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SOPHOMORE ENGLISH

COURSE NUMBER: ENLA 201 Program: Degree

CREDIT HOURS: 3 Prerequisite: Communication Skills

CONTACT HOURS: 4

I. Course Description
The course deals with basic writing skills. Particularly, it is concerned with such topics as
mechanics, combining sentences, writing grammatically correct and meaningful sentences,
paragraph writing: choosing and limiting a subject; writing limited topic sentences; gathering
and evaluating supporting details; writing concluding sentences, qualities of a good paragraph
(Unity, coherence, development etc). Methods of paragraph development: definition, cause-
effect, classification, etc. and writing, essays: thesis statement, outlining, developing body
paragraphs, writing conclusion, and different types of essays.

II. Objectives of the Course

At the end of the course you are expected to:

 Capitalize words appropriately.

 Use correct punctuation in your writing.

 Construct grammatically correct sentences.

 Combine sentences using appropriate transitions.

 Improve faulty sentences.

 Effectively employ stages in the process of writing.

 Write effective topic sentence and thesis sentences.

 Write effective paragraphs, and compositions

III. Evaluation Modalities

Following the evaluation system adopted by the university, you will be evaluated continuously.
Although you are required to carry out a number of exercises/ activities, the evaluation modalities
for this course are as follows.
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III.1 Mechanics (10%)

 Punctuation
 Capitalization
III.2 Revising and joining sentences (10%)

III.3 Paragraph Unity and Coherence (5%)

III.4 Paragraph Writing (5%)

III.5 Paragraph Writing (5%)

III.6 Essay writing (10%)

III.7 Attendance (5%)

III.8 Final examination (100%)

References

1. McDougal Litel. (1985) Building English Skills(Orange.Ye;oow, Blue, etc Leveles). Evanston:
McDougal Litel and Company.
2. Heath Grammar and Composition (2nd Course)
3. Grammar and Composition (2nd course)
4. Reghukiul Tilka, New Pattern English Grammar and Composition, Rama Brothers, New Delhi,
1997
5. R.R. Jordan, Academic Writing Course
6. Frank Smith, Writing and Writer, 1994. McMillan English Publishers.
7. Sophomore English, a Teaching Material Complied by Alamirew Kassahun, Unity University,
Sept. 2009
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE

I. CAPITALIZATION-----------------------------------------------------------------1

CHAPTER TWO

II. PUNCTUATION MARKS-------------------------------------------------------11

CHAPTER THREE

III.IMPROVING AND JOINING SENTENCES -----------------------------------31

CHAPTER FOUR

IV. THE PROCESS OF WRITING -------------------------------------------------49

CHAPTER FIVE

V. THE PARAGRAPH-----------------------------------------------------57
CHAPTER SIX:

VI. TYPES OF PARAGRAHPH--------------------------------------------------103

CHAPTER SEVEN

VII. ESSAY WRITING-------------------------------------------------------------120

Reference
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CHAPTER ONE

I. CAPITALIZATION

One way through which you can make your writing meaningful is by using capital letters where
appropriate. There are many rules for the use of capital letters which you may well be familiar with.

1.1 PROPER NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

 Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives

A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place or thing. A proper adjective is formed from a
proper noun. A common noun, which is not capitalized, except when it is at sentence beginnings, is a
general name of a person, place or thing.

Common Noun Proper Noun Proper Adjective

Person Elizabeth Elizabethan

Country Ethiopia Ethiopian

City Paris Parisian

There are many different proper nouns. The rules below and the corresponding examples will help you
solve the capitalization problems that proper nouns present.

A. Names of persons

 Capitalize the names of persons and also the initials and abbreviations that stand for those
names.

Abebe Sintayehu Dr. Amare Masresha

Elizabeth M. Grant

Elizabeth Mason Grant

 Capitalize titles used with names of persons and also the initials or abbreviations that stand
for titles.

Judge Mitiki Lemma

Professor White

Mr. Edward Scott

Dr. Meskerem Lemma

Rev. Itafa Gobana

 Do not capitalize titles used as common nouns:

Have you seen your doctor?

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She is the company president.

The judge entered the courtroom.

 Capitalize titles of very high importance, even when these titles are used without proper
names.

The Pope

The President of the United States

The Prime Minister of Ethiopia a United States Senator

B. Family relationships

 Capitalize such words as mother, father, aunt, and uncle when these words are used as
names. When the noun is modified by a possessive word, it is not capitalized.

Hello, Mother, Is Dad home yet?

My aunt is going to visit my grandmother next week.

C. The pronoun I

 Capitalize the pronoun I regardless of where it occurs in sentences.

Is he taller than I?

I am sure that he is.

D. The Supreme Being and Sacred Writings

 Capitalize all words referring to God, the Holy Family and Religious Scriptures.

The Gospel Buddha the Torah

God the Lord the Bible

Allah the Virgin Mary the Book of Exodus

 Capitalize personal pronouns referring to God.

God spoke of His prophets.

Exercise

Re-write the following sentences using capital letter as appropriate.

1. Would you tell mom I’ll be a little late for dinner?

2. The first book of the bible is the book of genesis.

3. He is a parisian.
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4. I told my mother that I had a doctor’s appointment.

5. She said, “Please ask dr. Mesay to call me.”

6. My mother asked aunt rose if tad and maria could stay for lunch.

7. Please take this message to the principal, aynalem.

8. She says that ms. Almaz is not in her office.

9. Two names for god are Jehovah and the almighty.

10. There are seven cities named springfield.

E. Geographical Names

 In a geographical name, capitalize the first letter of each word except articles and
prepositions.

 The article the appearing before a geographical name is not part of the geographical name and
is therefore not capitalized.

Continents: Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe

Bodies of water: the Pacific Ocean, the Columbia River, the English Channel, the Gibe River

Landforms: the Cape of Good Hope, the Mississippi Delta

Political units: Great Britain, First Congressional District, Los Angeles

Public area: Awash National Park, the National Museum

Roads and highways: Haile Gebreseilase Street, Lincoln Highway, Route 23

F. Directions and Sections

 Capitalize names of sections of the country

Industrial production was high in the North.

The first English settlements were along the East Coast.

The Southwest is our fastest-growing region.

 Capitalize proper adjectives derived from names of sections of the country.

Western dress

Southern-style cooking

A New England town

 Do not capitalize directions of the compass.

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We headed south for our vacation.

The pioneers moved west over the channel.

The school is southwest of our home.

 Do not capitalize adjectives derived from words indicating direction

A north wind

The east side of the building

Exercise

Re-write the following sentences using capital letter as appropriate.

1. The lake is in Siberia, in the soviet union.

2. The island of Capri is in the bay of naples.

3. Of the seven contitnets, asia and Africa are the two largest.

4. lake tane is found in bahir dar.

5. Last summer, we drove along the gulf of mexico to new Orleans and then north to Memphis.

6. The omo national park has beautiful sceneries.

7. The abay river crosses cairo.

8. Next week we elect the representative from the eighth congressional district.

9. We had a family picnic at langano resort hotel.

10. The blue grotto is a famous tourist attraction on Capri.

G. Names of Organizations and Institutions

 Capitalize the names of organizations and institutions including political parties, governmental
bodies or agencies, schools, colleges, churches, hospitals, clubs, businesses, and abbreviations
of these names.

Gillette Company

Tulube Junior Secondary School

Unity University

YoGo Bible Club

Pastor David Church

Dembel City Center

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St. Paul Hospital

 Do not capitalize such words as school, college, church and hospital when they are not used as
names.

This fund drive benefits the hospital.

Our school is going to be re-built.

H. Names of Events, Documents and periods of Time

 Capitalize the names of historical events, documents, and periods of time.

The Battle of Adwa

Middle Ages

Wuchale Treaty

Bill of Rights

World War II

I. Months, Days and Holidays

Capitalize names of months, days, holidays, but not the names of seasons.

March summer

Friday spring

Labor Day

J. Races, Languages, Nationalities, Religions

 Capitalize the names of races, languages, nationalities, and religions and adjectives derived
from them

French African Amhara

Oromo Catholic Lutheranism

Catholic

K. School Subjects

 Do not capitalize the names of school subjects, except course names followed by a number

physical education

social studies

Financial Accounting I
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 Remember that the names of languages are always capitalized.

English Spanish Amharic Afan Oromo

L. Ships, Trains, Airplanes, Automobiles

 Capitalize the names of ships, trains, airplanes, and automobiles.

Tekeze

Cutlass-----------------------------(sword)

Boeing

Mazda

M. B.C, A. D.

 Capitalize the abbreviations B.C and A.D.

The first Olympic Games were held in 776 B.C.

The Norman Conquest took place in A.D. 1066.

Exercise

Re-write the following sentences adding capital letters where necessary.

1. The fourth of july is an important date in American history.

2. My sister is a class president at jimma senior secondary school.

3. I registered for ancient history I, business math II, social studies, English and music.

4. Our car was made by American motors corporation.

5. In 1898 the treaty of paris ended the Spanish-american war.

6. They own Mercedes benz and suzuki.

7. My favorite subjects are home economics and shop.

8. The prophet Muhammad founded the religion of islam.

9. His followers are called moslems or muslims.

10. In 44 b.c. Caesar was assassinated.

1.2 FIRST WORDS

A. Sentences and Poetry

 Capitalize the first word of every sentence and the first word in most lines of poetry.

Sentence: My sister likes tennis. She is the captain of her team.

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Lines of poetry: Listen my children, and you shall hear

Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere…

B. Quotations

When you write the exact words of a speaker or writer, you are giving a direct quotation.

 Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation.

Professor Zeleke said, “The presence of life after death is like a joke to me.”

 Sometimes a direct quotation is interrupted by explaining words like she said. This is called a
divided quotation. Do not capitalize the first word of the second part of a divided quotation
unless it starts a new sentence.

“Well,” he said, “what you say is quite right.”

“I agree,” he said. “What you say is quite true.”

C. Letters

 Capitalize the first word, words like Sir and Madam, and the name of the person addressed in
the greeting of a letter.

Dear Mr. Alemu

Dear Ms. Tizita

Dear Mr. Tadele

 In the complimentary close, capitalize the first word only.

Yours very truly

Sincerely yours

D. Outlines

 Capitalize the letters and the first word of each line of an outline

I. Improve your handwriting

A. Form letters carefully

1. Watch a ,e, r, l and t

2. Watch u, v, and o

B. Proofread your work

E. Titles
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 Capitalize the first word and all important words in chapter titles; titles of magazine articles;
titles of short stories, essays, or single poems; and titles of songs or short pieces of music.

Chapter: Chapter 5, “The Undersea World’’

Magazine article: “Sleep and Dreams”

Short story: “The Last Leaf”

Essay: “Nature”

Poem: “O Captain! My Captain!”

Song: “Dangerous”

 Capitalize the first word and all important words in titles of books, newspapers, magazines,
plays, movies, television programs, works of art, and long musical compositions.

Book: Native Son

Newspaper: The Daily Monitor

Magazine: Tsigereda

Play: Tidar Sitaten

Television program: Ethiopian Idol

Movie: Yewendoch Guday; The Proposal

Work of art: Maresha

Long musical composition: Peter and the Wolf

Exercise

Re-write the following sentences using capital letters where necessary.

1.the last chapter of the Sherlock holmes book valley of fear is “danger.”

2.the famous actor will smith said, “all I know is just what I read in the papers.”

3. “don’t go,” he said. “I haven’t explained yet.”

4. the morning paper is the herald tribune.

5. very sincerely yours,

6. “hurry up!” father said. “if we don’t leave soon, we’ll be late.”

7. did you enjoy the movie the right stuff?

8. the article “images of youth past” appeared last fall in an issue of life magazine.
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9. I have always enjoyed the wizard of oz, but I was thoroughly entertained by the movie the wiz.

10. “I’m afraid so,” genet replied. “we’re too late.”

Exercise

Proofread the following letter. Re-write it, using correct capitalization.

March 15, 2008

Dear ms harmon:

in february, the evening star ran an ad for your auto wrecking business, compacted cars company.
After reading the ad, I had an idea. I wonder if your company would donate any used inner tubes to
camp lone pine. Our campers could then go tubing on red mill river.

You may be asking yourself, “what is tubing?” let me explain that tubing is a simple water sport in
which swimmers put on inner tubes and float down the river.

Your generosity would make a better summer for the children at our camp. Also, I would encourage
their parents to take their old fords, Chevrolets, and other cars to your company.

i could pick up the inner tubes on any Tuesday after 1:00 p.m. thank you for your consideration.

respectfully yours,

roger m.glass
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CHAPTER TWO

II. PUNCTUATION MARKS

PRE-TEST

Try to punctuate this paragraph without reading the various punctuation marks and their functions.

Danny’s hobby is collecting old blues records. His collection began accidentally. When his sister Laura
moved away, she gave him hers. She said,” Take care of these, Danny.” They’re an important part of the
past. He thanked her politely, but it took him a while to appreciate the records. After listening to them,
he became an ardent blues fan. He liked the stories in the songs, the emotion in the singers voices, and
the heavy rhythmical beat of the music. Danny started adding to the collection. He browsed at record
stores, second hand shops, and garage sales. His interest in the blues gave him a new awareness of
music. For Laura’s birthday, Danny taped some hits from the 80’s that showed the influence of the blues.
He wanted her to know the past was an important part of the present.

In general punctuation marks are used in order to make your communication clear and easy to read, you
need to punctuate it. Punctuation marks indicate pauses in a sentence and you need to strike a balance
between too many and too few of them. If you have too many, your document is broken up too much
and becomes disjointed. If you have too few, it becomes difficult to follow. The following paragraph has
no punctuation marks at all. Can you see how difficult it is to see what the writer means?

I am afraid that owing to the fact that the Managing Director is out of the office at the moment it is
not possible to agree to your request immediately not that it is likely to be turned down of course but
we do need his approval for agreements of his nature however he will be back next week and I will
make sure that he deals with it as soon as possible.

Now here is the same paragraph, but this time the writer has over punctuated it.

I am afraid that, owing to the fact that, the Managing Director is out of the office, at the moment, it
is not possible to agree to your request, immediately--- not that it is likely to be turned down, of
course; but we do need his approval, for agreements of his nature. However, he will be back next
week; and I will make sure that he deals with it, as soon as possible.

Can you see how disjointed it is to read? It is almost jerky in fact. Let us see how it looks when properly
punctuated.

I am afraid that, owing to the fact that the Managing Director is out of the office at the moment, it is
not possible to agree to your request immediately-- not that it is likely to be turned down of course,
but we do need his approval for agreements of his nature. However, he will be back next week and I
will make sure that he deals with it as soon as possible.

This is easier to read than the other two versions, and the sense is quite clear the first time you read it.

Punctuation is often a matter of style, but there are certain rules which should be followed if your
correspondence is to make sense to your readers. In this chapter, we will be looking at both the rules
and the points of style governing punctuation marks.
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1. COMMAS (,)

Commas are used to prevent confusion and to keep items from running to one another. Following are
some specific rules for commas that are used to separate items.

A) ITEMS IN A SERIES

Three or more similar items together form a series. A series can be composed of words, phrases or
clauses.

Words:

 Blackberries, raspberries, and strawberries are all members of the rose family. (Nouns)

 Anita will sing, dance, or tell jokes. (Verbs)

 We were tired, dirty, and wet. (Adjectives)

Phrases:

 The cat could be in the closet, under the bed, or behind the couch.

Clauses:

 We don’t know when we are leaving, where we are going, or what we should take.

When a conjunction connects the last two items in a series, some writers omit the last comma.
Although this is acceptable, it can be confusing. Therefore, it is always better to include the comma
before the conjunction.

Confusing: I had juice, bacon and corn pancakes.

Clear: I had juice, bacon, and corn pancakes.

You can use a comma to separate adjectives qualifying the same noun as in:

 Please enclose a large, brown envelope.

This again is a matter of preference, and you could just as well leave the comma out. One situation in
which you must leave it out is when the second adjective and the noun actually form a compound noun
together. Take ‘filing cabinet’ as an example. ‘Filing’ is not a qualifying adjective in this context. It is part
of the noun. A filing cabinet is something very different from an ordinary cabinet, so ‘filing’ does not
describe the cabinet in the way that ‘brown’ describes the envelope in the previous example . So you
should not write

Please supply a large, filing cabinet.

B) COMPOUND SENTENCES
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A comma is usually used to separate the independent clauses in a compound sentence.

Don’t tease the dog, or it may bite you.

I play the flute, and my sister plays the cello.

A comma is not needed in a very short compound sentence.

Selam left but I stayed.

Whether or not you use a comma in this context will depend on the length of the sentence in question
and the amount of separation, and the kind of meaning you would like to communicate. So if your
sentence is long you might put in a comma, introducing a pause so that the reader can absorb what he
or she has read so far.

C) INTRODUCTORY ELEMENTS

Use a comma to separate an introductory word, phrase, or clause from the rest of the sentence.

Words: Yes, I will go.

Finally, may I offer my congratulations on your success this year?

(Similar words include now, oh, well, why, yes, and so on)

Prepositional phrase: After the earthquake in town, we all helped each other.(a comma comes after two
or more prepositional phrases or a single phrase of four or more words)

Participial phrase (this could be past participle or the ing-form of a verb used at the beginning of a
sentence)

Annoyed by what he said, she left the room without saying anything.

Hearing the noise outside, we all went under bed.

Others: In Room 47, 35 students were studying.

Is it possible to say: In Room 4735 students were studying?----------------(No)

D) COMMAS WITH INTERUPTORS/COMMAS THAT ENCLOSE

Some expressions interrupt the flow of a sentence. These expressions generally add information that is
not needed to understand the main idea of the sentence. They may well be omitted without affecting
the meaning of the sentence in question.

Use commas to set off words or groups of words that interrupt the flow of though in a sentence.

The movie, to tell the truth, was rather boring.

This is not, I am sure, what the Board had in mind.

The report, moreover, is altogether wrong.

When these interrupters are used at the beginning of a sentence, only one comma is used.
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To tell the truth, the movie was rather boring.

E) COMMAS WITH APPOSITITVES

Use commas to set off most appositives.

An appositive is a word or a group of words used directly after another word to explain it.

The speaker, a famous explorer, told about New Guinea.

The leader, the person on horseback, moved away.

When the appositive is short name or noun, it is not set off by commas.

This is my sister Tizita.

F) DIRECT ADDRESS

Names, titles, or words that are used to address someone are set off by commas.

Sarah, you are a high scorer.

Your essay, Mimi, was excellent.

Have you had your lunch, Amsal?

G) DATES AND ADDRESSES

In dates, use a comma between the day of the month and the year.

I was born on June 18, 1980.

In a sentence a comma follows the year.

The postmark read July 5, 2009, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Use a comma between the name of a city or town and the name of its state or country.

Yeka Sub-city, Addis Ababa

Jimma, Oromiya

Munich, Germany

In writing an address as part of a sentence, use a comma after each independent part

I live at Haile Gebresislasie Street, Yeka Sub-city, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Forward our letter to 651 Sentinel Drive, Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53203, where we will be moving next
month.

Note that you do not place a comma between the state and the ZIP code.

Wrong: Wisconsin, 53203

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H) COMMAS WITH QUOTATIONS

Use commas to set off the explaining words of a direct quotation.

The explaining words used in giving a direct quotation are such brief statements as Hannah said,
Ashenafi answered, or Gemechu asked.

The pilot said, “We will land in a few minutes.”

In this sentence, the explaining words come before the quotation. A comma is then placed after the
last explaining word.

Now look at this quotation:

“We will land in a few minutes,’’ the pilot said.

If the explaining words come after the quotation, as in the example above, place a comma within the
quotation marks after the last word of the quotation.

Sometimes a quotation is separated into two parts by the explaining words. This is often done to add
variety to the sentence construction. Here is an example:

“We will land,” the pilot said, “in a few minutes.”

Do not confuse direct and indirect quotations. Indirect quotations are not set off from the rest of the
sentence by commas.

The pilot said that the plane would land in a few minutes.

I) COMMAS IN LETTER PARTS

Use a comma often after the salutation of a friendly letter and after the complimentary close of a
friendly or business letter.

Dear Tadele, Yours sincerely,

J) COMMAS TO PREVENT MISREADING

When no specific rule applies, but there is a danger of misreading, use a comma.

Who she is, is a mystery.

Inside, it was warm and cozy.

Exercise

Add commas where necessary.

