition is- often placed at the end when the object is an interrogative pronoun
(as in sentences 3, 4 and 5) or a Relative pronoun understood (as in sentence 2).
• The Prepositions for, from, in, on are often omitted before nouns of place or time; as,
We did it last week. I cannot walk a yard. Wait a minute.
 • Prepositions may be arranged in the following classes :

• Simple Prepositions: At, by, for, from, in, of, off, on, out, through, till, to, up, with.

• Compound Prepositions which are generally formed by prefixing a Preposition

(usually a = no or be = by) to a Noun, an Adjective or an Adverb.) About, above,
across, along, amidst, among, amongst, around, before, behind, below, beneath,
beside, between, beyond, inside, outside, underneath, within, without.

Kinds of • Phrase Prepositions (Groups of words used with the force of a single preposition.)

Prepositions
• according to -- in accordance with -- in place of agreeably to -- in addition to -- in
reference to along with -- in (on) behalf of -- in regard to away from -- in case of -- in
spite of
• because of -- in comparison to -- instead of by dint of -- in compliance with -- in the
event of by means of -- in consequence of -- on account of by reason of -- in course
of -- owing to
• by virtue of -- in favour of -- with a view to by way of -- in front of -- with an eye to
conformably to -- in lieu of -- with reference to for the sake of -- in order to -- with
regard to
 • Several words are used sometimes as Adverbs and sometimes as
Prepositions. A word is a Preposition when it governs a noun or
pronoun; it is an Adverb when it does not.
Adverb
• Go and run about. I could not come before.
Has he come in?

Exercise Preposition
• Don't loiter about the street. I came the day before yesterday.
The driver jumped off the car.
Name the Preposition in the following sentences, and tell the word
which each governs:-
1.She sat by the fire, and told me a tale.
2.Old John with white hair does laugh away care, sitting under the oak,
among the old folk.
3.They rise with the morning lark, and labour till almost dark.
4.I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers, from the seas and the
streams.
5.One crowded hour of glorious life is worth an age without a name.
 • Def.- A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun.
• I am young. We are young. You are young. They are young. He (she,
it) is young.
THE • I, we, you, he, (she, it), they are called Personal Pronouns because
they stand for the three persons
PRONOUNS: (i) the person speaking. (ii) the person spoken to, and (iii) the person
spoken of.
PERSONAL • The Pronouns I and we, which denote the person or persons speaking,
are said to be Personal Pronouns of the First Person
PRONOUNS • The Pronoun you, which denotes the person or persons spoken to, is
said to be a Personal Pronoun of the Second Person. You is used both
in the singular and plural
• The pronouns he (she) and they, which denote the person or persons
spoken of, are said to be Personal Pronouns of the Third Person. It,
although it denotes the thing spoken of, is also called a Personal
Pronoun of the Third Person. [The Personal Pronouns of the Third
Person are, strictly speaking, Demonstrative Pronouns.]
 Q-1.In the following sentences use Pronouns in place of nouns wherever
you can :-
1. Rama had taken his watch out of his pocket, and was looking at the watch
uneasily, shaking the watch every now and then, and holding the watch to his
ear.
2. The boys went into the garden, where the boys saw a snake.
3. Very soon the Rabbit noticed Alice as Alice went hunting about and called
out to Alice in an angry tone.

Q-2.Write the correct form of pronoun in the following :-

Exercise 1. We scored as many goals as ---. (They, them)

2. Rama and --- were present. (I, me)
3. Can you sing as well as ---? (They, them)
4. Let you and --- try what we can do. (I, me)
5. Wait for Hari and ---. (I, me)
6. You know that as well as ---. (I, me)
7. It was --- that gave you the alarm. (I, me)
 • When -self is added to my, your, him, her, it, and -selves to our, your,
them, we get what are called Compound Personal Pronouns.
• They are called Reflexive Pronouns when the action done by the
subject turns back (reflects) upon the subject; as,
REFLEXIVE • I hurt myself. We hurt ourselves. You will hurt yourself. You hurt
yourselves. He hurt himself. She hurt herself. They hurt themselves.
AND The horse hurt itself.
• It will be noticed that each of these Reflexive Pronouns is used as the
EMPHATIC Object of a verb and refers to the same person or thing as that denoted
by the Subject of the verb.
PRONOUNS Emphatic Pronouns
• I will do it myself.
• I myself saw him do it. We will see to it ourselves. You yourself can
best explain. He himself said so. She herself says so.
• It was told so by the teacher himself. We saw the Prime Minister
himself. The town itself is not very large. They themselves admitted
their guilt.
• It will be seen that here Compound Personal Pronouns are used for the
sake of emphasis, and are therefore called Emphatic Pronouns.
 • Tell which Pronouns in the following sentences are
Reflexive and which Emphatic:-
1. I will go myself.
2. Rama has hurt himself.
3. We often deceive ourselves.
4. I myself heard the remark.
5. You express yourself very imperfectly.
Exercise 6. I wash myself when I get up.
7. The boys hid themselves.
8. They have got themselves into a mess.
9. We seldom see ourselves as others see us.
10. They loved themselves so much that they thought of no
one else.
 • The Pronouns used to point out the
objects to which they refer are called
Demonstrative Pronouns.
DEMONSTRATI This book is mine.