1. My sister was born in Tokyo, Japan, on January 1, 1965, and I was born in Frankfurt, Germany, on
January 1, 1968.

2. Whatever it is, it is a strange-looking creature.

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3. Because my parents work for the government, I have lived in Bole Sub-city, Addis Ababa, for over ten
years.

4. At the movies, I like fresh, hot, buttery popcorn.

5. My sister can play the guitar, the ‘kirar’, and the mandolin.

6. The exam, however, will be given as scheduled.

7. After circling the airport for an hour, we finally landed.

8. W/ro Alamaz, to be frank, was not behaving as usual.

9. I will be right back, Abebe.

10. No, the garage sale isn’t until next week.

11. The man in blue said, “Let’s stand together on this one.”

12. “It is up to you to make that decision,” Belete emphasized.

13. Although Mesele needed help, he said nothing.

14. My hobby, playing tennis, has taught me endurance.

15. Sisay finally arrived, but it was too late to go anywhere.

16. The team captain, the player in the blue jersey, is a good student.

17. Dear John,

Would you please send me Amare’s new address? I’d appreciate it.

Your friend,

Alex

18. She is a very good journalist, and I am a very good anthropologist.

19. Fishing, playing tennis, swimming, and playing football are my leisure time activities.

20. They drove away in a bright, shiny, expensive car.

2. SEMICOLON (;)

Use a semicolon to join the parts of a compound sentence when no coordinating conjunction (and,
but, or, so) is used.

Daniel has finished his homework; Amele has not begun hers.

Use a semicolon to emphasize a statement. In this sense, the statement after the semicolon looks
punchy and emphatic.
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We must improve our productivity; we face bankruptcy if we don’t.

Use a semicolon to balance contrasting statements, as in

We offer a home delivery service; other firms do not.

The main purpose of the semicolon here is to highlight the contrast between your service and that of
other firms.

Use semicolons to separate to separate longer items in a list

We saw under commas that they are also used to separate items in a list. There is no absolute rule to
say when you should use commas and when you should use semicolons, but a good rule of thumb is that
semicolons should be used when the items in the list are clauses and when the items themselves
contain commas. Let us look at some examples

a) I recommend the following: that we increase our sales staff by five; that we double our advertising
budget; and that we introduce more stringent quality control measures.

b) We have three main requirements: high quality, durable materials; reasonable prices; and fast,
reliable delivery.

In the first example, the items in the list are clauses; to separate them only with commas would make
them appear to run into each other. In the second, there are commas in two of the items in the list. If
the lists themselves were separated by commas, it would be confusing to read. Unlike commas, when
you are using semicolons to separate items in a list, you do have a semicolon before the final ‘and’ or
‘or’.

Use a semicolon before a word that joins the main clauses of a compound sentence. Such joining
words are therefore, however, hence, so, then, moreover, besides, nevertheless, yet and consequently.

It was a sunny day; however, it was quite cool.

Exercise

Use semicolons where appropriate.

1. It was a clear day; moreover, it was perfect for swimming.

2. Genet prepared dinner; Birhanu set the table.

3. Addis Ababa, Jimma; and Dire Dawa Awassa, Wonji; and Mekele Ambo, Arba Minch; and Mugar
have football clubs.---------------------------(I am not sure.)

4. Treza was reading a mystery; Salia was talking on the phone.

5. Our school offers better quality education; theirs doesn’t.

6. Kebede crossed the finish line ten feet ahead of the others; however, he was completely out of
control when the judges told him that he was disqualified.

7. Akalu, clean the room; Shemsu, serve the tea; Senait, take the dog for a walk.
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8. I know that there is not much time; nevertheless, the work must be finished by 5: 30 P.M.

9. The Pep Club will handle ticket sales; the cheerleaders will help the ushering.

10. Jamal studied hard for the test, yet he thought it was one of the hardest ones he’d ever taken.

3. THE COLON (:)

Use a colon to introduce a list of items

a) If you are trying out for the team, bring the following things: a pair of gym shoes, your uniform,
and your consent form.

Don’t use a colon if the list immediately follows a verb or a preposition

b) ) If you are trying out for the team, bring a pair of gym shoes, your uniform, and your consent
form.

Use a colon to indicate the two sides of the same theme; the first part of the sentence makes a
statement, and the second part explains it.

a) The solution is simple: train more operators.

b) The reasons are the same in both cases: we are undervaluing our key staff.

Use a colon (like a comma) to introduce direct speech or quotation

She said: “Let us stand straight.”

Use a colon between numbers including hours and minutes

a)10:00 P.M.

b) 6:45 A.M.

Use a colon to separate Biblical chapters and verses

John 3: 16 (Chapter three verse 16)

Use a colon after salutations in business letters

Dear Sir:

Exercise

Use colons where appropriate.

1. All volunteers will need the following: a notebook, a pen, and a comfortable pair of walking shoes.

2. There are four methods of catching fish: hooking, netting, spearing, and trapping.

3. These are my favorite subjects: math, science, and woodworking.

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4. Mother’s plane arrives at 6:55 P.M. Dad’s will land at 7:15 P.M.

5. Bring three things to class tomorrow: your text, paper, and a blue or black pen.

6. Cargo planes carry almost anything: white mice, toupees and even small private planes.

7. The idea is straightforward: don’t tease the dog if you want to go in peace.

8. Abate remarked: “It is our responsibility to look after these children.”

9. For more on that you should refer to Genesis 4:12.

10. Dear Madam:

This letter will confirm your reservation.

4. THE HYPHEN (-)

The hyphen is a very useful device, particularly in avoiding confusing or awkward constructions. It is
used in the following ways:

Use a hyphen to divide a word at the end of a line; that is if a syllable of a word must be carried over
from one line to the next.

In the library you will find authorita-

tive books on solar energy.

Only words of two or more syllables can be divided at the end of a line. Never divide words of one
syllable, such as worse. A single letter must not be left at the end of a line. For example, this division
would be wrong: a-waken. A single letter must not appear at the beginning of a line, either. It would be
wrong to divide dictionary like this: dictionar-y.

Use a hyphen in compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.

a)Twenty-three cents

b) Forty-two students

Use a hyphen in fractions when fractions are used as adverbs or adjectives

We won a two-thirds majority. ( two-thirds is a an adjective modifying majority)

Three-fourths empty (three—fourths is an adverb modifying empty)

Two thirds of the voters (two thirds is not being used as an adjective here because thirds is a noun being
modified by two)

Use a hyphen to connect two or more words to form a compound word, especially a compound
adjective, as in

a) A ground-floor office

b) A like-minded colleague
 22

c) A sales-generating strategy

However, you should not use a hyphen to make a compound adjective when the first word is an adverb
ending in –ly. So you should write ‘a well-designed product’, but ‘a beautifully designed product’.

Use a hyphen or hyphens in such compound nouns as great-aunt and commander-in-chief

a) A Portuguese man-of-war stung the swimmer.

b) He is my brother-in-law.

Use a hyphen with prefixes ex-, self-and all-; with the suffix –elect and with all prefixes before a
proper noun or proper adjective.

a) All-star

b) Ex-wife

c) Pro-American

d) Anti-Semitic

e)Non-European

f)Self-control

g)Self-image

Use a hyphen to differentiate between words beginning with re- which are spelt the same but have
different meanings

a)Reform-improve

b) Re-form- form again

c) Recount-tell

d)Re-count-count again

Use a hyphen to connect a letter to a noun to form a compound, as in ‘T-junction’ or ‘U-turn’

Use a hyphen to avoid an awkward repletion of a letter, as in ‘co-operate’, ‘anti-inflation’

Exercise

Add the necessary hyphens to the following sentences.

1. The Prime Minister of Ethiopia is the Commander- in -Chief of the armed Forces.

2. In ten years, I will be twenty- six years old.

3. We received the store’s new, up- to- date catalogue.

4. The woman had a well- to- do look about her.

 23

5. You have to rewrite your sentences to make them more meaningful and grammatical.

6. He is a self- made millionaire.

7. This is a well- organized essay.

8. My ex- girlfriend is not a good person.

9. I am standing near the car park.

10. The postage for this package is sixty- two cents.

5. THE APOSTROPHE (’)

Use an apostrophe to show that a letter or letters have been left out of a word.

a)Don’t for do not

b)we’ll for we will

c)let’s for let us

Use an apostrophe and s to form the plurals of letters, figures and words used as words.

a)two m’s

b) four 6’s

c)and’s and but’s

Use an apostrophe to form the possessive of a singular noun.

a)girl’s

b)Ross’s

Use an apostrophe to form the possessive of a plural that doesn’t end in s.

a)men’s

b) children’s

Use an apostrophe to form the possessive of nouns that end in s.

a)drivers’

b)pilots’

Use an apostrophe and an ‘s’ to form the possessive of indefinite pronouns.

a)someone’s

b) anybody’s

Never use an apostrophe in a personal pronoun.

 24

Ours, yours, its, hers, theirs

Use an apostrophe to show the omission of numbers in a date.

The class of ‘89(the class of 1989)

Exercise

Insert apostrophes where they are needed.

1. All of the teachers’ meetings are held in a library.

2. Her writing and illustrations a well- known childrens’ literature.

3. Hana’s father drove us to their family’s cottage in Indibir.

4.Wasn’t that Charles’s original plan?

5.We’ve heard that there won’t be an assembly until next week.

6. Although she was the first woman to go into space, Valentina Tereshkova’s name is not well known.

7. I plan to get four A’s and two B’s this semester.

8. How many s’s are there in Mississippi?

9.Martha’s sister and Kalkidan’s brother are both interns at St. Pauls Hospital.

10. The graduating classes of ‘87 and ‘88 are buying a new digital scoreboard for the school.

6. QUOTATION MARKS (“ ”)

Use quotation marks at the beginning and at the end of a direct quotation.

a) Sarah said, “My feelings were hurt.”

Quotation marks are not used with indirect quotations:

b) Sarah said that her feelings were hurt.

A quotation that begins the sentence is followed by a comma inside the quotation marks. A period
follows the explaining words at the end of a sentence.

“There is someone to see you,” my sister announced.

Divided quotations

Sometimes the explaining words break into the middle of a direct quotation. In this case, each part of
the quotation is enclosed in quotation marks.
 25

“Do you think,” Girma asked, “that you will like the team in blue?”

Also, note the placement of commas.

Use quotation marks when quoting the exact words of a person, document, book or article, as in

Johnson wrote of a ‘’potentially damaging recession’’ looming.

Use quotation marks to show irony

What do you think of Green & Co’s ‘new’ corporate image?

The implication is that you do not believe that Green & Co’s corporate image is actually very new.

Use quotation marks to show that you do not want something/some idea to be part of your argument

Smiths have developed a new ‘’quick-dry’’ paint.

This means that Smiths are claiming it is quick to dry. You are not necessarily denying the claim, but nor
are you confirming it. You may not have enough information to form a judgment.

Whether you use single (‘ ‘) or double quotation marks (“ “) is a matter of personal preference.

Exercise

Write each of the following sentences three ways as a direct quotation.

Example: Be sure that you are on time.

a)”Be sure that you are on time,” he said.

b) He said, “Be sure that you are on time.”

c)”Be sure,” he said, “that you are on time.”

1. Watch out for broken glass.

2. I am sure that I am right.

3. On Monday summer vacation begins.

4. Did you know that I was her boyfriend?

Place question marks and exclamation points inside quotation marks if they belong to the quotation
itself.

a) Dad asked, “Is Mersha working in the garage?”

b) “Look out!” Tena shouted.

Place question marks and exclamation points outside quotation marks if they do not belong to the
quotation.
 26

a)Did she say, “I will be home at midnight”?

b) The man said, “You have never won the contest”!

Exercise

Punctuate the following sentences. If a sentence is correct, write ‘correct’.

1. Did the teacher say,” We’ll meet in the gym”?

2. The receptionist asked us what we wanted.

3. The speaker said, “Inflation must be stopped.”

4.” Have the committee members arrived yet,” asked Tizita.

5. “The best part,” she added,” is the ending.”

Quotation marks for titles

Use quotation marks to enclose the titles of magazines articles, chapters, titles of short stories, essays,
or single poems, songs and short pieces of music.

Chapter: Chapter 3, “Americans in London”

Magazine article: “Images of Youth Past”

Short Story: “The Lottery”

Essay: “My First Article”

Poem: The Raven”

Song: “Dangerous”

Underline the titles of books, newspapers, magazines, plays, television programs, movies, works of
art, and long musical compositions.

In writing or typewriting, these titles are underlined, like this: The Right Stuff.

In print, these titles appear in italics instead of being underlined.

Book: Native Son

Newspaper: The Daily Monitor

Magazine: Tsigereda

Play: Hamlet

Television program: Ethiopian Idol

Movie: Yewendoch Guday; The Proposal

 27

Work of art: Maresha

Exercise

Add quotation marks where necessary.

1. The television program “Shai Buna” raises and discusses a number of social and economic issues.

2. Two of James Thurber’s stories are “The Very Proper Gander” and “The Shrike and Chipmunks”.

3. Read the first chapter,” Discovery in the New World”.

4. I liked the story” The Monkey’s Paw’.

5. For my poetry assignment, I read “Ex-Basketball Player”.

6. The band played music from ”Camelot” and the theme from “Chariots of Fire”.

7. Charlie Chaplin’s “The Gold Rush” and Harold Lloyd’s “Safety Last” are two well-known silent films.

8. Did you see the movie “Gandhi”?

9. Read chapter 2, “How We Came to the River”.

10. This is Judy Bass’s painting “Jump out of Darkness”.

7. END MARKS

7.1 THE PERIOD (.)

Use a period at the end of a declarative sentence.

A declarative sentence is a sentence that makes a statement. It is a kind of sentence you use when you
want to tell something.

My brother plays the guitar.

Use a period at the end of an imperative sentence.

An imperative sentence is a sentence that requests or orders someone to do something.

Please bring me that book.

If the imperative sentence also expresses excitement or emotion, an exclamation point is used after it.

Watch out!

Use a period at the end of an indirect question.

An indirect question tells what someone asked. However, it does not give the exact words of the
person who asked the question.
 28

She asked us whether we liked strawberries.

Use a period after an abbreviation or after an initial.

An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word. An initial is a single letter that stands for a word.

Dr. Marla E.Corona

Rev. John L.Haeger,Jr.

2:30 P.M.

Periods are omitted is some abbreviations. If you are not sure whether or not to use periods, look up
the abbreviation in your dictionary.

FM (frequency modulation)

UN (United Nations)

FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation)

Use a period after each number or letter that shows a division of an outline or that preceded an item
in a list

An outline A list

I. Poets 1.eggs

A. American 2. milk

1. Robert Frost 3. butter

7.2 THE QUESTION MARK (?)

Use a question mark at the end of an interrogative sentence

An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question.

Is Alex here?

The above sentence gives the exact words of the person who asked the question. It is a called a direct
question. A question mark is used only with a direct question.

Do not use a question mark with an indirect question. Instead use a period.

Sisay asked whether Alex was here.

Use a question mark in memos or informal letters to ask for confirmation.

We will meet on Friday(?) to discuss the arrangements.

 29

Here the writer is asking the other person if Friday is convenient.

7.3 THE EXCLAMATION POINT (!)

Use an exclamation point at the end of an exclamatory sentence.

How great that looks!

Use an exclamation point after an interjection or after any other exclamatory expression.

An interjection is a word or group of words used to express a strong feeling. It may be a real word or
simply a group of letters used to express a sound. It is one of the eight parts of speech.

Hurrah!

Wow!

Ugh!

Exercise

Add the necessary punctuation in the following sentences.

1. I was supposed to meet Tizita at 10:30 A.M.

2. Dr. James Coogan, Jr., is going to talk about lifesaving.

3. What is Dr. Hailu’s phone number?

4. Help! I can’t get this door open!

5. One mile is equal to 16 kilometers.

6. Where did I put my new sweater?

7. Wow! That was quite a football game.

8. Mary, Look out!

9. Our art supplies will cost less than ten birr, but they’ll be more that 8.25 birr.

10. My appointment with Dr. Gamachu is at 10:20 A.M.

POST-TEST

You have looked at the various punctuation marks and their actual functions. Are there any changes
you would like to make?

Dannys hobby is collecting old blues records. His collection began accidentally When his sister Laura
moved away she gave him hers She said Take care of these Danny Theyre an important part of the past
He thanked her politely but it took him a while to appreciate the records After listening to them he
became an ardent blues fan He liked the stories in the songs the emotion in the singers voices and the
 30

heavy rhythmical beat of the music Danny started adding to the collection He browsed at record stores
second hand shops and garage sales His interest in the blues gave him a new awareness of music For
Lauras birthday Danny taped some hits from the 80s that showed the influence of the blues He wanted
her to know the past was an important part of the present
 31

CHAPTER THREE
III.IMPROVING AND JOINING SENTENCES
3.1 IMPROVING/REVISING SENTENCES

In this section I will draw your attention to the skills or methods for correcting sentences for faulty
writing. This will help you to write clear and unambiguous sentences. Therefore, you should spend
much time practicing this so that it will later help you to compose meaningful sentences in paragraphs
and compositions, which are the ultimate goals of this course.

3.1. 1 MISPLACED AND DANGLING MODIFIERS

MISPLACED MODIFIERS
When modifiers are not placed at appropriate position in a sentence, they modify a wrong word, and
hence are called misplaced modifiers. Look carefully at the following sentences which all contain
misplaced modifiers.

Faulty: Our neighbors sold dress to my sister without buttons. (Without buttons, here,
modifiers my sister which really becomes an odd modification. The correct place for it
would be right after dresses. Hence:
Corrected: Our neighbors sold dresses without buttons to my sister.

Faulty: At the age of 5, the doctor administered a small pox vaccine to me (At the age of 5

describes a doctor. However, it is very unrealistic to talk about a 5-year-old doctor. It

should modify I or me:
Corrected: When I was five years old, the doctor administered a small pox vaccine to me.

Exercise
Misplaced Modifiers
Now try to improve the following sentences that contain misplaced modifiers.

1. An old car was pulled down the street that had a flat tire.
2. In dribbling for the basket, the ball should be bounced no higher than one’s waist.
3. After undressing completely, the doctor examined me.
4. When two years old, my father swam across the Give River.
5. We saw a giraffe in the awash National Park that had a long neck
6. Charles took a picture of a squirrel running across the telephone wire with his new camera.
7. Baskets were given to all the children filled with Easter eggs.
8. AIDS has consumed the lives of many people, which is a killer disease.
9. Little white boxes of wedding cake were given to all the guests tied with white satin ribbon.
10. My little brother is now in America who studied Engineering.

DANGLING MODIFIERS
 32

Sometimes verbal phrases and other expressions that should be acting as modifiers have nothing to
describe. These are called dangling modifiers.

Dangling: To enter the contest, a form must be signed. (“To enter the contest” doesn’t modify any noun
or expression. It therefore dangles.)

Corrected: To enter the contest, you must sign a form. (Now, “To enter the contest,” modifies ‘you’.
Thus, one way of improving sentences that contain dangling modifiers is by assigning a subject(s) to
the modifier that dangles.
Dangling: After milking the cow, I fed the horse.
Corrected: After I milked the cow, I fed the horse.

Dangling: While driving by the church, the organist was giving a concert. (Who drives by the church?)

Corrected: While I was driving by the church, I saw the organist give a concert.

Corrected: While I was driving by the church, the organist was giving a concert.

Dangling: After glancing at the clock, the book was closed by Jamal. (Who glanced at the clock? No one)

Corrected: after glancing at the clock, Jamal closed the book.

Corrected: After he glanced at the clock, Jamal closed the book.

Exercise
Dangling Modifiers

Revise the following sentences for dangling modifiers.

1. Turning the pages, my eye noticed the record sale.
2. To prepare for an exam, solitude and concentration are needed.
3. Dancing and drinking every night, her reputation in the village suffered.
4. Driving through town, many traffic lights delayed us.
5. While napping, the door awakened me.
6. Finding no one at home, the next move was up to us.
7. When studying at night, a good lamp should be available.
8. To have successful party, good conversation and food are always useful.
9. Climbing the hill, there was another hotel.
10. While looking for a birthday present, a bracelet caught my eye.

3.1.2 OVERLOADED AND UNSUPPORTED STATEMENTS

We often tend to write sentences packed with too much information. Also, we tend to use the
connective ‘and’ over and over again. Sentences that contain too much information and many and’s
are called overloaded or rambling sentences. Besides, there are instances in which you may write
sentences which may contain opinions that are not supported by substantial reasons. These are
called unsupported sentences. This section helps you to write short and logically acceptable
sentences.

OVERLOADED SENTENCES
 33

As stated above, overloaded or rambling sentences are long sentences containing a number of ideas,
usually connected by and’s. As a result of this, they tend be confusing and ineffective. Such sentences
violate the principle that a sentence usually contains one central thought.

When you revise such sentences

 Reduce the original sentence into two or three shorter sentences

 Reduce the number of and’s

 Join very closely related ideas or sentences

 Replace repeated words with pronouns

Example:

Lengthy: I went into the building, and I waited for the elevator in the lobby, and when it

didn’t come I had to walk up eight flight of stairs.

Revised: I went to the lobby of the building and waited for the elevator. When it didn’t

come, I had to walk up eight flight of stairs.

Lengthy: The Olympic Games are patterned after an ancient Greek festival, and the first modern games
were held in 1896, and since then the number of sports and participates has greatly increased.

Revised: The Olympic Games are patterned after n ancient Greek festival and the first modern games
were held in 1896. Since then…

Exercise
Overloaded Sentences
Revise the following sentences in the same way.

1. Some children learn to read at age three of four, and others learn in school, and experts
disagree about the value of very early training in reading.
2. Hurricanes ate tropical cyclones, and they start over oceans, especially near the equator, and
the winds can reach 150 miles per hour, and the most destructive hurricane occurred in 1972.
3. The art department offers classes in ceramics and photography, and this year there will be a
print making class, and many students are eager to learn about etching and lithography.
4. One tree in our town is sixty-five years old, and it has a hole in the trunk, and twenty people can
stand inside it, and our elders used the tree long ago as a meeting place.
5. Horrible faces glared t me from the shelves in the costume shop, ad all of them were contorted,
and most of them were scarred, and they were deathly gray with a greenish cast.
6. After we practice, we can get a pizza, and then before it gets dark, we can get in a game of
tennis, and then maybe we will agree on which movie to see.
7. I searched everywhere for my missing wallet and I looked in the house, outside, and in the car
and then I retraced my steps and finally found the missing wallet in a drawer of my desk at
work.
 34

8. Tetanus is a dangerous illness, and it is called lockjaw, and it causes severe muscle spasm, and is
caused by toxin produced by bacteria enter the body usually through deep wounds and tetanus
can be prevented by immunization.
9. Some people think that the federal government should deregulate oil prices and that would
probably cause gas and oil prices to rise, but if gas and oil prices rise, then people will buy less,
and the country will have to import less, and maybe that will help control inflation.
10. Tall children have learning problems and this is because people expect them to act like older
children because of their size and when adults expect a child to do more than the child can this
creates problems.

UNSUPPORTED SENTENCES/STATEMENTS
These are statements that are not supported by reasons, facts, or examples. The question ‘why?” is left
in the reader’s mind.

Example
Unsupported: Some people are talking about making the school year longer. This would be a mistake. I

think that the school year is long enough as it is.

The underlined statements are just opinions. Thus, they need to be supported by reasons, or pieces of
evidence.

Supported: some people are talking bout making the school year longer. I think this would be mistake as
it makes it very boring.

Unsupported: I want to get a part-time job this year. I could work at least two hours after school each
day. My parents do not approve of the idea. (The underlined statements need to be
supported by reasons.)

Supported: I want to get part-time job this year. It would help me to cover my tuition fee. So I could
work at least two hours a day after school each day. But my parents do not approve of the
idea as it may consume my study time.

Unsupported: Chess is becoming popular with people of all ages. Even young children play it. I think it
would be good for everyone to learn the game.

Supported: Chess is becoming popular with people of all ages. Even young children play it I think it
would be good for everyone to learn the game as it is a pass –time game, or a puzzling
game…

Exercise

Unsupported Statements
1. Parents and teachers often complain about how much time young people spend watching TV.
However, many TV shows are good for us to watch.
2. According to the state law, you have to be eighteen before you can get a decent job. I think this is
very bad. I think the law should be changed.
3. I think the idea of introducing peer evaluation is good.
4. Detroit is making a lot of small cars now. I think that is very good. I like these small cars and hope
to save enough money to own one in a few years.
 35

5. The current prime minister of Ethiopia is not a good person.

6. Taking too much alcohol is very dangerous.
7. Going to movies is very beneficial.
8. Many people like to watch football games every Sunday.
9. We need to develop the culture of working in groups.
10. I don’t want to work with them.

3.1.3 FAULTY PARALLELISM AND COMPARISON

Faulty Parallelism

Faulty parallelism occurs when two or more expressions which belong to different speech parts, or word
classes, or structures are used in sentences. Look carefully at the examples beneath.

FAULTY: Last summer I learned tennis, to swim and riding a horse. (In a series of three, one is a
noun, the second is infinitive, and the third is –ing, thus spoiling the parallelism. So we can make all
of them infinitives or –ing form.
IMPROVED: a) Last summer I learned to play tennis, to swim, and to ride a horse.

b) Last summer I learned playing tennis, swimming, and riding a horse.

FAULTY: Sunday is a good day for sleeping late, eating a big breakfast, and to spend hours reading
fiction. (The third item in the series is an infinitive. It is therefore to change to the –ing, or change the
other two into infinitive.

IMPROVED: Sunday is good day to sleep late, to eat big breakfast, and to spend hours reading fiction.

FAULTY: A man with a large package and armed with a shotgun ran up the street. (The first
underlined part is a prepositional phrase, and the second one is a participial phrase).
IMPROVED: A man with a large package and armed with a shotgun ran up the street.
FAULTY: My grandfather was a Baptist, a republican and loved to argue.
Noun Noun Verb
IMPROVED: My grandfather was a Baptist, a Republican and an arguer.
Noun Noun Noun
FAULTY: I found him both cooperative and that he knew the work

Adj. dependent clause

IMPROVED: I found him both cooperative and knowledgeable.

Adj. Adj.

IMPROVED: I found that he was cooperative and that he knew the work.

Exercise
Now try to improve the following sentences in the same way.
 36

1. A good scholar must be precise and possess originality.

2. Consider the origins of man and how he has developed.
3. This morning I went to the hairdresser, shopping at Merkato, and lunching at Bole.

4. He was praised by the priests, flattered by the pops but the people hated him.
5. The pilot received orders to bomb the target and that he would then return home.
6. He hoped for an increase in salary and to get a longer holiday.
7. Adane plans to study electronics and then working in his uncle’s plant in Jimma.
8. To develop the reading habit, get yourself some interesting books and magazines, and a little
reading should be done each day.
9. The ancient Egyptians had broad shoulders, narrow hips, and with finely molded hands and
feet.
10. The atmosphere of the earth bends the moon’s rays and giving a false impression of its position
in the sky.

Faulty Comparisons

Faulty comparisons occur when wrong items are compared. Look at the examples below:

1. Learning English in Ethiopia is different from England. (The comparison here is made between
learning English in Ethiopia, on one hand, and England on the other. It should have been
between learning English in Ethiopia, and learning English in England.
Therefore, the sentence can be revised as:

Learning English in Ethiopia is different from learning it in England

2. The reception on my radio is better than you. (Reception on my radio and you are compared.)
The revised version could be.
a) The reception on my radio is better than yours. Or
b) The reception on my radio is better than the reception on your radio

Exercise

Revise the following in the same way.

1. TV commercials do not bother me as much as radio.

2. Life in Ethiopia is different from Kenya.
3. My reading styles are better than you.
4. My experience in this job is similar to my brother.
5. I like orange like you.
6. Most of my enemies are very brutal like you.
7. Many colleges and universities in Ethiopia are similar to Uganda.
8. The operation of a computer is different from a typewriter.
9. Both my sister’s dogs are very friendly like you.
10. Kalkidan distastes bragging about her achievements like them.
 37

3.1.4 Empty Expressions and Redundancies

Empty Expressions

These are unnecessary words or phrases that add almost nothing to the meaning of a sentence. They
just make it wordy. Sentences that contain such expressions are therefore called padded sentences.

Example
Padded: What I really want is to be an engineer.

Revised: I want to be an engineer.

(What I really… is unnecessary.)

Padded: We didn’t go to school because of the fact that there was a heavy traffic.

Revised: We didn’t go to school because there was a heavy traffic. (Of the fact that is unnecessary)

Padded: The point is that travel to Mars has become a reality.

Revised: Travel to Mars has become a reality (The point is that is unnecessary).

The following expressions add nothing or little to the meaning of sentences.

- due to the fact that

- because of the fact that
- owing to the fact that
- on account of the fact that
- what I mean is
- what I believe is
- what I want is
- what I want to say is, etc

Exercise
Empty expressions
Now revise the following sentences eliminating empty expressions.

1. The reason that I called was to tell you that the meeting was cancelled.
2. Whenever it happens to rain hard, our cellar fills up with water and becomes a lake.
3. I lied to you about the fact that I was a lawyer.
4. Due to the fact that the weather was bad, I stayed indoors and studied
5. What I really believe is that planning lies at the heart of success.
6. The thing that nobody could understand was Almaz’s fear.
7. Many people these days are dying on account of the fact that they are infected by HIV Virus
8. You must admit that even if you don’t admire him that he okays well
9. I know that if I study hard that I can get a scholarship.
10. What I mean is that his ideas of summer camp are not realistic.

REDUNDANCY
 38

Redundancy means repetition. So there are sentences that repeat an idea and end up where they
started.

Example

Redundant: The hungry wolf ate ravenously.

Revised: The wolf ate ravenously. (‘ravenously’ shows that the wolf was hungry. Thus ‘hungry’ is
unnecessary.

Redundant: He had no friends, and so he was always alone.

Revised: He had no friends. (The second part simply repeats the first idea)

Redundant: do you have a spare pencil that you are not using?

Revised: Do you have spare pencil: Or

Do you have a pencil that you are not using? (Spare and that you are not using mean the same. Thus,
only one of them should be maintained)

Redundant: The hot. Steamy asphalt shimmered.

Revised: The steamy asphalt shimmered. (Steamy includes hot.)

Exercise

Redundancy

Now revise the following sentences eliminating unnecessary repetitions.

1. Friday is the final deadline for the report.

2. The descending waterfall was graceful.
3. Everyone laughed throughout the entire movie.
4. I have a minor crisis in my life, and to me it presents a problem
5. Many people don’t like going into tall skyscrapers.
6. The movie was dull, and I found it very boring.
7. Can you keep this secret confidential?
8. The observatories are open to the public and everyone is invited to see them.
9. Pieces of advice are constantly needed all of the time.
10. If you have ever been to the zoo, you know what a great time you, can have there. The zoo is a
place to visit again and again. At the zoo there is always something new, wonderful and
educational.

3.1.5 VARYING SENTENCE BEGINNINGS

You want people to enjoy reading what you have to say. You are therefore interested in making your
writing lively and effective. One way to achieve this is to vary the beginnings of your sentences, to give
them a new look by inverting the order of their parts. The most natural way to begin a sentence is with
the subject.
 39

SUBJECT: The boy was caught in the pool and withed for his friend, the bear.

ADVERB: Reluctantly, the boy fastened the collar on the bear cub.

The boy (reluctantly) fastened the collar on the bear cub (reliantly)

PHRASE: a) For days he watched them. [Prepositional phrase]

He watched them for days.

b) Driving with one hand, he headed for home. [Participial phrase]

He headed for home driving with one hand.

CLAUSE: If rode the horse with its rhythm he could ride every horse in the herd. [Adverb Clause]
He could ride every horse in the heard if he rode the horse with its rhythm.

Exercise

Look at the additional examples below, and try the rest in the same way.

a) We can see bout 3,000 stars on a clear night.

On a clear night, we can see about 3,000 stars

b) Only the nearest and brightest stars are visible in the vast sea of stars.
In the vast sea of stars, only the nearest and brightest stars are visible.

1. Fainter and invisible stars stretch endlessly beyond the reaches of our imagination. (Adverb)
2. There are 100 billion stars in just our own galaxy, the Milky Way. (Prepositional Phrase)
3. The Milky Way would look like a giant fried egg if we could look down on it. (adverb clause)
4. Our sun is actually just one star in the galaxy. (adverb)
5. The Milky Way, bulging in the middle, spans 10,000 light-years at the center (Participial
Phrase-ing form)
6. Our solar system travels 250 miles per second; although we do not feel the motion. (Adverb
clause)
7. One complete orbit around the galaxy nevertheless takes 250 million years. (adverb)
8. Orbiting stars form graceful spiral arms in the outer part of the galaxy. (Prepositional
phrase)
9. One spiral arm, extending through the constellations pursues and Cassiopeia, reaches our
7,000 light-years from the sun.(Participial phrase-ing form)
10. She left the room after eating her lunch.

3.2 JOINING SENTENCES

When we join sentences we have a definite purpose to achieve. We don’t join sentences for the sake of
joining. There are two major purposes for which we do so: first, we want to achieve coherence, or the
logical flow of ideas; second, we want to achieve brevity, that is, by brining ideas together and avoiding
repetitions, we come up with short and brief sentences. Look at the following examples which illustrate
these two major purposes:
A. She took a shower.
B. She went to the airport.
 40

She took a shower and went to the airport.

The combined sentence shows a sequence of ideas one after the other, thus, creating coherence.
A. She bought three hand bags.
B. She also bought four leather jackets.
She bought three hand bags and four leather jackets.
Apart from showing a clear sequence of ideas, the combined sentence is also brief because the
repetition of words such as she bought is avoided.
TECHNIQUES FOR COMBINING SENTENCES
There are several ways of combining sentences:
A. Coordination
B. Subordination
C. Reduction
D. Appositive
E. Adjectives

A.COORDINATION
In coordination, two sentences of equal importance are joined by ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’, or ‘so’
Linking Ideas: Addition, contrast, choice, and result
Two sentences that state related ideas of equal importance can usually be combined into a single
statement by a comma and the word “and”

Example
a) The storm will pass tonight. Tomorrow will be fair.
b) The storm will pass tonight, and tomorrow will be fair.

The sentences could also be joined by a semicolon

The storm will pass tonight; tomorrow will be fair.
Two sentences that state contrasting ideas of equal importance can usually be joined by a comma and
the word “but”.
a) Tomorrow will be fair. Another storm is on its way.
b) Tomorrow will be fair, but another storm is on its way.

Two sentences that express a choice between ideas of equal importance usually can be joined by a
comma and the word “or”.
a) Will the weekend be sunny? Is another storm coming?
b) Will the weekend be sunny, or is another storm coming?
Two sentences that express result are usually joined by a comma and the word ‘so’
a) You can see through glass.
b) Glass is used for windows.
You can see through glass, so it is used for windows.
Exercise
Join each pair of sentences using and, but, or, or so.

1. Many people believe in UFO’s. Few have ever seen one.

2. Do I have to wear glasses? Can I wear contact Lenses?
3. My friend failed his first flying test. He became one of the most famous pilots of his
time.
4. The team’s record must improve. The coach might be fired.
 41

5. The force of the storm increased. The city way paralyzed.

6. He worked hard. He was promoted to the next level.
7. She denied taking the money. I am sure she was the one who was responsible for that.
8. I play the flute. She plays the ‘kirar’.
9. My dog had twelve puppies. All of them died.
10. You can take his advice which is not very good. You can try to figure out your own
solution.
Joining Sentence Parts
Two sentences may express ideas that are so closely related that words are repeated in the sentences. It
is usually best to combine such sentences and eliminate the repeated.

Sentence parts with similar parts of equal importance can often be joined by “and” (underlined words
are eliminated.)
a) Abebe stepped onstage. Abebe walked to the podium.
b) Abebe stepped onstage and walked to the podium.

a) The newspapers ignored the election. TV stations ignored it, too.

b) The newspapers and TV stations ignored the election.

Sentence parts that express contrasting ideas usually can be joined by “but”
a) I arrived late. I worked harder than anyone else.
b) I arrived late but worked harder than anyone else.

Sentence parts that express a choice between ideas usually can be joined by “or”.
a) Is the shuttle launch scheduled for Thursday?
Is the shuttle launch scheduled for Friday?
b) Is the shuttle launch scheduled for Thursday or Friday?
Exercise

Join the related parts in each pair of sentences by following directions in parenthesis. Eliminate the
underlined words.

1. Leila called. Kalkidan called. (Join related parts with and)

2. The software for this system is excellent. It is expensive, though. (Join related pats with
but.)
3. Most of the popular musical groups are from
Addis Ababa. Many are from Dire Dawa. (Join related parts with or)
4. Computers fascinate some people. Computers terrify others. (Join parts with but and
replace the underlined with a pronoun).
5. Jabessa took a quick toward first base. Then Jabessa went into his windup. (Join related
parts with and ).

Adding Groups of Words

Sometimes you can add a group of words without changing it. When the words give more information
about someone or something, add them near the name of the person or thing.
a) Abay stacked the cartons. They are in the basement.
b) Abay stacked the cartons in the basement.
 42

a) The clouds were alarming. The clouds were on the horizon.

b) The clouds on the horizon were alarming.

a) Gemechu was waiting. He was at the corner.

b) Gemechu was waiting at the corner.

Exercise
Combine each of the following pairs of sentences by adding a group of words to the first sentence.
Eliminate the underlined words.

1. The gray door leads to the main office. The door is at the end of this hall.
2. The call was from Nebiu Isayas. He is a newspaper reporter.(Use a comma )
3. The flight is from Gore. The flight is arriving at Gate 16.
4. Brass was first produced in ancient Rome. Brass is alloy of copper and zinc.
5. The historic park contains houses and shops. The houses and shops date back to the
18th century. (Use the-ing form of date)

B.SUBORDINATION
In subordination one or more of the independent sentences are reduced to a dependent or subordinate
clause. One way to do this is using relative clauses in which relative pronouns such as which, that, who,
whom, whose, etc are used.

Using Relative Pronouns

Study these facts about James Watt.
a) He was an engineer.
b) This engineer invented a steam engine.
c) His engine had a special part.
d) The part changed steam back into water.
e) Watt was born in Scotland.
f) He made his first experiments in Scotland

Look at sentences (a) and (b). The word engineer is in both sentences. You can join them like this.
Watt was an engineer who invented a steam engine.
The underlined part is a relative clause. In the relative clause, you replace ‘This engineer’ by who. Who is
used for a person or people.

Look at how you join sentences (c) and (d).

His engine had a special part which changed steam into water.
Which is used for things.

Look at how you join sentences (e) and (f).

Watt was born in Scotland, where he made his first experiments.
Where is used for places if the place has a preposition (Eg. In, on, at, to) before it in the second
sentence. If there is no preposition, you use which.
Watt was born in Scotland. Scotland is part of Britain.
Watt was born in Scotland, which is part of Britain.
Make sure the relative clause comes immediately after the noun it describes. What is wrong with this
sentence?
 43

The Nile flows from Lake Victoria, which is the longest river in Africa.
Exercise
Join the facts about the following personalities using relative clauses. Refer to the example given above.

1. Gandhi

a) Gandhi was a politician.

b) He led the independence movement in India.
c) He studied in London.
d) He became a lawyer in London.
e) He went to South Africa.
f) He became a leader of the Indians in South Africa.
g) This movement won freedom from Britain in 1974.
2. Columbus

a) Columbus was an explorer.

b) He crossed the Atlantic in 1492.

c) He wanted to find a sea-route to Asia.

d) Many valuable things were made in Asia.

e) He discovered a new country.

f) He discovered the country was a part of Asia.

g) He called the people Indians.

h) The people lived in the Americas.

3. Shakespeare

a. Shakespeare was a writer.

b. He was born in Stratford in 1564.

c. Stratford is a small town.

d. It is in the West of England.

e. Shakespeare wrote many plays.

f. They are still performed today.

g. He spent much of his life in London.

h. He worked in a theatre in London as a writer and actor.