VE PRONOUNS That pen is yours.

These books are mine.
Those pens are yours.
What was that noise?
 • All Pronouns which refer to persons or things
in a general way, but do not refer to any
person or thing in particular are called
Indefinite Pronouns.
• All were drowned.
Some are born great.
• Nobody was there to rescue the child.

INDEFINITE Few escaped unhurt.

• Many of them were Gurkhas.
PRONOUNS We did not see any of them again.
• One or other of us will be there.
Do good to others.
• Did you ask anybody to come?
• What is everybody's business is nobody's
business.
• His words are in everyone's mouth.
 • Consider the following sentences:-
• Each of the boys gets a prize.
• Each took it in turn.
• Either of these roads leads to the railway
DISTRIBUTIVE station.
• Either of you can go.
PRONOUNS • Neither of the accusations is true.
• Each, either, neither are called Distributive
Pronouns because they refer to persons or
things one at a time. For this reason, they
are always singular and as such followed
by the verb in the singular.
 • A Relative Pronoun refers or relates to some noun going
before which is called its Antecedent.
1. I met Hari who had just returned.
2. I have found the pen which I lost.
3. Here is the book that you lent me.
• Forms of the Relative Pronouns

RELATIVE The Relative Pronoun who has different forms for Accusative
and Genitive.

PRONOUNS • --- Singular and Plural Nominative -- who Genitive -- whose

• Accusative -- whom/who (who replaces whom in informal
English.)
• • This is the boy (or girl) who works hard.
• • This is the boy (or girl) whose exercise is done well.
• • This is the boy (or girl) whom / who all praise.
• • These are the boys (or girls) who work hard.
• • These are the boys (or girls) whose exercises are done well.
• • These are the boys (or girls) whom / who all praise.
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS

• The Relative Pronoun that has the same form in the Singular and Plural, and in the Nominative
and Accusative. It has no Genitive case.
• He that is content is rich.
• They that touch pitch will be defiled.
• Take anything that you like.
• The Relative Pronoun what is used only in the Singular, and has the same form in the
Nominative and Accusative.
• What has happened is not clear.
• I say what I mean.
• He failed in what he attempted
Omission of the Relative Pronoun and the Antecedent

The Relative Pronoun is generally omitted when it would be in the accusative case ;
• Few and short were the prayers -- we said.
• A contented mind is the greatest blessing -- a man can enjoy in the world.
• I am monarch of all -- I survey.
• Men must reap the things -- they sow.
• In older English the Antecedent of a Relative Pronoun was sometimes left out ;
• Who works not shall not eat. = (He) who works shall not eat.
• Whom the gods love, die young. = (Those) whom the gods love die young.
• Who steals my purse, steals trash.
• Who laughs last laughs best.
• Who has lost all hope has also lost all fear.
• Be good, sweet maid, and let who will be clever.
 Exercise

• Name the Relative Pronouns in the following sentences, tell the case of each, and mention its antecedent:-
• 1. The pen that you gave me is a very good one.
• 2. The answer which you gave is not right.
• 3. I know the woman whose child was hurt.
• 4. Bring me the letters which the postman left.
• 5. This is the house that Jack built.
• 6. Hari saw the man who had been hurt.
• 7. We met the sailors whose ship was wrecked.
• 8. Here are the books which I found.
• 9. The cat killed the rat that ate the com.
• 10. Bring me the books which lie on the table.
 Exercise

• Fill the blanks with suitable Relative Pronouns:-

• 1. That man --- wilt not work must starve.
• 2. Such a man --- he should be honoured.
• 3. These mangoes are not such --- I bought yesterday.
• 4. It is not such a pretty place --- I had expected.
• 5. We have need of more such men --- he.
• 6. He plays the game --- he likes best.
• 7. I do not believe --- you say.
• 8. My uncle, --- I loved, is dead.
• 9. The farmer is cutting the corn--- has ripened.
• 10. --- you say is not true.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

• The Interrogative Pronouns are similar in form to Relative Pronouns.

• But the work which they do is different. They are used for asking questions, and are, therefore, called
Interrogative Pronouns.
• Who is there? Who are you?
• About whom you are thinking? / Who are you thinking about?
• Whom do you want? / Who do you want? Whose book is this?
• Which is the house?
• Which do you prefer, tea or coffee? What is the matter?
• What do you want?
• What will all the neighbors say?
 Exercise

• Use the correct form of the Interrogative Pronoun in the following:-

• 1. --- wishes to see you?
• 2. --- do you wish to see?
• 3. --- did she say was the winner?
• 4. --- did he invite?
• 5. --- shall I give this to?
• 6. --- do men say that I am?
• 7. --- do you believe did this?
• 8. About --- are you speaking?
• 9. --- did you see?
• 10. --- do you mean?
Any Questions?

Thanks!