 44

Another way of subordination is using the following linking words: because, since, however, when,
although, if and so on.
Exercise
Combine the following sentences using appropriate subordinating conjunctions.
1. Mimi came in the room. Everyone fell silent.
2. His wife had left him. His children were grown. His business was falling. He wanted to
leave for Europe.
3. I will promote him to the next level. He does his work properly.
4. There is plenty to eat. Many people are starving to death.
5. Don’t forget to call me. You see my little sister.
6. It began to rain. Mary came in the house.
7. Many people are migrating to big cities. Many people think that life is easy in big cities.
8. You must work hard. You want to succeed in your life.
9. There is no hard evidence for that. Many people believe that there is life after death.
10. We will try to settle the issue once and for all. You have ample free time.
C.REDUCTION
In reduction one of the independent clauses or sentences is reduced to a phrase: participial phrase,
or infinitive phrase. Look at the examples below.
a) She was annoyed by what he said.
b) She closed the door behind herself and left the room murmuring.
Annoyed by what he said, she closed the door behind herself and left the room murmuring.
(Annoyed is the past participle or verb 3 form of the verb ‘annoy’)
a) We heard a loud noise outside.
b) We all went under bed.
Hearing a loud noise outside, we all went under bed. (Hearing is the present participle or –ing
form of the verb ‘hear’)
a) I went to a restaurant.
b) I saw the movie star.
I went to a restaurant to see the movie star. ‘to see the movie star’ is an infinitive phrase
because it is introduced by the infinitive form of saw with to. When you want to express
purpose in this way you can join your ideas with the infinitive phrase.
Exercise
Join the following sentences in the same way.
1. She was disturbed by the death of her colleague. She didn’t come to work for two
weeks.
2. We studied for the exams very well. We felt very confident.
 45

3. I usually had balanced diet. I did not feel ill t all.

4. I was surprised by what she said. I laughed to death.
5. I drove to town for three hours. I met my long-lost friend.
D.APPOSITIVE
An appositive is a word, phrase or an expression that refers back to the word before it. It is used to
give more information about a certain topic of discussion, usually at subject position. Look at the
example below:
a) My hobby is playing tennis.
b) It has taught me endurance.
My hobby playing tennis has taught me endurance.
The phrase playing tennis refers back to my hobby and is therefore called an appositive. If the
appositive is a short expression such as this one, no commas are used but longer appositive are
usually enclosed within commas. Look at the following example:
a) Girma is a well known human rights activist.
b) Girma was born in Nekemte.
Girma, a well-known human rights activist, was born in Nekemte.
Exercise
Join the following sentences in the same way.
1. Ronaldo is a world class football player. Ronaldo was born in Portugal.
2. ‘Injera’ is a common dish in Ethiopia. ‘Injera’ is said to have some iron content.
3. My new girlfriend is a very greedy person. My new girlfriend lives with me.
4. Human beings are the most complicated living beings on this planet. Human beings are
victims of their own creations.
5. Our English instructor is a very polite person. He enjoys making fun of his friends and
students alike.
E.ADJECTIVES
Adjectives can be used before and after nouns and bring ideas together. Look at the example below.
a) The horse drooped patiently in its traces.
b) The horse was old.

c) The horse was weary.

The adjectives ‘old’ and ‘weary’ refer to the horse. So, they can be placed before or after it.

a) The horse, weary and old, drooped patiently in its traces.

b) The weary, old horse drooped patiently in its traces.

Exercise
 46

Now try to join the following in the same way.

1. The waitress perched on the counter. The waitress was young. The waitress was sexy.

2. The puppy was lonely. The puppy was bedraggled. The puppy crouched at the feet of
the man. The man was old. The man kicked it away.

3. The man gathered the boy into his arms. The man was old. The man was grief-stricken.

4. Police officials returned from a tour. The police officials were American. The tour was of
Japan.

5. The woman took the boy to a hospital. The woman was polite. The woman was kind-
hearted.
 47

CHAPTER THREE
3. THE PROCESS OF WRITING
Effective paragraph or essay writing is conceived as a process. Thus, before you embark on the actual
writing of a paragraph or an essay, there are certain basic things you should take-care of. Even after you
have written you paragraph or composition, the writing does not end there. You will still be concerned
with revising for more quality products. It is therefore to this end that this unit is devoted to.

The process of writing consists of three stages.

1. Pre-writing
2. Writing the First Draft, and
3. Revising.

3.1. PRE-WRITING

The first stage in the writing process is called pre-writing. During this stage you generate ideas, allow
your thoughts to take shape, and arrive at an organized plan for writing.

A. Choosing and Limiting Your Topic

Your first goal during pre-writing is to think of possible subjects. As you explore your interests and
experiences, jot down all ideas that come to mind. Make lists or just write freely for a few minutes,
letting your mind lead from one thought to the next. Your scattered thoughts will soon take the
shape of clear ideas.
To produce a list of possible topics for your writing, being by asking yourself the following wh-questions:

I. What do I know about?

II. What would I like to learn more?
III. What is happening to me or around me that I could observe or record?
The answers to these questions may provide you with possible topics for your paper. In general, you
are advised to

Choose a subject that interests you.

Choose a subject that will interest your audience.
Choose a subject you know enough about now or can learn about later.

EXERCISE
a. Thinking of Subjects
 48

For the following partial sentences, suggest possible topics.

1. Outside of school, I’ve learned how to -----------------
2. My hobbies are --------------------------------------------
3. The sports and games I most enjoy are -----------------
4. The careers that interest me that most are ------------
5. My jobs around the house include -----------------------
6. The TV shows I like the most are about -----------------
7. The people I admire most are ------------------------------
8. Places I would like to visit are -----------------------------
9. The things I have done to earn more money are --------
10. I’ve always wondered why The brain is called a mystery.

Limiting your Topic

Once you have chosen a subject, the next step is to limit it. Limit your subject so that it can be
adequately covered in one paragraph.

The following chart shows examples of general subjects that have been gradually limited or
narrowed
GENERAL SUBJECT MORE LIMITED LIMITED SUBJECT
Games board games chess
Football backs running backs
Sports basketball fouls
Novels Great Expectations the character pip
Trees sequoias age of sequoias

THE LIMITED SUBJECT doesn’t mean it is narrow enough to be dealt within a single paragraph. You need to
focus your thoughts by expressing the main idea in a phrase.
E.g. Limited Subject: Basketball Fouls
Focus: Why players sometimes commit Fouls on purpose.
Now “Why players sometimes commit Fouls on purpose” is a more limited topic/ subject that can be
used for writing a paragraph. Your prupose in writing therefore will not be anything else, but to try to
answer the question “why players sometimes commit Fouls on purpose.”

b. Limiting Subjects
Make three columns on your paper and label them General subject, more Limited, and
Limited subject.
 49

Example: Cars
General subject More Limited Limited subject
1. Cars old cars Ford model T
Then you can focus on one aspect of the limited subject.
Example: Ford Model T
Focus: ford Model T as the cheapest car.
1. Music 6. Languages
2. Agriculture 7. Villages
3. Education 8. Starvation
4. Culture 9. Food
5. Religion 10. Corruption

c. Limiting Subjects
Look at the examples below, and narrow down the subjects as required.
1. a) Farming in Ethiopia.
b) Diary Farming in Ethiopia.
c) Diary Farming in Addis Ababa.
d) The Shola Diary Farm.
 Personnel only one of this at a time
 Facilities For example: The sales of the Shola Diary
 Sales
2. a) The Spread of AIDS in Africa
b) The Spread of AIDS in Ethiopia
c) The Spread of AIDS in Addis Ababa
d) The Spread of AIDS in Bole Sub-city
e) The Support Given of AIDS patients in My Kebele.
If you carefully look at the two examples above, you can see that the first general or broad subjects are
logically narrowed down in descending order (Starting with the most general subject and ending with a
more or less narrowed topic appropriate for paragraph for paragraph writing).

Narrow the following broad subjects at least 4 or 5 steps down.

a) Marriage
b) Culture
c) War
d) Books
e) Cities
B. Deciding on Your Purpose
Once you have selected and limited your topic, you can limit it by deciding exactly what you want to say
about your topic. Do you want to analyze it? Describe it? Explain it? Criticize it? Defend it? You must also decide
what you’re writing to have. Do you want to inform? Entertain? Persuade? You main even write a purpose
statement, which you would use for your own consumption. This would help to be more focused, and not to be
outside it when you embark on the actual writing process.
 50

Example: Ford Model T

Focus: Why Ford Model T was so popular
Purpose: to explain (by providing reasons) about the popularity of Ford Model T.
EXERCISE
Write a purpose for each of the following focused topics
1. How hard the human heart works
2. What UFO’s are
3. The Benefits of owning a pet
4. The importance of self-confidence
5. School spirit at our school
C. Identifying Your Audience
Not only should you determine the effect you wish to create on your readers, you must also pinpoint who those
readers are. Your audience will indicate the type of vocabulary and level of language you should use. Ask
yourself the following questions:

 What do my readers already know?

 How familiar are they with my topic?
 What are their attitudes or opinions toward it?
For example, if you choose the topic ‘Nuclear Physics’ with a teenager in mind, you will definitely find out
that the topic would be inappropriate for two main reasons: firstly, conceptually, it is difficult for a
teenager, also, the words you will use would be quite technical, and can’t be understood by the teenager.
Thus, you should always consider the age and maturity of your readers, among other things.
D. Gathering Your Supporting Information
Once you have limited your subject, and decided on your audience and purpose, the next step is to list
details/supporting ideas that will help you explain or develop it. There are many kinds of details that may be
used to develop a paragraph. This will be discussed under ‘Methods of development’ elsewhere in this
course material. The choice depends on the purpose of the paragraph and kinds of questions a reader may
have about the subject.
The focus of your subject often offers a clue to the kinds of details you should use. In the following
examples, the focus calls for facts.

Example 1
LIMITED SUBJECT: The Heart
FOCUS: How hard the human heart works
FACTS: *aircraft and weather balloons.
 Pumps a little more than 5 quarts of blood each minute.
 In an average lifetime, beats 3 billion time

The ideas under ‘Facts’ and ‘examples’ above are called details/supporting ideas that can be used to develop
or explain the focused subject
 51

EXERCISE
List four details or supporting ideas for each of the following focused subject
1. FOCUSED SUBJECT: The Appearance of my Friend
DETAILS:
2. FOCUSED SUBJECT: How to get Ready For Exams
DETAILS:
3. FOCUSED SUBJECT: Things to do in National Parks
DETAILS:
4. FOCUSED SUBJECT: The benefits of owning a cat
DETAILS:
5. FOCUSED SUBJECT: The important of self-confidence
DETAILS:
6. FOCUSED SUBJECT: Why I remember yesterday
DETAILS:
7. FOCUSED SUBJECT: My Favorite Teachers
DETAILS:
8. FOCUSED SUBJECT: Places to see buffalo
DETAILS:
9. FOCUSED SUBJECT: People whose names became words
DETAILS:
10. FOCUSED SUBJECT: Classes that tenth graders take
DETAILS:

E. Evaluating and Organizing Your Information

Looking at your lists and notes, evaluate their content. Are there any unrelated details that should be
deleted? Are there details to be added for clarity? Next, decide how your material can most effectively be
organized. What would be a clear order of this particular type of information? What would make the
most sense to your readers? The details of a simple story, for example, would probably be organized in
the order in which they occurred. The arguments of a persuasive piece would b arranged to build up to
the most powerful argument.
Example
The following example contains all the four steps we have so far seen. But the details are not logically
arranged. This means the last step is not taken care of. The writer has simply listed his/her ideas without
paying attention to which should come first, and which should come next.
Focused Subject: Muscles Helped by swimming front Crawl.
Purpose: to give factual information
 52

Audience: My science class friends

Details:-
o leg muscles in kicking
o arm and chest muscles in reaching
o waist and lower back inside to side motion
o neck in breathing motion
The details therefore need to be rearranged in some way. For example:
 Neck in breathing motion
 Arm and chest muscles in reaching
 Waist and lower back in side to side motion
 Leg muscles in kicking.

The arrangement here stars from the neck, and logically moves to the leg. The reverse can also give sense.
3.2 WRITING A FIRST/ROUGH DRAFT
After pre-writing, you are ready for the next stage of the writing process. Writing the first draft. The first
draft should contain all the elements of a paragraph. These are a topic sentences, supporting sentences,
and a concluding sentence. At this stage, don’t worry about details such as spelling and punctuation. You
will have the opportunity to correct these and other errors during revision. Remember, a first draft is not a
final product. Even professional writers complete several drafts of any piece of writing before they are
satisfied.
A. Writing a Topic sentence
Earlier we have pointed out that a topic sentence(also called focus sentence) is one of the elements of your
first draft. By the time you are ready to write a topic sentence, you already have some prewriting notes that
include your focused subject and organized list of details. You can now use those notes to write a clear topic
sentence. A topic sentence should express the main idea of your paragraph and bind together all the
supporting details.
Suppose you had decided to write about whales. Your pre-writing notes might look like this.
FOCUSED SUBJECT: Spouts of the great whales
Details:-
 different spouts for different whales
 blue whale-tall and slender spout
 gray whale-law and bushy
 right whale-V-shaped, like a heart
 sperm whale -Spout blown forward at an angle
If you next try to express the main idea in one sentence, you might write the following.
Whale watchers can tell one kind of great whale from another by the shape of its spout.
This can then be followed by supporting sentences which are written using the details already organized.

B. Writing Supporting Sentences

 53

When you are satisfied with your topic sentence, you can move on to the body of the paragraph. The
body is made up of supporting sentences. You will use your list of supporting details to write the body of
your paragraph.

The above details can be written as the body of the first draft.
Blue whales have tall and slender spout. Gray whales have low and bushy spouts. Right whales have V-
shaped spout which is like a heart. Sperm whales have spout blown forward at angle.

C. Writing a Concluding Sentence

Many paragraphs within a longer piece of writing do not need a concluding sentence. Each paragraph
moves smoothly into the next one. A paragraph that stands alone, however, often does not seem
complete without a concluding sentence. To write a concluding sentence which summarizes the
paragraph, read over the topic sentence and body of your paragraph. For example, the following
concluding sentence might be written for the above topic sentence and details.

The spouts therefore give the whale watchers something to cheer about.

3.3 REVISING

The third stage of the writing process is revising. During this stage, writers improve their first drafts. As
you revise, look at your paragraph with a fresh eye, as if you revise your paragraph, you can ask yourself
the following questions:

1. Did I stick to my topic?

2. Did I include everything I wanted?
3. Are there any unrelated or unnecessary details?
4. Could any details be added to clarify or improve my writing?
5. Have I accomplished my purpose?

Also, focus on the following to see if you have properly put them to use;
- spelling
- punctuation
- capitalization
- tense
- agreement (subject-verb)
- appropriate use of connectives, etc.

Finally, when you are satisfied that your writing is clear and correct, you are ready to prepare your final
copy. When you have completed your final copy, proofread your work again.

Final Copy
Spouts of the Great Whales
Whale watchers can tell one kind of great whale from another by the shape of its spout. For example, a
blue whale has a very tall and slender spout, but a gray one owns a low and bushy spout. Right whales
tend to have V-shaped spout, like the human heart. The sperm whale has a spout blown forward at an
angle. Such spouts therefore give whale watchers something to cheer about.
 54

Though this is a final copy, it doesn’t mean that it can never be improved.

CHAPTER FIVE
V. THE PARAGRAHPH
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that present and develop one main idea. A good paragraph
is well organized (there is a logical flow of ideas), properly linked, and fully developed (with the help of
examples, facts, or statistics). A paragraph usually begins with an indentation, and its length varies
according to the complexity of the main idea to be developed. However, a typical paragraph quite often
has about one hundred words and seven to ten sentences. Every word, every sentence, and every point
in a paragraph should have a useful role to play in fulfilling the purpose of the paragraph. In short, the
essential features of paragraph writing are purpose, unity, coherence, development (completeness),
emphasis, length and format.

Paragraph Structure
Look at how a good paragraph is structured.
Geometry has a great many practical applications in the world around us. Bridges, skyscrapers,
Topic
Cloverleaf intersections, and railroads depend upon geometric principles for their constructions.
Sentence
Even a small ten-foot bridge built to span a gully would not stand the strain unless geometric
principles had been applied. Without blue prints, based on plane geometry, new homes could
not be designed, vehicles could not be built, and even floor lamps could not be mass-produced.
Supporting Your watch is a perfect demonstration of geometric principles in action. Scouts use geometry for
sentences or finding the distance across a river or the height of a tree. Geometry does indeed play an
Developers important role in human life.

The main idea of this paragraph is presented in the first sentence. This sentence is called the topic
sentence. It contains one main idea. The other sentences expand or develop the main idea-the practical
Concluding
applications of geometry-with specific examples. The last sentence, by returning to the main idea,
Sentence
makes the paragraph complete. It is called the concluding sentence. All the sentences contribute to one
main idea, and thus unity is maintained. The main idea-Geometry has a great many practical
applications in the world around us- is well explained with the help of developers (supporting
sentences). Thus, it is a well-developed paragraph.

To make sure that your message will be understood, learn to write paragraphs with a clear topic
sentence, a body of supporting sentences, and an effective concluding sentence.

INDENTAION

The first sentence of a paragraph is always indented so that the reader will know that new subject—or a
different aspect of the same subject –is being dealt with. The writer does this by leaving a blank space at
the beginning of the paragraph. Think of indentation as simply another kind of punctuation. Just as a
sentence ends with a period (.), so each new paragraph begins with an indentation. If you are nor
already familiar the idea of indentation, be sure to study the following diagram very carefully:
Indentation is very common in hand-written paragraphs. Type-written paragraphs often leave some
recognizable space between paragraphs to indicate the beginning of a new idea.

PARAGRAPH INDENTATION
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LENGTH
A Paragraph may vary in length. Some paragraphs are quite short; others are extremely long. Most
paragraphs have more than three sentences in them and usually have between 100 and 200 words.

THE TOPIC SENTENCE

Now Ask Yourself

1. What is a paragraph?
2. What is the proper “punctuation” for a paragraph?
Where is it located in the paragraph?

3. How long should a paragraph be?

TOPIC VERSUS TOPIC SENTENCE

As we have already said, the first sentence of a paragraph is usually called the topic sentence. You
may have noticed in your reading of certain English texts that it is possible to place the topic
sentence at the end of the paragraph (as a kind of conclusion), or even in the middle (as a kind of
link between the two parts. It is even possible not to have a topic sentence at all; in this case, we
say that the topic sentence is implied or suggested. Be aware of these possibilities when you read;
otherwise, you might miss the point which the author is trying to make. Even then the best potion
for the topic sentence is at the beginning of the paragraph.

When you write, however, remember that topic sentence placed at the beginning of paragraph is
the clearest kind of paragraph organization simple, effective, easy for you to manage, and easy for
your reader to understand.
 56

What makes a good topic sentence? The most important thing to remember at this point is that in a
topic sentence always tries to make a statement about your topic which limits it to a certain extent:

Topic Sentence = TOPIC+ LIMITING STATEMENT

Take, for example, the general topic of soccer. There are too many things to say about soccer to put
into a single paragraph. Therefore, your problem as a writer consists of deciding how you want to
write about soccer. In other words, you need to limit your discussion.

One good way to limit your topic is to place keywords or phrases in the topic sentence. These words
of phrase will let the reader know how you are going to discuss the topic. These words or phrases
are sometimes called controlling words or phrases, since they control the organization of the
paragraph.

In a paragraph on soccer, for example, they will immediately indicate to the reader that you plan to
do one of several things:

Discuss the history of soccer

Compare it with another sport

Describe its difficulty

Explain the rules of the game

LIMITING A TOPIC SENTENCE

How do you limit a topic in a topic sentence? There are many ways, but the following is a list of the
most common. One you understand these examples, you will find it much easier to write a carefully
controlled topic sentence.
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Topic Statement, which limits the Topic

1. Soccer is now played in the Unite States.

(place)

2. Soccer has become more popular with in the last five years.

(time or period of time)

3. Soccer is a physically demanding sport.

(quality)

4. Soccer and football have a great deal in common.

(showing similarities)

5. Soccer is more dangerous than tennis.

(showing differences)

6. A soccer player can receive various kinds of penalties during a game.

(number of things; a list)

7. The world cup

Soccer Champion-

Ship Games create interest from soccer fans all over

the world(effect).

8. Soccer is dangerous for several reasons.

(cause; reason)

Now Ask Yourself

1. Where does a topic sentence usually come in a paragraph?

2. Where else can it come?
3. What should a writer always try to do to the topic in a topic sentence?
4. What are eight kinds of statements which a writer can use to limit his/her topic?
a) _______________________ e. ______________________________

b) _______________________ f. ______________________________

c)_______________________ g. _______________________________

d)_______________________ h. _______________________________
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EXERCISE 1-1

Identifying Categories which Limit Topic Sentences

Directions: Notice the controlling words and phrases which have been underline in the
example sentence. They have also been identified as to type.

Notice also that it is possible to have more than one category in a single topic sentence.
After you have studied the example, do the same for the remaining sentences. Choose from
the eight categories.

1. Place 3. Quality 5. Differences 7. Effect

2. Time4. Similarities 6. Number 8. Cause

1. Soccer has become increasingly popular in the United States in the last ten years.
(quality) (place) (time)

2. Team sports develop an athlete’s sense of fair play.

( effect )

3. Libraries have three basic kinds of materials.

( number )

4. Women are paid less for equal work than men in certain U.S. companies.

( differences ) ( place )

5. Pollution has caused three major problems in our town in the last five years.

( cause ) ( number ) ( place ) ( time )

6. Air travel is more convenient than train travel for at least three reasons.

( differences ) ( number ) ( reason )

Before you actually begin to write a paragraph, it is usually a good idea to plan what you want to
say about your general topic. One way to plan is to explore the topic by making a list of the things that
come to your mind when you ask yourself questions about your topic. Using the topic soccer as an
example, you might want to ask questions according to the categories we have already discussed.

Where is soccer played?

In Europe in Asia

In Africa in the U.S

When is soccer played?

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World Cup Games Olympics

Scheduled leagues warm season

After school on weekends

How can soccer be described?

Fast uniforms

Players dangerous

Rules popular

Ball field

Plays penalties

Is soccer similar to any other game?

American football

Rugby

Lacrosse

Is soccer different from these games?

Yes- each in different ways

How many players are on a soccer team?

Eleven

What are the effects of playing soccer?

Athletic skill good shape

Admired by fans publicity

Sense of fair play

Why do people play soccer?

Fun

Popular

Good exercise

Of course, it would not be possible to write about all of the things on your list in one paragraph.
Therefore, after you have compiled your list, you will want to select key words chosen from one to three
 60

categories fit together logically. Usually, key words chosen from one to three categories will be
adequate to limit your topic to the kind of information which can be developed in one paragraph. Notice
that in the soccer example, we can choose from among the answers to our questions to formulate all of
the topic sentences shown in the box on page4.

Keep in mind that, depending on the general topic you are working with, it is not always possible to ask
and answer questions in all of the categories.

For instance, you probably would not want to ask whether smoking is similar to anything else. Likewise,
you will probably use the number category only to place a limit on places, time, similarities, differences,
causes, and effects.

THE TOPIC SENTENCE

EXERCISE 1-2

Guided Practice in Exploring Your Topic

Directions: Working alone or in small groups, make a list of all the possible answers you can think of the
following questions about a famous leader with whom you are familiar. Then, selecting key words and
phrases from at least two categories, formulate two different topic sentences.

1. Where did he/she work, live, and die?

2. When did he/she live?
3. What kind of person was he/she like?
4. Was he/she similar to other leaders? How?
5. Was he/she different from other leader? How?
6. What were the effects of his/her work?
7. Why is he/she well known?
(1) Tewdros was different from Menelik for at least four different reasons.
(2) Tewdros had many admirable qualities when he was ruling Ethiopia in the 19 th C.

EXERCISE 1-3

Exploring Your Topic

Directions: work alone or in small groups and ask questions based on the categories about the following
topics. All of the topics are too general to write about in one paragraph. After you have answered the
questions, select key words or phrases for each topic from the categories. Then, for each topic, write
two completely different topic sentences which might be developed into two completely different
paragraphs. In parentheses beneath the topic sentences, indicate what categories you have used. Your
topic sentences should look like those in the example.

Example:

Topic: soccer
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1. There are many reasons for soccer’s increased popularity

(number) (description)

2. Latin Americans generally prefer soccer to football.

(place) (differences)

Choose a Topic

1. supermarkets
2. smoking
3. study habits
4. problems between generations’
5. registration process at a university

EXERCISE 1-4

WRITING TOPIC SENTENCES

Directions: working alone, formulate questions about the following topic based on the categories. Then
write three separate topic sentences about the topic.

When you have finished, compare your sentences with those of some of your classmates to decide
whether you have limited the topic adequately.

Topic: Foreign students at Unity University

SOPPORTING SENTENCES
(PARAGRPH UNITY)
Remember that besides the topic sentence, paragraph includes several other sentences which in
some way contribute to or support the idea in the topic sentence. In other words, all these
sentences must be related to the topic and must therefore refer back to the topic sentence .
Notice the arrows in the following diagram:

PARAGRAPH

Topic sentence

Supporting sentence

Supporting sentence
 62

Supporting sentence

Supporting sentence

and so forth

It is possible, of course, that some sentences may be directly related to the preceding supporting
sentences (that is, they provide examples, details, or further explanation):

PARAGRAPH

Topic sentence

Supporting sentence

Supporting sentence

Supporting sentence

Supporting sentence

and so forth

Now Ask Yourself

1. What must all supporting sentences do?

2. What is illustrated by the arrows in the two previous diagrams?
(The first diagram)

If a paragraph does all this—that is, (I) if it announces its main idea in the topic sentence, and (2) if all
the supporting sentences contribute to the reader’s understanding of the main idea—we say that a
paragraph is unified, or that it has unity. If the paragraph fails to do this, we say that it lacks unity.
 63

In the following paragraph, two sentences that destroy the unity are underlined. Read the paragraph
twice –once with the sentences that stray and once without. Notice that the revised paragraph is easier
to understand.

Candlelight
Candles, which go back to prehistoric times, were a chief source of light for 2, 000 years. The first
candle may have been discovered by accident when a piece of wood or cord fell into a pool of lighted fat.
In ancient times, crude candles were made from fats wrapped in husks or moss. Early people also used
torches. Later, a wick was placed inside a candle mold and melted wax was poured into the mold. The
first lamps used a dish of oil and a wick. Candles could be used to carry light from place to place and
could be stored indefinitely.

Study the following paragraph. It lacks unity. Before reading the explanation which follows, can you
figure out why it is not unified? (The sentences have been numbered only to make the discussion easier.
Do not number sentences like this when you write a paragraph?)

There are two main reasons why I have decided to attend Bingston University next year. 2Applying to a
college is a terribly complicated process. 3some of my friends chose colleges for very bad reasons. 4John
has never been to college. 5l’ve met his grandfather, and he still has an incredibly sharp mind for a man
of his age. 6 Susan chose a university because the food in the region was said to be quite good. 7Susan is
really not too clever, I suppose, so I shouldn’t criticize her. 8Actually, I think it was her father who made
the choice for her.

Did you notice that none of the preceding sentences actually discusses the topic which was announced
in the topic sentence? The paragraph was supposed to be about the writer’s two main reasons for
choosing Bingston University.

However, we are never told the reasons. The author mentions many unrelated things-his friend John,
John’s grandfather, his friend Susan, Susan’s stupidity, and so forth-but not the two reasons for choosing
Bingston University! If we wanted to show this by means of a diagram of the paragraph, we might do it
this way:

A PARAGRAPH WHICH LACKS UNITY

Topic sentence
1 … two main reasons …

(The author never mentions the reasons!)

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If we wanted to keep the same topic sentence and rewrite the paragraph in a more unified fashion, we
might end up with something like this:

There are two main reasons why I have decided to attend Bingston University next year. 2. First of all
thru is the question of money: Bingston’s tuition is reasonable, and I don’t even have to pay it all at once.
3. This is very important, since my father is not a rich man. 4. With Bingston’s deferred payment plan, my
father will be able to pay my tuition without too much difficulty. 5. The second reason is the fine
education, which I feel I will receive there in agriculture, my chosen field. 6. It is a well-known fact that
Bingston hires only the finest professors in its Agriculture Department. 7. Moreover, the University
requires all agriculture students to gain practical experience by working on local farms while they are still
going to school.

Notice that in the rewritten paragraph, the writer gives us both reasons and comments on both of them.
Nothing is extra. Nothing is irrelevant to the topic announced in the topic sentence. The paragraph is
unified. This means that the reader will have no trouble quickly understanding what the writer is trying
to say.

Now Ask Yourself

1. How are sentences 2 and 5 related to the topic sentence?________________

EXERCISE 1-6

IDENTIFYING SUITABLE TOPIC SENTENCES

Directions: After reading each of the following paragraphs, select the most suitable topic sentence
from the three choices following it, and write the sentence which you have selected in the blank.
Then try to explain why each of the other two items is not appropriate. Follow the example. Possible
reasons for not choosing an item might be that:

It is too general.

It is too specific

It is not a complete grammatical sentence.

It does not relate to the supporting sentences.

Example

1. There are some minor differences between American and British spelling. Where Britons
end certain words with –se, Americans usually end the same words with -ce (British
practice versus American practice); the reverse is sometimes true, too (British preference
for final –re over the American –er (metre versus meter). Finally, most Americans consider
neighbor a correct spelling, but a Briton characteristically adds a u and spells the word
neighbor.
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Choose a Topic Sentence

A. British and American English are not the same.( too general)
B. There are some minor differences between American and British spelling
C. The endings of British and American words are not the same.(too specific)

2. __________________________________________. The operation of both devices can be

thought of as being divided into three phases: input, processing, and output. In the case of the
computer, the information which is fed into the machine__ the data is the input; the internal operations
of the machine constitute the processing; and the result__ usually a printout__ is called the output. The
telephone, too, acts on information presented to it and produces a result. The input is the actual dialing
of the number. The switching system which locates the number can be considered the processing phase.
Finally, the telephone rings on the other end of the line, indicating that the call has been completed; this
constitutes the output.

Choose a Topic Sentence

A. Both the computer and the telephone are helpful inventions.

B. Computer terminology, such as input and output, is frequently used in other contexts.
C. Despite apparent differences, the operation of the computer and the telephone has much in
common.
3. ___________________________________. The jack is a portable device for rising the car. It
operates by means of fore applied to a level on which the car is balanced. The lug wrench is a tool
with a fixed “jaw” for gripping the lug (the type of screw used to hold a tire in place). It has a long
handle so that it is effective in turning the lug, either to tighten of to loosen it. These two tools,
which are necessary to change a tire, are usually found in the trunk of the car and are kept there at
all times so that the motorist can use them in case of a flat tire.

Choose a Topic Sentence

A. Flat tires constitute a serious problem for the motorist.

B. How to change a flat tire.(a title not a sentence)
C. The two tools necessary to change a tire are considered standard equipment on new U.S.
automobiles.
4. ________________________________________________. The first one is the small pocket
dictionary. Dictionaries of this type are usually only abridgments of earlier, more comprehensive
dictionaries. The definitions found in a pocket dictionary are usually rather sketchy, and few or no
example sentences re given to help the international student understand how the word is actually
used in a sentence. Equally inadequate is the bilingual dictionary (Thai-English, Spanish-English,
Russian- English, and so forth). This type of dictionary is often based on the idea of making word-for-
word translations, a notion which shows no understanding of the idiomatic nature of all languages.
Moreover, bilingual dictionaries are often hastily and sloppily compiled, as well as hopelessly out of
date even before they are published.

Choose a Topic Sentence

A. A number of dictionaries are inappropriate for international students.
B. Some dictionaries aren’t comprehensive enough.
C. The worst kind of dictionaries.
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5. _________________________. In 1980, there were approximately 25 million Americans who

were sixty-five or older. By the late 1980s, the number of these senior citizens had risen to over 30
million. This trend toward an increasingly older population, attributed largely to better health care,
is expected to continue. In fact, the U.S. Census Bureau projects that the number of elderly
Americans in the year 2020 will reach over 50 million, double the 1980 figure.

Choose a Topic Sentence

A. The population of older people in the United States has and will probably continue to increase rapidly.
B. The increasing population of senior citizens.
C. Health care in the United States is getting better for older people.

6. _________________________. Infants usually satisfy this very basic need in the course of an
ordinary day spent with their parents (feeding, kissing, bathing, and so forth). However, if a baby is
neglected or even mistreated by being deprived of touch, his or her development will suffer on all
levels physically, intellectual, and emotional. Some children have even been known to die from this
lack of tactile stimulation; many doctors think that many unexplained “crib deaths” are directly
related to lack of touch and its various consequences. Children given up for adoption at a tender age
and placed in poorly run orphanages, children brought up by unaffectionate parents, and children
whose parents touch then only to beat them-__ all these types of children run the risk of never
reaching their potential as fully developed adults.

Choose a Topic Sentence

A. Babies interacting daily with their parents.

B. Physical contact is an important factor in an infant’s overall development.
C. Many children are not properly taken care of by their parents.

EXERCISE 1-7

SUPPLYING APPROPRIATE TOPIC SENTENCES

Directions: The topic sentences of each of the following paragraphs have been omitted. After a careful
reading, write an appropriate topic sentence for each.

Notice that the general topics of these paragraphs are the same as those in the previous exercise.

1.____________________________________________.When you have removed the hub cup from the

wheel which has the flat, correctly place the jack to lift the car off the ground. Now you are ready to jack
up the car high enough for the tire to clear the ground. After you have done that, carefully loosen the
nuts that hold the tire and rim in place; the tool you use to do that is called a lug wrench. Remove the
tire in place. Now you are ready to put the nuts back on the wheel and tighten then as firmly as you can
with the lug wrench. All that remains is to replace the hubcap, lower the car to the ground, give the nuts
a final tightening and remove the jack.
 67

2._______________________________________________________.The one most people are familiar

with is the “desk dictionary,” sometimes referred to as a general-purpose dictionary. Another kind is the
pronouncing dictionary, which is concerned with a word’s pronunciation more than with its meaning. A
third type is the bilingual dictionary, which lists the words in one language and attempts to give
equivalent meanings in another language. Other types include technical dictionaries, special-purpose
dictionaries, and scholarly dictionaries.
3.________________________________________________________________. Under this system, the
customer’s monthly telephone bill includes specific information for each long-distance call”: the date
and time of each call, the rate charged per minute (based on the company’s discount system), the length
of time the call was direct-dialed or operator-assisted, and the amount charged for the call. As each call
is placed, all of this information is fed into a computer and programmed onto each customer’s billing
card, thus simplifying and clarifying the entire billing process. The telephone company hopes that its
billing procedure will reduce the number of inquires and free its employees to do work which computers
are not yet able to perform.

4. ____________________________________________________________. Surveys indicate that

Social Security benefits constitute the main source of income about 37 percent) for retired Americans
who are over sixty-five years of age. The Social Security system, which is a fund financed jointly by
workers, employers, and the federal government, provides monthly payments to retired persons and
pays for some of their medical bills. Earnings from part-time jobs account for approximately 25 percent
of the income of retired Americans. Almost half of the retired population works on a part-time basis,
and most do so at a lower salary than they earned before retirement. Assets, including property, stocks,
and money saved during working years provide another 23 percent of retirement income. Surprisingly,
money from pensions (retirement plans) supplies only 13 percent of retirees’ total fiscal support. The
remaining 2 percent is attributed to unspecified other sources.

5. ____________________________________________________________. It will teach you how

to pronounce new words correctly. It will also show you the correct spellings of these words. Most
dictionaries will then give you certain important grammatical information about each word__ whether it
is a noun or an adjective, for example, or how the past tense of a verb is spelled. Many dictionaries will
also give the etymology came from. But perhaps most importantly, a dictionary tells you what a word
means. Most words have several meanings, and a good dictionary helps you to understand the word in
all its different meanings by giving you clear definitions and useful examples.

6. ______________________________________________________. In some cultures, the act of

touching another person is considered very intimate and is therefore reserved for people who know
each other very well. In the United States, for example, young children are taught that it is rued to stand
too close to people. By the time they are adults, Americans have learned to feel most comfortable when
standing at about arm’s length away from people to whom they are talking. And many Americans do not
touch each other with great frequency while talking (this is particularly true of men). In contrast, other
cultures have more relaxed rule regarding touching. For example, it is usual for friends __both men and
women __to embrace each other when they meet. When they talk, they touch each other more often.
They are as mush at ease doing this as Americans are with more space between them, and they feel just
as uncomfortable with Americans’ “touching rules” as Americans feel with theirs.

7. ________________________________________________________. First, with a word

processor it is possible to type over a word or words that you want to change, while with a standard
typewriter it is necessary either to erase or use correction fluid or tape and then type in the corrections.
The second advantage is that you can add words or sentences in the middle of a paragraph and then
 68

command the computer to put your text back in proper paragraph form. When using a standard
typewriter, the only way to add new information is to retype the entire paragraph. A third benefit of
using a computer to write is that you can move entire paragraphs within longer papers simply by
pushing a key. With a typed text, this can be accomplished only with scissors and paste, which produces
sloppy-looking work.

8. ___________________________________________________________. To begin with, this

sense seems so essential to us that we have at least four common verbs in English to describe various
ways of using our eyes. We can look, we can glance (look quickly and then look away), we can stare (look
for a long time, perhaps rudely), and we can glare (stare angrily). We sometimes equate this sense with
intellectual understanding. When we understand what someone is saying, we might say, “I see what you
mean.” We also use the sense of sight in the opposite way, that is, to suggest lack of understanding.
When we don’t understand something, we say that we are “in the dark”; and in a situation which we
cannot (and perhaps even stubbornly refuse to) understand, our friends might accuse us of being “blind
to the truth.” Lack or light (and therefore of sight as well) is sometimes even associated with unpleasant
character traits: a gloomy person is too serious, and a particularly unpleasant person is said to have a
“dark side” to his or her personality. The presence of light, however __whether applied to a person’s
character or to life in general __suggests hope and optimism. When we are feeling pessimistic about
things, our friends remind us to “look on the bright side,” or they comfort us with assurances that “every
cloud has a silver lining.” ANSWERS

1) Changing a flat tire includes the following procedures and tools.

2) Dictionaries vary in size, type, and purpose.
3) The telephone billing system contains much information on the bill that is done manually and
using computers.
4) Retired Americans get their incomes from various sources.
5) Dictionaries have numerous uses.
6) Despite apparent similarities, the act of touching has different meaning in different cultures.
7) Typing in a computer is more advantageous than typewriter.
8) The sense of sight is being used to represent various things other than its literary term.

SUPPORTING SENTENCES (METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT)

Examples, Details, Anecdotes, Facts and Statistics

Once you have limited your subject by writing good topic sentence, you must next develop that subject
so that the reader thoroughly understands what you mean to say. When you are speaking, you do this
unconsciously, often by repeating yourself in different words and by using gestures and facial
expressions. In writing, you cannot make use of these auditory and visual aids, so you must think and
plan carefully what you mean.

There are many ways which you can develop and clarify a topic sentence.

We will now deal with four of these, which are very common:

1. EXAMPLES
2. DETAILS
3. ANECDOTES
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4. FACTS AND STATISTICS

1. EXAMPLES
An example is a specific instance that explains more general idea. Red is n example of a color, the
United States is an example of a country, a lemon is an example of a fruit, and so on. Because examples
are specific (smaller, more limited, and often more concrete), they are often easier to understand than
more general ideas, and perhaps that is why writers often use them.

Model Paragraph
Some of the most interesting words in English are the actual names of the people first involved in the
activities suggested by the meanings of the words. The word boycott, for instance, derives from the case
of Sir Charles Boycott (1832-97), a land agent in Ireland whose tenants ostracized him because he
refused to lower their rents. Vidkun Quisling’s name quickly became an infamous addition to the English
language during World War II. He was a Norwegian politician who betrayed his country to the Nazis, and
his name, quisling, is now synonymous with traitor. Perhaps a more common example is Levis. These
popular blue jeans are named after Levi Strauss, the man who first manufactured them in San Francisco
in 1850. Perhaps most omnipresent of all is the sandwich, named for the Fourth Earl of Sandwich (1718-
92), who created this quick portable meal so that he would not have to leave the gambling table to eat.
Other words in this unique category include lynch, watt, davenport, and zeppelin.

Now Ask Yourself

1. What examples is the author giving?

2. How many examples are given?

3. Use an English dictionary to determine the meanings and origins of the following words: Lynch, Watt,
Davenport, and Zeppelin. Try to give a definition, a name, dates, and a brief description of the person
associated with each word.

EXERCISE 2-1

Guided analysis of the Use of Examples

Directions: Complete the analysis of the model paragraph buy filling in all the blank spaces. Note that
key phrases in the topic sentence have been circled.

ANALYSIS

Topic Sentence: Some of the most interesting words in

English are the actual names of the people first involved in
the activities suggested by the meanings of the words.

Example: boycott
 Example: quisling

70

EXERCISE 2-2

Guided Analysts of the Use of Examples

Directions: Read and analyze the following paragraph.

In order to be considered a hero by his or her own and subsequent generations, a person must
display extraordinary physical or intellectual powers. The physical her—one who exhibits great strength
to overcome monumental obstacles and emerge a victor—is frequently found in literature. Samson,
although chained and bound, used his superhuman strength to destroy his enemies, the philistines. Joan
of Arc inspired the French army with her energy and willingness to share their hardships. Likewise,
Dwight Eisenhower, a more contemporary physical hero, surmounted overwhelming odds to organize the
successful Allied invasion of “Fortress Europe” during World War II. A second heroic type is the
intellectual, admired or his or her mental prowess and the way he or she uses it to the benefit of
mankind. Leonardo Da Vinci, with his studies of architecture, human anatomy, and engineering, in
addition to his great artistic achievements, is a perfect example of this second type. More recently,
Madame Curie of Albert Einstein, who not only made far-reaching contributions in the physical sciences
but also worked diligently toward achieving world peace illustrates the intellectual hero.

ANALYSIS

Topic Sentence:

Example (Physical Hero):

Example (Physical Hero):

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EXERCISE2-4

Exploring Your Topic

Directions: choose one of the topics below and formulate questions about it based on the categories for
limiting topic sentences. Select key words and phrases from your list of answers and write a topic
sentence for your paragraph.

If you are working with partner or in a group, show your topic sentence to some of your classmates to
see if you have limited your topic sufficiently for one paragraph.

General Topics

The behavior of someone in love

Watching television

Owning car

Academic Topics

Describe and give example of the way English has influenced (your language).

What are the qualities a good student should possess?

What are the major exports of (your country)?

Directions: using the topic sentence you wrote in the previous exercise, write the first draft of a
paragraph in which you use examples for support. When you have finished your paragraph, you may
wish to show it to a classmate to see if the examples you have used develop your topic sentence clearly.

EXERCISE 2-5

Paragraph Writing: Examples

 72

Directions: using the topic sentence you wrote in the previous exercise, write the first draft of a
paragraph in which you use examples for support. When you have finished your paragraph, you may
wish to show it to a classmate to see if the examples you have used develop your topic sentence clearly.

EXERCISE 2-6

Making Your Language Accurate

Directions: After you have revised your paragraph based on your classmates’ suggestion, you will want
to check it for correct usage. One of the most common errors that learners of English make is subject-
verb agreement and other grammatical features.

2. DETAILS

A detail is a particular part or characteristic of a whole thing or whole idea.

Details are frequently used in a description.

EXERCISE 2-7

Guided Analysis of the Use of Details

Directions; Analyze the paragraph below filling in the blanks in the chart that follows:

Model Paragraph

Landlords usually require a renter to sign a very complicated contract called a lease. It stipulates
the length of time the person must stay in the apartment and the amount of rent he or she must pay. It
can limit the number of people allowed to live in the apartment and restrict the renter from having pets.
A lease may prohibit the renter from subletting and include a provision by which renter is charged a
certain amount of money if he or she breaks the contract. The agreement also includes the
responsibilities of the landlord, such as providing adequate heat, garbage removal, and exterior
maintenance of the apartment building.
 73

Topic Sentence: Landlords usually require a renter to

sign a very complicated called a lease.

Detail: length of time

Detail:

Detail:

Detail:

Detail:

Detail:

Detail:
 74

EXERCISE 2-8

Analyzing the Use of Details

Directions: Read and analyze the following paragraph. In your choice of major categories of details for
the diagram, you might want to consider number of rows, method of replacement, maximum number of
teeth, and shape of the bite.

Perhaps it is because of its terrifying and effective teeth that the shark has always been one
of man’s most hated and feared enemies. Located beneath its snout, the shark’s mouth contains
between four and six rows of teeth, but these may number up to twenty-four rows in some species. The
teeth are embedded in the gums and gradually move forward as they are used. Eventually, these large
teeth drop out and are replaced by new teeth moving up from behind them. It is possible for one species
of shark to produce up to 24,000 teeth over a ten-year period. This awesome dental equipment produces
a jagged crescent shaped bite.

EXERCISE 2-9

Information Transfer (Details)

Directions; Write a paragraph based on the following diagram. Use the topic sentence, which has been
given. Be careful: The details are given in note form, so you will have to convert them into grammatical
sentences.

Topic Sentence: A newborn baby is really not very beautiful.

Skin __ discolored or wrinkled

Eyes__ frequently puffy and inflamed

Shape of head-often distorted because of the difficult at birth process

Hair__ either thick and unruly or nonexistent

Movements-jerky and uncontrolled (muscles not yet

developed)

EXERCISE 2-10
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Paragraph Writing: Details

Phase 1: Exploring Your Topic

Directions; Choose one of the following topics ad formulate questions about it based on the categories
for limiting topic sentences. Select key words and phrases from your answers and write a topic
sentence. If you are working with a partner or in a group, show your topic sentence to your classmates
to see if you have limited your topic sufficiently for one paragraph.

General Topics
The physical appearance of your favorite actor or actress

The characteristics of a food hospital nurse

The features you would like on your nest car

Phase 2: Writing the First Draft

Directions: Using the topic sentence you wrote in phase 1, write the first draft of a paragraph in which
you use details for support. When you have fished your paragraph, you may wish to show it to
classmates to see if the details you have used develop your topic sentence clearly.

Phase3: Making Your Language Accurate

Directions: After you have revised your paragraph based on your classmate’s suggestions, you will want
to check it for correct usage. Proofread the sentences to make sure that the subjects and verbs agree.
After you have corrected any errors recopy this draft and submit it to your teacher.

EXERISE 2-11

Paragraph Writing; details

Phase 1: Listing details
You are going to write a description of one of your classmates. Your teacher will give you time in class to
take notes. First , think of the person and list as many details as you can about this person. Concentrate
on the physical characteristics, such as height, weight, hair color, complexion, and so forth, not on
clothing. Using the chart at the end of this exercise will help you with your description.

Phase 2: Writing the First Draft

Directions: Using the topic sentence you wrote in phase 1, write the first draft of a paragraph in which
you use details to support your topic sentence. When you have finished, read your paragraph to your
classmates but do not read the name of the person or animal you are describing. If your paragraph
contains enough detail, your classmates will be able to guess who or what you have described. If it does
not contain enough detail and your classmates cannot identify the person or animal, they can suggest
ways for you to improve your description.

Phase 3: Making Your Language Accurate

Directions: After you have revised your paragraph based on your classmates’ suggestions, you will want
to check it for correct usage. Proofread the sentences to make sure that the subjects and verbs agree.
After you have corrected any errors, recopy this draft and submit it to your teacher.
 76

Describing a person

Describing a person

SIZE

X is about

approximately _____’______”_ tall.

X is tall.

short

of medium height

thin

slender

overage-sized

EYES, HAIR AND SKIN

X has brown eyes.

blue X is brown- eyed

black blue-eyed

gray and so forth

green

dark

light

X has black hair. X is a blonde.

Brown a redhead

blonde (Only these two!)

red

gray

dark

light

curly
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straight

long

short

medium-length

X has a light complexion(color of skin of the face).

X is light-skinned.

dark dark-skinned

fair freckled

freckled( having brown spots)

smooth

tanned( brown face as a result of being in the sun)

clear

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS

X wears glasses X is attractive.

a wig clean-shaven

and so forth

X has a mustache.

a beard

a small nose

freckles

high cheekbones

ANECDOTES

An anecdote is a short, entertaining account of some happening. It is usually personal: It may be

thought of as a lengthy example.

Model Paragraph

Physical gestures and body language have different meanings in different cultures, and
misunderstanding these signals can sometimes be embarrassing. Although I had spent a lot of time
among non-Americans, I had never really realized what this would mean in practical terms. I had an
experience which taught me well, however. Some years ago, I organized and accompanied a small group
 78

of visiting foreign students to New York for four days of sightseeing by bus. Because these students were
rather young, and because New York is such n over-whelming city, I was constantly counting heads to be
sure we hadn’t lost any one. In the U.S., it is very common to count people or things by pointing the index
finger and, of course, I used this method. One young man became extremely quiet and pensive, and I
thought that perhaps he wasn’t enjoying himself. When I asked him what the matter was, he replied, “In
my country, we count people with our eyes. We use our fingers to count the pigs.”

EXERCISE 2-12

Paragraph Writing: Anecdotes

Phase 1: Exploring Your Topic

Directions: In this exercise, topic sentences have been provided for you. After reading the topic
sentences, select the one for which you can think of an appropriate anecdote with one of your
classmates to see if it supports the topic sentence you have chosen.

General Topic Sentences

A person’s life can sometimes change overnight.

Computers can create more problems than they solve.

Not knowing language well can sometimes be embarrassing.

You know who your real friends are when you have a problem.

Love is not always happy.

Note: Anecdotes are generally not used to support academic topics.

Phase 2: Writing the First Draft

Directions; Using the topic sentence you have selected, write the first draft of a paragraph in which you
use an anecdote for support. You may wish to show your paragraph to a different classmate for another
opinion on whether your anecdote develops the topic sentence you have chosen.

FACTS AND STATISTICS

 A fact is something which is objectively verifiable.

 A statistic is a numerical fact, which presents significant information about a given subject.

Model paragraph
The term population explosion is usually applied to the rapid growth of the last three centuries. In the
woo years from 1650 to 1850, world population doubled and reached its first billion. In the next 80
years, it doubled again; and by 1975, it had doubled once more to a total of 4 billion. At the beginning of
 79

the twenty-first century, it is estimated that it will exceed 6 billion and possibly approach 8 billion unless
there is a major reduction in birth rates or a major increase in death rates.

EXERCISE 2-13

Guided Analysis of the Use of Statistics

Directions: Analyze the model paragraph above by filling in all the blank spaces in the diagram that
follows.
 80

ANALYSIS

Topic Sentence:

STATISTIC: 1650-1850; double, reached 1 billion

STATISTIC:

STATISTIC:

STATISTIC:

EXERCISE 2-14

Analyzing the Use of Statistics

Directions: Read and analyze the following paragraph (identify the statistics used to develop the
paragraph using your own diagram).

Exams apparently have a marked effect on the blood pressure of the students taking them. In a recent
study, it was shown that the average student’s blood pressure rose from 115/55 before the exam to
155/115 at the end of the exam. Ten minutes after the examination period had ended; the students’
blood pressures were still quite high, averaging 150/110.

METHODS OF ORGANIZATION

Once you have gathered information and ideas for your paragraph, it is important to decide on a good
order for presenting them. An orderly and logical presentation is helpful to your readers. In other words,
you should be able to create coherence (the logical flow of ideas one after the other) by arranging the
 81

specific details in a sensible order. This will help your readers to understand how your ideas are related
to each other. To do so, there are many methods.

Chronological Order/Time order

This is the usual way of organizing ideas in narration and explanation. The ideas are organized according
to what happened first, then second, then third, etc. until the final outcome.

Look at the following paragraph which is organized chronologically.

For 13 year old Karen Edwards, July 17, 1972, became a day to remember. She was resting on the side of
a motel pool in Duncansville, Pennsylvania, when she saw a young boy struggling in the deep end. Then
she saw the boy’s father dive in after him and not come up. While others stood by, Karen jumped in and
towed the drowning boy to the side. Tired but not waiting to rest, she went back for the father, who was
floating face down. As she dragged him to the side, he began struggling, his waving arms splashing water
in Karen’s eyes. Her chest heaving, she finally made it to the side of the pool, and in a few minutes,
father, son, and Karen were all well. Karen’s quick thinking and heroic effort had saved two lives.
EXERCISE
Unscrambling a Chronological Paragraph

Directions: Place the following crumbled sentences in their correct order; use the time lines onyour
work space. Then, if your teacher wishes, copy the reconstructed paragraph on a separate sheet of
paper.

1. First, I had to return some overdue books to the library.

2 After my early class, I had a quick cup of coffee with some friends in the cafeteria.
3. I got up at 6:30 A.M. as usual.
4. I went to my accounting class.
5. The subway train was a little late, so I arrived just in time for my 8:30 class.
6. I left my apartment at 7:45.
7. Before my next class, I had several things to do.
8. I also had to see my advisor in his office at 10:45 to review my schedule for next semester.
9. Yesterday morning was typical of my busy life as a student.
10. After having planned my schedule, I had just enough time to review my notes before my
11; 30 accounting class.
11. By 1:00 I was ready for a big lunch to help get me through the rest of my day.

ANALYSIS (Time line)

Topic Sentence:

(6:00 A.M.) ….

(7:00 A.M.) ….

(8:00 A.M.) ….

(9:00 A.M.) ….

(10:00 A.M.) ….
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EXERCISE

Unscrambling a Chronological Paragraph( temporal order)

Directions: The following sentences constitute a paragraph about Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809-
April 14, 1865), the sixteenth president of the United States. Unscramble them by placing them in their
correct order; use the time line as your workspace. Then, if your teacher wishes, copy the reconstructed
paragraph on a separate sheet of paper.

1. After having served only this one term in the U.S. Congress, he was defeated for
reelection and returned to practice law in Springfield.
2. It was there that, having first tried his hand at a variety of occupations (storekeeper,
postmaster, surveyor0, he first became interested politics.
3. He won the election, thus becoming the sixteenth president of the United States.
4. However, he was successful in his subsequent attempts, and served four two-year terms
in the state legislature, from 1834 to 1842.
5. Shortly after becoming a lawyer, he moved to Springfield, Illinois to set up his own law
politics.
6. Lincoln’s early political career did not foreshadow the success he was to have in politics.
7. Indeed, he had almost entirely lost any hope of holding political office when, in 185, the
slavery question once again forced him into the political arena.
8. He was not successful the first time he ran for office in 1831.
9. During this same period, he added the study of law to his legislative duties, finally
completing his legal studies in 1836.
10. In 1846, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives for two years.
11. Although he was defeated twice for election to the U.S. Congress, he finally managed, in
1860, to be nominated by the Republican Party as its candidate for president.
12. In his early twenties he moved to Illinois.

Topic Sentence:

1809: Lincoln’s birth

(1810) ….

(1820) ….
 83

Spatial Order
In spatial order details are presented according to their location. Such an organization might proceed
from side to side, from top to bottom (or the reverse), or from near to far (or the reverse). Look at the
paragraph below which is organized spatially.

The sun was setting behind me as I came over the hill. From the top of the hill, I could see a village lying
below me, half in and half out of the slanting sunlight. Stone cottages were lining a small stream in the
middle. On the other side, at the end of a row of houses, was a towered church with a cross shining gold
in the evening light. Behind the church, high up, a straw binding machine was still working noisily in a
square of wheat like old loom.

Transitions such as from the top of the hill, lying below, in the middle, on the other side, at the end…
behind the church, etc show the view/ location of the village described. They therefore mark spatial
order. Other transitions used in spatial order include at the top/ bottom, in front of, near, beside, by
west, east, north, south, right, left, close to, opposite, adjacent, under, over, above, between, across,
farther, etc.

Order of Importance
In this method details are arranged in three possible orders: ascending order, descending order and
order of equal importance. In descending order, the writer lists the most important point first, then goes
on t speak of the other points. The writer usually thinks that the other points are important, too, but
simply wishes to mention the most important one first.

Some writers like to imagine descending order in the shape of a triangle with its base at the top. This
kind of triangle is bigger (more important) at the top and gets smaller (less important) as you move to
the bottom.

M O R E I M P O R TA N T
 84

Less important

important

There were several reasons why I decided to attend Bingston University. My chief reason for choosing
that university was its wonderful work/study program in agriculture, my chosen field. The university
requires all its agriculture students to gain practical experience by working on local farms while they are
still going to school; I knew that this would provide invaluable experience and prepare me to better use
the skills I had learned in the classroom. Second, Bingstom hires only the finest teachers to teach in its
graduate program. Then, too, there was Bingston’s deferred payment plan; this represented a great
convenience to my parents. A final reason was the reasonable tuition.

ASCENDING ORDER

Ascending order is exactly the opposite of descending order. In ascending order, we list the minor points
first, saving the most important for last. This keeps the reader interested, since the paragraph has a kind
of dramatic structure to it: it builds up to or ascends to a climax

Just as a triangle was used to illustrate e descending order, we can use a triangle to show how ascending
order works. However, this time the base of the triangle is on the bottom.

Less important

M O R E I M P O R TA N T

Example

The same paragraph can be used to illustrate this method. But note that the writer arranges his reasons
for his choice in ascending order.
 85

There were several reasons why I decided to attend Bingston University. First of all, the tuition was
reasonable. Second, the university had a deferred payment plan; this represented a great convenience to
my parents. Another reason was the fact that Bingston hires only the finest of teachers to teach in its
graduate program. My chief reason, however, was Bingston’s mandatory work/study program in
agriculture, my chosen field: the university requires all agriculture students to gain practical experience
by working on local farms while they are still going to school; I knew that this would provide invaluable
experience and prepare me to better use the skills I had learned in the classroom.

Directions: After studying the diagrams below, read each of the following paragraphs carefully, and
determine which order it illustrates (equal, ascending, or descending). Then indicate all enumerators
and listing signals which the author has used to structure the paragraph. Finally, construct a simple list
which represents the structure of the paragraph. The first has been dome as an example.

EQUAL ORDER ASCENDING ORDER DESCENDING ORDER

Topic sentence
Topic sentence Topic sentence

Most important

Most important
(The writer feels all the items (The writer feels that one item is
are (The writer feels that one more important, essential, and so
EQUALILY IMPORTANT) item is more important, on than the others and places it
essential and so on than the FIRST.
others ad places it LAST.)

Example

1. Of the ten largest cities in the United States in the late 1988s, three are located in the state
of Texas. Of these, Houston, which ranks fourth in the country, has the biggest population
with 1,705,697 residents. Next is Dallas, which has 975,243 people and is the seventh largest
city in the U.S. The smallest Texas City on the top-ten list is San Antonio, ranking tenth
among U.S. cities and having a population of 842,779.
Type of order used: descending order__________________________

Enumerator(s): city/population_______________________________

Listing signals: Next, the smallest (the superlative adjective often acts as a listing signal)

Paragraph Structure (Simple List Form)

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TEXAS CITIES WHICH FIGURE IN THE TOP-TEN LISTS

1. Houston______________________________________________________
2. Dallas________________________________________________________
3. San Antonio___________________________________________________

2. Astronomers use three basic types of telescopes to explore the vastness of space. The
refractor telescope uses two lenses-one to collect light from a distant object and bring it
into focus, and another in the eyepiece to magnify the image. Second, there is the reflector
telescope, which makes use of a concave mirror instead of a lens to reflect light rays to the
upper end of the telescope. Last, and perhaps most important in terms of studying
phenomena outside the earth’s atmosphere, is the radio telescope, which gathers waves
with a wire antenna serving as a parabolic reflecting surface. The discovery of mysterious
quasars and pulsars was made possible by this kind of telescope.

Type or order used: ascending order_____________________

Enumerator(s): type of lens and way of collecting data__________

Listing signals: second, last, most important_______________

Paragraph Structure (Simple List Form)

3. Air travel, as determined by the number of passengers served in the United States’ busiest airports,
has been steadily increasing during the latter part of the twentieth century. In 1977, 13.2 million
passengers boarded, deplaned, or transferred through Washington, D.C.’s National Airport, while in
1987 that figure rose to over 14.3 million. Next in volume of passengers was San Francisco’s
international Airport, which served 20.2 million people in 1977 and 28.5 million in 1987, tallied an
increase in air travelers from 44 million to well over 53 million. 2

Type of order used: ascending order

Enumerator (s): number of passengers and year

Listing signals: next, increase

Paragraph Structure (Simple List Form):

4. Because the earth turns on its axis at the same time, as it is moving around the sun, there are
two ways to determine the period of time which constitutes a day. It is possible to define a day
as the interval of time between the highest point of the sun in the sky on two successive days.
This determination, mean solar time, produces the twenty-four hour day when it is averaged out
over the year. It is equally possible, however, to define a day as that period of time between the
points when the vernal equinox is directly over head. This method of measuring is called sidereal
time and is almost four minutes shorter per day than solar mean time.

Type of order used: equal order

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Enumerator(s): way of determining and measuring

Listing signals: equally possible

Paragraph Structure (Simple List Form):

5. Educational researchers have identified four distinctive learning styles which students use
who are attempting to master new information and concepts. First, some students prefer auditory
learning. They learn best from lectures, tape recordings, and class discussions. The second of these
styles is tactile learning. This is learning –by-doing approach, which involves such things as dissecting
animals to handle their internal organs rather than reading about them. Still other students are best
suited to experiential learning, making use of all their senses such as a field trip to a forest when
studying botany is the best way for these learners to understand new material fully. The last of these
styles is visual learning. The student who favors this style relies heavily on what can be seen—books and
charts, for instance __ to acquire knowledge. Of these four learning styles, none is considered best; but
rather they are descriptive of techniques individuals use to learn effectively.

Type of order used: equal order__________________________________________

Enumerator (s): ______________________________________________________

Listing signals: ______________________________________________________

Comparisons or Contrasts
You may also support your topic sentences by arranging the supporting sentences according to either
the similarities or the differences between two things, or between two aspects of one thing.

COMPARISON: pointing out likenesses/similarities

CONTRAST: pointing out differences

In this unit, we will examine several of the ways in which comparative and contrastive paragraphs can be
organized. We will first take a look at comparison.

Comparison
In the model paragraph which follows, notice that only similarities, or parallels, between the life and
death of Kennedy and Lincoln are mentioned. There are obviously many differences between these two
men, but the purpose of the paragraph, as it is stated in the topic sentence, is to show the likenesses or
similarities between them. In a paragraph of comparison, the differences are often mentioned only
briefly or are even omitted entirely.

Model paragraph

Are you aware of the striking similarities between two of the most popular U.S presidents, Abraham
Lincoln and John F. Kennedy? A minor point is that the names Lincoln and Kennedy both have seven
letters. 3Both men had their elections legally challenged. 4Lincoln and Kennedy are both remembered for
their sense of humor as well as for their interest in civil rights. 5Lincoln became president in 1860;
Kennedy, in 1960. 6Lincoln’s secretary was Mrs. Kennedy; Kennedy’s secretary was Mrs. Lincoln. 7Neither
 88

man took the advice of his secretary not to make a public appearance on the day on which he was
assassinated. 8Lincoln and Kennedy were both killed on a Friday in the presence of their wives. 9Both
assassins, John Wilkes Booth and Lee Harvey Oswald, have fifteen letters in their names, and both were
murdered before they could be brought to trial. 10Just as Lincoln was succeeded by a Southern Democrat
named Johnson, so was Kennedy. 11Andrew Johnson (Lincoln’s successor) was born in 1808; Lyndon
Johnson (Kennedy’s successor) was born in 1908. 12And finally, the same caisson carried the bodies of
both men in their funeral processions.

Now Ask Yourself

1. Why are no differences mentioned in the paragraph? _____________
2. What is the one key word in the topic sentence, which controls the development of the
paragraph? __________]
3. What two words are repeated continually? _______________
4. Do you find any examples of pronoun reference? Underline all pronouns and draw arrows to the
words they represent.
5. What enumerators and listing signals have been used?
Guided paragraph writing:

Comparative Information Transfer: use the information below to complete the paragraph.
 89

Humans and Chimpanzees (Bases of Comparison)

1. Biological Classification
Both are classified as primates

2. Skeleton
Skeletal structure generally similar

Five gingers on each hand

A movable thumb that allows the hand to grasp objects

3. Locomotion
Chimpanzees most often travel using all four limbs, but can walk
upright

Humans walk upright (on two legs)

4. Off-spring (Young)
Number: not as many as other mammals

Gestation: about nine months

Care: several years (necessary for learning essential survival skills)

5. intelligence
Curiosity: both like to discover new things

Language ability: use of abstract symbols to communicate; humans use

words, can invent new combinations; chimpanzees can learn to use

Although humans and chimpanzees do not seem very much alike at first glance, they are both classified
as primates and thus share a number of remarkably similar characteristics. First of all, the skeletons of
humans and chimpanzees are quite ___________; ____________ species possess five fingers on each
hand, (include) ________a movable thumb which makes them capable of (grasp) ________ objects.
Although chimpanzees (prefer, travel) ________on all fours, they (be able, walk) __________ upright
________ humans. Female chimpanzees have fewer young ________ other mammals, and humans do,
_______. The young of the ________ species are born after a gestation period of about __________
months and then stay with their mothers for several years, a period which (permit, them learn)
________ what they need to know in order (survive) _________. But of all the ________ between the
two species, perhaps the most notable is their intelligence. Just as humans enjoy (discover) ______ new
things, ________ chimpanzees are quite curious about what they (know, not) ______. Even more
important here is the question of language ability. Although the sounds which (make) _______ by
chimpanzees (resemble, not, really) _________ those made by humans, many experts (believe)
______that chimpanzees (can, teach) ________ to communicate by means of signs, another variety of
 90

abstract symbols. Moreover, chimps (seem, possess) _________ the _______to learn a rather large
vocabulary of signs and then to put these signs together in entirely new combinations-and ability which
closely (resemble) ________ what humans do with words. In other words, humans can be creative in the
way they communicate, and so ________ chimpanzees.

Contrast
Notice that in the following model paragraph, the author concentrates on the differences between
extreme extroversion and extreme introversion. He has not denied, however, that most people are a
combination of both of these; on the contrary, the expression a scale suggests precisely such a
combination.

Model paragraph

According to the Swiss psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung, every person’s personality can be placed
somewhere on a scale running from extreme extroversion (an outgoing personality) to extreme
introversion (a withdrawn personality). 2The topical extrovert is particularly fond of people and people-
oriented activities: he or she is sociable, likes parties, has many friends, needs to have people to talk to,
and does not like reading or studying alone. 3The typical introvert, on the other hand, is a quiet, retiring
sort of person, introspective, fond of books rather than people. 4Unlike the extrovert, who craves
excitement, takes chances, and is generally impulsive, the introvert shuns excitement, takes matters of
everyday life with proper seriousness, and likes a well-ordered mode of life. 5Whereas the extrovert tends
to aggressive and loses his or her temper easily, the introvert tends to keep his or her feelings under close
control, seldom behaves in an aggressive manner, and does not lose his or her temper easily. 6The
introvert is more reliable and less optimistic than the extrovert. 7The extrovert may often be subject to
criminal or psychopathic behavior, in contrast to the introvert, who may exhibit neurotic tendencies. 8A
further difference between the two involves the ability to remember: Studies have tended to show that
the extrovert learns faster than the introvert but, in the end, remembers less.

Now Ask Yourself

1. Why are no similarities mentioned in the model paragraph?

2. What part of the topic sentence prepares the reader to expect a paragraph of contrast
development?
3. What tow words are repeated continually? Do you find any examples of pronoun reference?
Underline all pronouns and draw arrows to the words they represent.
4. Are any listing signals and enumerators used?

Exercise

Analyzing a Paragraph of Contrast

Directions: reread the sample paragraph carefully. Then, in the following chart, indicate which contrast
words have been used for each area of contrast. Also note briefly the differences themselves.
 91

BASES OF CONTRAST CONTRASTIVE

Extrovert Introvert STRUCTURES
SENTENCE
2.3 (Sociability)

Fond of people: Prefers books to On the other hand

Sociable, likes people, is shy

Parties, etc. and retiring The

(Risk-taking)

(Expression of feelings, aggression)

(Reliability, Optimism)

( )

( )

following transitions are often used to show similarities and differences.

Comparison Contrast
the same as but
like however
alike while
similar to whereas
as…..as in contrast
resemble on the other hand
Both….and all the same
Similarly, etc. despite/ in spite of
Although/ even though, etc.
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Exercise

A. Checking Unity and Coherence in Paragraphs

Study the following groups of sentences. Some are good paragraphs. Others lack either unity or
coherence in their presentation. Identify the groups of sentences that are not good paragraphs.
Revise them by dropping sentences, by rearranging sentences, or by making other changes.

1. There lived in the Land of Oz two men who were the best of friends. One was a Scarecrow. That
means he was a suit of blue Munchkin clothes, stuffed with straw, on top of which was fastened
a round cloth head, filled with bran to hold it in shape.
On the head were painted two eyes, two ears, a nose, and a mouth. The Scarecrow had never
been much of a success in scaring crows; but he prided himself on being a superior man because
he could fee no pain, was never tired, and did not have to eat or drink. His brains were sharp, for
the Wizard of Oz man was made all of tin, and his arms and legs and head were cleverly jointed
so that he could move them freely. He was known as the Tin Woodman, having at one time
been a wood-chopper. Everyone loved him because the Wizard had given him an excellent heart
of red plush.

2. If parents show an interest in the programs their teenagers watch on television, useful
discussions will often result. Few things are more important to fourteen- years-olds than having
their opinions listened to and respected. The types of things teenagers watch on television will
change with age. Values and situations shown on television can be the basis for lively exchanges
of ideas.
3. My father has a peculiar habit. He is fond of sitting in the dark, alone. Sometimes I come home
very late. The house is dark. I let myself in quietly because I do not want to disturb my mother.
She is a light sleeper and has to get up early to go to work. I tiptoe into my room and undress in
the dark. I go downstairs to the kitchen for a drink of water. My bare feet make no noise. (many
unrelated ideas)
4. The rainy season came to the forest, as it must come every year. At the water fell with a roar like
thunder. In the morning it beat against the branches of the trees and tore their leaves from
them. It pounded against the thatched roofs of the villages and rushed about the footpaths.
Little girls set pots under the sky to catch the water, and ran back slipping and sliding. The small,
friendly rivers became deep and wide, and covered the sides of their banks. During the darkness
the people fastened their doors and did not even look outside, for they could hear nothing but
rain, rain, rain.
5. When my little dog died, I was very sad. It happened on Valentine’s Day. My birthday is on
February 22, eight days after Valentine’s Day. I cried a lot, but it didn’t bring my dog back. My
Dad and I buried him in a vacant lot, and put a tombstone on the grave. On my birthday, I got
new roller skates.
6. People have trouble identifying my heritage. Indians mistake me for one of their own. In
Chinatown they give me a menu written in Chinese, and once Japanese boy asked me if I was
Korean. My ancestors are full-blooded Japanese, but I have had to get used to people thinking
I’m something else. ( no problem)
7. The needs of our country have changed since its beginnings. The first settlers had to work very
hard. Now the majority of American workers do not do hard physical labor. The pilgrims were
 93

able to increase their food supply and build shelters from the cold. In Japan, too, industry is
highly mechanized.
8. I grew up on the island of Puerto Rico in an atmosphere of natural story-tellers. I had a father
whose occupation took him all over the island; a grandmother, whose stories always ended with
a nonsense rhyme or song, wetting feet to jump, skip or dance; elder sisters who still
remembered tales told by a mother; and finally, a stepmother whose literary taste was
universal. I never ever went to bed without a round of stories told. The characters of my favorite
ones became part of my everyday life: I traveled to strange lands of shepherds, princesses and
princes, King and Queens; I laughed at the cunning of the animals and suffered with the
punished ones. ( no problem)

B. The sentences in the following groups are out of order. Number the sentences in each
group in the correct order. The first sentence has been numbered for you each time.

You could have done so, providing you had a compass and knew the direction in which you should
be going.

You could still have found north or south by means of the sun or the stars.

Every signpost in Britain was removed during the last war.

What if you didn’t have a compass with you?

Do you think you would have been able to find your way if you had been lost at that time?

First place your watch face upward on some level ground.

An imaginary line half way between the shadow and twelve o’clock will point to the south.

Turn your watch slowly round the matchstick until the shadow made by the matchstick falls along
the hour hand.

1 This is how you can use your wrist watch to help you find south, when the sun is shining.

Then stand a matchstick upright in the ground at the outer end of the hour hand.

Number these sentences in the correct order.

3 Others believe solar energy will provide the best answer.

4 This is because reserves of oil and natural gas are limited.

1 Scientists all over the world are searching for new forms of energy.

2 Some are experimenting with water power or wind power.

Underwater voyages
The sentences in the following groups are out of order. Number the sentences in each group in the
correct order.

A. Eagle’s crew were completely unaware of the danger that faced them.
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1___The British fleet blockaded the Atlantic coast during the American War of independence.

4_The American submarine Turtle was even then being towed down the Hudson River.

_3__Their flagship Eagle lay at anchor in New York harbor.

_2__ It was about to attempt the first underwater attack against a surface vessel.

B 3 But it was so strong that it swept the little submarine past the anchorage.

4 Finally he maneuvered the submarine under Eagle’s massive hull.

1 The tide carried Turtle downstream towards her target.

2 Sergeant Lee, the sole operator of the wooden submarine, spent two hours battling to bring
Turtle back into position.

C 1 Lee then operated a control for attaching a charge of gunpowder to the Eagle.
3 This was because the hulls of British warships had recently been coated with copper as a
precaution against shipworm.
2 But he was unable to penetrate the warship’s hull.
4 He therefore abandoned his attempt shortly before dawn.

D 4 A sheet of copper had saved the British flagship.

3 A British guard-ship gave chase and Lee was forced to jettison the explosive charge.
1 The return journey was not without incident.
2 The waters of the Hudson River rocked with the fore of the explosion.

C. Identifying Irrelevant Sentences (paragraph Unity)

Directions: The following paragraphs contain sentences, which are not directly related to the main ideas
of those paragraphs. Draw a line through the irrelevant sentences (s) of each paragraph. Then circle the
key words or phrases in the topic sentence. Be prepared to explain why you think the sentences are
irrelevant.
1
1. Different people spend their weekends in different ways. 2some enjoy going to the
mountains to hike, ski, or just relax. 3 water skiing is much more difficult than snow skiing.
4
Others prefer going to the beach to enjoy the seashore activities and to get a suntan. 5some of
these people work very hard during the week; others have rather relaxing jobs. 6Still others like
to relax by staying home and reading a good book.
1
2. Ever since the time of the Greeks, drama has played an important role in people’s lives. 2 The
Greek tragedies and comedies were a central part of the life of the citizens of ancient Greece.
3
During the Middle Ages, Bible stories were acted out in churches, and wandering companies of
players performed in the streets. 4William Shakespeare lived during the Elizabethan period. 5 The
English language has changed somewhat since Shakespeare’s time. 6In modern times, drama is
 95

brought directly into people’s homes through the magic of television. 7Television also offers
people such things as quiz and variety shows.
1
3. The general population often resists innovations, whether practical or aesthetic. 2When the
early experimenters in the field of aviation began their work, there were many who said, “If God
had wanted man to fly, He would have given him wings.” 3TheWright brothers made the first
powdered flights in a heavier-than-air craft in 1903 at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. 4Even today
there are many who strongly object to modern art and music as being nothing more than
“splashes of paint and honking horns.” 5The painter Picasso’s well known masterpiece “The
Three Musicians: is dome primarily in blues and browns.
1
4. Zoos are popular with all children. 2They are able to see examples of wildlife from all
continents. 3In wildlife preserves in Africa, the animals wander about freely without fear of
being captured. 4perhps the favorite spot in a zoo is the elephant cage. 5There the elephants
entertain the children by spraying themselves with their trunks and doing various tricks. 6The
children are especially delighted when an elephant takes peanuts from them with its trunk.
1
5. Editorials differ from other kinds of news stories. 2In most regular news stories, it is assumed
that no personal opinions are being represented. 3Newspaper writers are supposed to present
the facts of each story in a straight- forward, unbiased fashion. 4Statics reveal that over 61
million newspapers are sold every day in this county. 5The purpose of the editorial page, of
course, is to allow the editors to give their personal opinions. 6Here is where they tell readers
what they think about an issue—who is at fault, who has done a good job, or how a situation
could be improved.7It is no wonder, then, that Thomas Jefferson once remarked that he could
more easily accept newspapers without government than government without newspapers.
6. In order to find a suitable apartment, you must follow a very systematic approach. First, you
must decide which neighborhood would be most convenient for you. 3Then you must determine
how much rent your budget will allow. 4Utility bills for houses average between $100and$150
per month. 5Your next step is to check the classified ads in the newspapers. 6If you do not plan
to buy furniture, you should check under “Apartments for rent—furnished.” 7Otherwise, check
under “Apartments for rent—unfurnished.” 8In either case, however, be sure to check these ads
regularly, since new listings appear each day. 9After you have telephoned the apartments, which
seem likely choices, you must begin your long journey to inspect each one of them.
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CHAPTER SIX: TYPES OF PARAGRAPHS

In this chapter of the course you will write various types of paragraphs, employing the various
techniques you have studied in the preceding chapters. Although you may come across many types of
paragraphs in different books on writing skills development, the most commonly talked about have to
do with description, exposition/explanation, narration and persuasion. Before you start writing any
paragraph, don’t forget to go through the various stages we have discussed: pre-writing, writing the
rough draft and revising. Below is a simplified way of writing your paragraphs.

 Select a topic

 Write a general statement(topic sentence) about the topic

 Jot down possible details that answer questions about the topic sentence

 Develop the details into supporting sentences

 Read the whole paragraph to yourself sentence by sentence, and make whatever changes you
feel will improve your writing.

5.1 NARRATIVE PARAGARPH

Narration is the reporting of a series of happenings such as actions, incidents or episodes all leading to a
conclusion. It, in other words, is a story that may be based on fact, on imagination, or a combination of
both. A well-constructed narrative has three basic parts:
a) The initial situation (where a conflict or a character and a situation or a combination of all these
is introduced.
b) The action taken to solve the conflict
c) The conclusion
Good narratives require
a) Carefully considered beginning, middle and end
b) Carefully selected and arranged details.
c) A dominant impression, and
d) Mainly a chronological sequence of arranging details leading to a climax or result.

Example:
The day was hot and sunny and the town dull and sleepy. With the exception of a few idlers, not a living
creature was to be seen. Suddenly, the loud noise of a bugle broke the monotonous stillness of the street.
Soon, a horse-drawn coach appeared, rattling over the uneven stone paving, noisy enough to stop even
the large-faced clock in the middle of the square itself. Then the strangers disembarked from the coach.
In no time, there came rushing the rugged boys- running about and shouting, bringing and taking away
things thereby making a most exhilarating bustle.

The transitions (logical connectors) above-suddenly, soon, then, and in no time-all show a time order or
a chronological order of arranging details. Additional linking devices/ transitions that are used in
chronological order include.
immediately next afterwards
after when throughout the day
before after a while on Monday
as soon as meanwhile during
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firstly by evening in December

secondly until last night,
finally early at last etc

When you write a paragraph that tells a true or imaginary story about yourself or others, you are
narrating. In narrating, you should be able to answer such questions as ‘what’ ‘where’ ‘who’ ‘why’ etc
about the story. Also, your story should have a clear structure-beginning, middle, and ending. As
narrative writing is about the past, you should make good use of the various narrative tenses: simple
past, past continuous, and past perfect.

EXERCISE 1
Guided Paragraph Writing:

Chronological Information Transfer

Directions: Working alone, in pairs, or in small groups, study the following time line. Then, on a separate
sheet of paper, recopy the paragraph, filling in all the blanks. Some blanks will require only one word;
others will require more than one. Pay special attention to verbs in parentheses ( ) –they must be put in
the proper form.

Before you begin, familiarize yourself with the meaning of the following terms:

to culminate cum laude

the Army term

the Navy the Marine Corps

an overwhelming majority an incumbent

(1940) 1940: Graduated cum laude from Harvard; published Why

England Slept

1945: Awarded Navy and U.S. Marine Corps

Medal for heroism in combat

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John F. Kennedy’s early career (give) him a clear indication of his later political success, which would
culminate in his eventual election to the presidency of the United States. As an undergraduate at
Harvard University, he (achieve) _______ considerable academic distinction and (graduate)_________
cum laude in ______, the same year that his first book, why England slept, (publish) _______. Soon after
that, he joined the military and (become)______. Well known for his bravery: In________, ______.
__________year later, he (add) ________politics to his already impressive list of achievements when he
(elect) _____ to Congress by an overwhelming majority or the people of ________, his home State. His
popularity (continue, grow)_______, and by the time he was thirty-three, he (won)________a total of
three elections to Congress, the last two by an even greater majority than the first. His tenure in the
House of Representatives (follow, soon) ______ by the start of an equally impressive career in the
Senate, when he (defeat) _________ incumbent Henry Cabot Lodge in _______ for the position of
Senator from Massachusetts ___-- a success which Kennedy was to repeat_______ years later, when the
voters (reelect) ________him by the largest majority in that state’s history. The final triumph (occur)
_______in ________, when he narrowly (defeat)_______ Richard Nixon, (become)________the first
Roman Catholic president of the United States.

EXERCISE 2
(a) Use the notes below to write a narrative paragraph on “My Scary Dream”. Expand the notes into
a full paragraph.
 I am my friends going to a theater by bus
 A car came directly to the bus
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 We all covered our eyes

 The bus and the car collided
 Three people died
 None of us were dead
 Two of my friends were injured
 They were taken to the hospital
 After treatment we all came home
 We then decided not to go together
(b) Write a narrative composition on the following topics
1. My unforgettable Dream
2. An accident that happened to you.

5.2 DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH

Description is a vivid and detailed representation in words of the image of an object or subjective
phenomenon such as a person, a scene, a sensation or an emotion. Description generally employs words
that appeal to the five senses and always involves two elements: the object described and the observer.
According to which of these predominates, description can be of two types: objective or impressionistic
(subjective).

Objective description seeks to report accurately the appearance of an object independent of the
observer’s attitude or feeling about it. On the other hand, impressionistic description focuses on the
mood or feeling the object evokes in the observer rather than upon the object as it exists in itself.
Impressionistic description expresses a feeling, attitude or opinion about the thing described, e.g.
Objective Description: Addis Ababa has a population of about 3 million. It is the biggest city in the Horn
of Africa.

Impressionistic Description: Addis Ababa is a delightful city with a number of magnificent places to visit.
It has also interesting people from all over the world. It is really worth visiting.

5.2.1 Describing a person

In describing a person, the writer’s purpose is to capture the essence of a person by going beyond
physical characteristics. The writer of the following description, for example, selects words and details
that reveal much about the inner reality of the woman being described.

She was a big, awkward woman, with big bones and hard, rubbery flesh. Her short arms ended in ham
hands, and her neck was a squat roll of fat that protruded behind her head as a big bump. Her skin was
rough and puffy, with plump, mole-like freckles down her cheeks. Her eyes glowered from under the
mountain of her brow and were circled with expensive naive shadow. They were nervous and quick when
she was flustered and darted about at nothing in particular while she was dressing hair or talking to
people.

With phrases such as “rubbery flesh,” “ham hands” and “squat roll,” the writer creates an overall
impression of ugliness. She notes the woman’s “expensive naïve shadow,” which hints at vanity. She
uses words such as glowered, nervous, quick, and darted to imply suspicion and insecurity. The writer
 100

makes the woman come alive for the reader. She paints a picture of an interesting, complex human
being.

Below is a list of words that can be used to describe the physical appearance, and the inner, or
emotional qualities of a person.
physical Appearance Internal Qualities
flat nose -aloof
straight nose -sociable
eagle eyes -trustworthy
round lips -selfish
dimples -snobbish
pointed chin -arrogant
bearded -eccentric
eye-glassed -generous
tall cooperative
short helpful
of medium height kind
dandified naïve
pot-bellied disruptive
shapely legs restless
afro hair far-sighted
freeze hair lonely
kinky hair offensive
curly hair innocent
muscular lovely
thin shameless
heavy cool
brown eyes thoughtful
boob dependable, etc.
gorgeous
beautiful
attractive
pretty
handsome
round lips

thin lips

round face, etc.

long face

–round and smiling face

EXERCISE
Think of someone you know very well and describe him/her. Include both his/her physical appearance
and behavior. Use your own words and some of those listed above and elsewhere in this course book.
Fill this table and use the information to write the descriptive paragraph.
Height
Physique(heavy; thin; muscular)
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Anything unique on his/her face

Shape of face
General look (pretty; good looking; awkward,
etc.)
Hair style
Dressing style
Behavior

5.2.2 Appealing to Senses

Descriptive paragraphs can appeal to any of the five senses either individually or in combination. Below
is a list of words/ expressions that appeal to the senses. Use them to describe the items under them.
Hearing Touch words Taste Smell
crash cool oily sweet
bump cold buttery fragrant
boom icy salty aromatic
smash warm bitter perfumed
bang steamy bittersweet flowery
explode sticky sweet odorous
roar wet sugary pungent
shout slippery ripe fishy
scream oily sour spicy
yell waxy tasteless acidic
whistle fleshy sour gaseous
bark rubbery vinegary rotten
clap elastic fruity spoiled
noisy feathery spicy stench
deafening silky peppery stale, etc.
earsplitting sandy gingery
shatter rough hot
EXERCISE
A) Write sentences to describe each of the following sensations.
Example
A lemon tastes sour.
A crowded bus is suffocated.
a) Burger
b)’Mitmita’
c) A landing jet
d) A stale garbage can
e) Air freshener
B) Write a describe paragraph in which you combine the various senses( for example, if you go to a
cafeteria, you will smell food, hear noises, see people eating , drinking, and talking and so on.) So think
of a similar situation in which almost all the senses can be combined and write a paragraph of not more
than 150 words.

5.3 EXPOSITORY PARAGARPH

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Most of the writing you do in academic setting is expository. That is why you are often required to
define concepts, explain processes, or reason out to substantiate your view point. It is the purpose of
this unit therefore to help you develop the skills/ techniques for doing so

Exposition is a type of writing which explains an idea, object or phenomenon. Its purpose is to explain,
to give directions, or to inform. The explanation is usually done by using a combination of all or some of
the following methods of developing ideas: cause and effect, classification, illustration, definition and
comparison and contrast. Sometimes, people find difficult the distinction between description and
exposition. In description, our main purpose is to create a mental image through words. In exposition,
however, our purpose is to provide factual information. Therefore, expository writing is informative.
Descriptive writing tries to evoke impression. It therefore aims at appealing to the emotional side of
human beings while exposition appeals to the intellectual side.
As far as the expository/explanatory composition is concerned, you may ask yourself.
 What special knowledge or interests do I have that I could explain to others?
 What opinions do I have about school or home life or about people’s lives in
general?
 What concepts do I define to make them understandable to my audience?
 What steps do I have to use to explain how something words or how something
is done or made?
 What reasons do I have to use to explain why something is or why something
works the way it does?
An attempt to answer any of the questions above, will lead you to the generation of ideas or topics for
expository composition.

There are many types of explanatory paragraphs:

a) those that explain a process/ give directions.
b) those that define.
c) those that give reasons
d) those that compare and contrast
e) those that classify and so on.

5.3.1The paragraph that explains a process or Gives Directions (process paragraphs)

This type of explanatory paragraph is used to tell how something is done or how something works.

Even if you don’t know how to cook, you’ll never starve to death if you know how to prepare scrambled
eggs. You begin by melting one tablespoon of butter in a frying pan over low heat. While the butter is
melting, break three eggs into a bowl. Add = Teaspoon of salt, = teaspoon of paprika, and 3 tablespoons
of milk to the eggs in the bowl and mix them for about a minute. Pour the mixture into the frying pan.
As the eggs begin to thicken in the pan, break them into shreds with a fork, or stir them with a spoon
until they become solid. When they are cooked, serve them with lightly buttered toast.

A paragraph that explains a process, or that gives directions uses a chronological order to present
details. In the above paragraph, the underlined expressions signal chronological order.
If we want to give a more visual representation of process development, our diagram might look
something like this:
 103

Process: Topic
sentence

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Exercise 1
Read this process paragraph and answer the questions after it.

In his will, Alfred Nobel left specific instructions as to how the winners of the science awards he endowed
are to be selected. First, each year the Swedish Academy of Sciences (physics and chemistry) and the
Caroline Medical institute (Physiology and medicine) solicit nearly 2,000 recommendations from past
laureates, university professors, and other experts from all over the world. The second step is the review
of recommendations received and the selections of preliminary candidates by special committees within
the two Swedish institutions. The committee members are specifically instructed that those3 chosen
“shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind,” and that on consideration be given to the
candidates’ nationalities. Next, after lengthy investigation and discussion, the final choices of their
awards are sent to the new Noble laureates about one month prior to the award ceremony.

A. Now Ask Yourself

1. What are the key words in the topic sentences? (is there anything in the topic sentence which
suggests that the paragraph will be explaining a process?)

2. Can you find any enumerative listing signals?

3. Have any enumerators been used (that is, words like steps or stages)?

Direction: Show the organization of the paragraph above by filling in the list that follows: You do not
have to write complete sentences.

How Nobel Science Laureates __________________________________________

1. Two Thousand Requests for _________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________________
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a. ________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

3. The Final Selection

a. ___________________________________________________
b. ___________________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________________________________

B. Unscrambling a Process Paragraph

Directions: The following two groups of sentences constitute paragraphs on the processes known as the
scientific method and culture shock. However, the sentences have been given a disordered sequence;
that is, they have been scrambled. Place them in their correct order and then recopy the reconstructed
paragraphs, double-spaced, onto a separate sheet of paper. Circle all repeated words ad draw lines to
connect them. Underline all pronoun forms and draw arrows to the words they represent.

The Scientific Method

1. Following this method, the researcher first observes some aspens of nature and then
poses a specific question about what has been observed.
2. Experiments based on this hypothesis are designed nd conducted to test each
contingency.
3. In order to answer this question, pertinent data are collected,
4. After through experimentation, the researcher validates, modifies, or rejects the original
hypothesis,
5. Originating from the branch of philosophy called epistemology, what we now know s
the scientific method provides guidelines for the systematic acquisition of knowledge.
6. On the basis of these data, a hypothesis is proposed to explain them.

Culture Shock
1. The visitor has usually learned the language and is thus able to laugh at himself
or herself.
2. Having passed through these stages of culture shock, the visitor may even
eventually return home with regret t having lost his or her adopted home.
3. The process of reacting and adjusting to a new society, sometimes-termed
culture shock, has four distinct stages.
4. A hostile attitude is typical of the second stage, which develops at the point
when the individual has to cope seriously with the day-to-day problems of
housing, shopping, transportation, and so forth.
5. Final adjustment to a new culture occurs when the visitor is able to function
without anxiety and to accept what he or she finds for what it is-another way of
doing things.
6. During these initial encounters, every aspect of the new society seems
fascinating.
7. The first period, or honeymoon stage, may last as long as several months.
8. The visitor develops a sense of humor about his or her problems on entering the
third stage.
 105

9. The visitor usually begins his or her sty in hotel and meets sympathetic and
gracious nationals.
10. The visitor soon finds that most people in the new society are indifferent to
these problems, and so seeks out fellow countrymen to support him or her in
criticism of the host country.
C. Use the following topics to write process paragraphs.
a. How to make friends
b. How to prepare for exams
c. How to make coffee

5.3.2 The paragraph that Defines

Clear definitions help a person to understand new words, things, and ideas. A paragraph of definition
first places the term to be defined in a general category, and then identifies several distinguishing
characteristics of the term. These characteristics help to separate the term being defined from others
closely related to it.
Defining Words
There are three types of definitions: ordinary definition, logical definition, and extended definition.
Ordinary definition uses such things as synonyms, examples, and illustrations. Logical definition first
states the smallest class or category the thing to be defined belongs to (genus). Then, the properties
that distinguish the thing from the other members of the class are stated (differentiae). In extended
definitions, a logical definition is first given. Then, additional details are provided.

Examples
a) Ordinary definition
Daft: silly, foolish, reckless
Manacles are handcuffs.
This type of definition doesn’t give a full picture of the item being defined.
b) Logical definition
Water is a liquid made up of H2O
(Genus) (Differentiae)
c) Extended Definition
The elephant is an animal which is the largest among those living on land. In all the animal
kingdom, only the whale is larger. An elephant has a nose that protrudes into a long trunk which
it uses as a hand. Elephants have the largest ears in the world, and their tusks are the largest
teeth.

A paragraph that defines therefore focuses on the use of extended definitions. You should practice
writing extended definitions.
EXERCISE
1. Write ordinary definitions for each of the following words:
a. Love
b. School
c. Dog
2. Write logical definitions for the words below:
a. Corruption
b. Computer
c. Language
d. Fertility
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3. Write extended definitions for these words:

a. University
b. Mother
c. Computer
d. Teacher
e. House

5.3.3 The Paragraph that Reasons Out

Whenever you try to explain why something is, or why something should be, you are composing an
explanatory paragraph that gives reasons. You say that something happens because something else
occurred first, or that an action or idea is right because certain facts or reasons logically support it.
The following paragraph explains why students face difficulty in writing research paper.
There are many factors that make writing a research paper difficult. Too often, students
postpone work on the paper until it is too late. They also invite avoidable difficulty by their failure
to find out at the beginning of their study whether sufficient materials are available in the
library. Besides this, instead of developing a general notion of the topic before tackling it in
detail, they begin with the first convenient book and plunge into fine points before they see the
topic as a whole. They take down more notes than are necessary because they begin this before
they have decided what kind of information they need. Such confused research procedures result
in unnecessary wastage of time and effort.

EXERCISE
Develop the following topic sentences into paragraphs that reasons out.
a. There are four major reasons why people get married.
b. I have three major reasons why I have chosen to study (supply your field of study)

5.3.4 COMPARISON AND CONTRAST PARAGARAPHS

COMPARISON

In comparison, we focus on the similarities between things compared. Look at the model paragraph
given under METHODS OF ORGANIZATION.

EXERCISE

Write a paragraph describing the similarities between the physical appearance and behavior of two
people you know very well. Use the following table to generate ideas for comparison.

Point of comparison X Y
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CONTRAST

Elsewhere we have said that paragraphs of contrast try to look at how people or things are different.

EXERCISE

a) Use the information in the following chart to contrast two types of sleep. Supply the topic and
concluding sentences.

TOPIC

SENTENCE

Brain waves-shower, less regular

Blood supply

Temperature

ORTHODOX SLEEP Breathing, heart rate

Muscle tension

Body and face movements

Rapid eye movements

Brain waves

Blood supply

Temperature

PARADOXICAL SLEEP Breathing, heart rate

Muscle tension

Body and face movements

Rapid eye movement

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CONCLUSION

a) Write a paragraph contrasting a radio and a television.

 First, draw two columns in which you list the features of each of the items.
 Decide on the number of points you are going to use for the contrast
 Write a topic sentence (e.g. There are three basic difference between…)
 Use the points you have listed to contrast the two items(start with the most important
difference and go to the east important one)
 Draw your own conclusion

5.3.5 PARAGARPHS OF CLASSIFICATION (ENUMERATION)

In this type of paragraph development, a writer starts with a general class, then proceeds to break it
down by listing some or all of its members or parts. If we wanted to show a diagram of the enumerative
process, our diagram might look something like this:

GENERAL CLASS

Member Member Member Member or Member

or part or part or part part or part

Model Paragraph
There are three basic kinds of materials that can be found in any good library. First, there are books on
all subjects, booth in English and in many other languages. These books are organized according to
subject, title, and author in a central file called the card catalog. Books can generally be checked out of
the library and taken home for a period of two to four weeks. Second, there are references, which include
encyclopedias, dictionaries, bibliographies, atlases, and so forth, and which generally must be used in the
library itself. Third, there are periodicals, magazines, newspapers, pamphlets__ which are filed
alphabetically in racks, or which have been microfilmed to conserve space. Like reference words,
periodicals usually cannot be removed from the library.

a) Now Ask Yourself

1. What are the key words in the topic sentence of the model paragraph?
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2. What types of supportive information does the author use (examples, details, anecdotes, facts and
statistics)?

3. How many kinds or types of library materials are discussed?

b) Write two different paragraphs of classification using these topics. Make sure that you supply
definitions where a word or words need to be defined in the paragraphs.

 Types of Love
 Types of Students

5.4 PERSUASIVE PARAGARPH

It so happens that you will be required to reason out in order to convince your friends, colleagues, etc of
a certain viewpoint. You therefore need to develop the skills of arguing for or against a certain
viewpoint. This section will provide you with a variety of exercises geared to achieving that end.

A paragraph of persuasion is a special type of paragraph that gives reasons. Its main purpose is to
persuade or convince the reader of a certain point of view. This is done by providing tangible pieces of
evidence or reasons. Facts and statistics provide strong support, but examples and incidents may also be
used effectively. The reasons in a persuasive paragraph are often organized from the least important to
the most important. This helps to build strong support for the opinion, and leaves your reader with your
strongest reason freshly in mind- A paragraph of persuasion usually contains a signal of its purpose in
the topic sentence. The sentence will be worded so that a definite opinion is given on an issue. It may
also contain words such as SHOULD or OUGHT TO, to express a judgment about a thing or idea.
Structure of a persuasive paragraph
Structure I
 Topic sentence (opinion)
 Supporting sentences (Facts and Examples)
 Concluding sentence (Final Appeal)

Example
Despite the general shortage of government money, the benefits of the space shuttle are so
great that the program should be expanded. First, each shuttlecraft can be reused many times
to carry satellites into and out of orbit. These satellites can perform a wide range of services that
help people on Earth. They can predict weather on land and sea and forecast crop production
around the globe. They can also relay power and communication beams. Second, the shuttle can
carry materials for important construction projects in space, such as a space station. Most
important, the shuttle allows science and industry a convenient laboratory for testing new ideas
in technology and medicine. Although the development costs are high, money on the space
shuttle is well spent.

EXERCISE
Write persuasive paragraphs (Using Structure I) on these topics:
a. Legalizing Abortion
b. Wearing Mini Skirts in Schools
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Structure II
1. State the opposing point of view.
2. State evidence to support it.
3. State your own point of view.
4. State evidence to support it.
5. Draw conclusions.

Example
The paragraph in Structure I can be presented as follows using Structure II.

Some people argue that the benefits of the space shuttle are so great that the program should
be expanded. They say that each shuttlecraft can be reused many times to carry satellites into
and out of orbit. These satellites can perform a wide range of services that help people on Earth.
They can predict weather on land and sea and forecast crop production around the globe.
However, any own view is that the money used for that purpose should rather be spent on life-
saving activities. For example, many people are dying of starvation, and mal-nutrition. Also,
AIDS, AIDS is haunting the lives of people in thousands, even in millions. Needless to say, millions
are still dying of malaria, TB and other contagious diseases. Therefore, is it really human to
spend much money on something too remote from us where there are more urgent things to
take care of?

This structure helps you to present the different sides of an argument. By so doing, you can properly
refute what other people say about the topic of discussion. In using this structure, you should give more
emphasis to your own point of view. Otherwise, if you focus more on what other people say, you will
end up saying nothing or little as far as your view point is concerned.

EXERCISE
Write persuasive paragraphs (Using Structure II) on the following topics:
a. The Cost of Wedding Ceremonies in Addis Ababa
b. Who Should Rule a Country?

CHAPTER SEVEN: ESSAY WRITING

7.1 WHAT IS AN ESSAY?
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The definition of an essay is only slightly different from that of a paragraph. We have said that a
paragraph is a group of sentences dealing with a single topic or idea. Usually, one sentence, called the
topic sentence, states the main idea. All the other sentences are related to this topic sentence. They
further explain or support the main idea.

An essay (also called a composition) is a group of paragraphs dealing with a single topic or idea. Usually,
one paragraph called the introductory paragraph, states the main idea of the whole essay. All the other
paragraphs are related to the introductory paragraph. They further explain or support the main idea.

An essay has three main parts: the introductory paragraph, the body, and the concluding paragraph. The
introductory paragraph is similar to the topic sentence of a paragraph. It presents the main idea of the
composition. Usually one sentence in the introductory paragraph contains the main idea of the
composition. This sentence is called the thesis sentence/statement. The body or middle paragraphs
support the main idea/thesis sentence. The conclusion or final paragraph may perform one or more of
the following tasks: it may summarize the information that has been presented in the preceding
paragraphs. It may also make a final comment on the information that has been given. The three parts
work together to develop a single topic or idea.

EXAMPLE ESSAYS

Read and study these five example essays. Work with a partner to answer the questions before
and after the essays. These questions will help you understand the content and the organization

of the essays.

Activity Studying an Example Essay

Essay I

This essay is about typical household chores and writer thinks about them.

1. How much time do you spend cleaning your house or apartment each week?

2. What is your least favorite household chore? Why?

Exploring the Essay

Cinderella and Her Odious Household Chores

1. Everyone knows how the story of Cinderella ends, but did you ever really think about how she spent
her days before she met the prince? Her daily routine was not glamorous. She did everything from
sweeping the floor to cooking the meals. If someone had asked Cinderella, “Are there any household
chores that you chores that you particularly hate?” she probably would have answered. “Why, none, of
course. Housework is my duty!” in the real world. However, most people have definite dislikes for
certain household chores. The top three of these tasks include ironing clothes washing dishes, and
cleaning the bathroom.
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2. One of the most hated chores for many people is ironing clothes because it is not a task that can be
completed quickly or thoughtlessly. Each piece of clothing must be handled individually. So ironing a
basket of laundry can take horse! After ironing a piece of clothing meticulously. Which entails something
out the fabric, following the seams, and getting the creases just right.” You need to place it on a hanger
as soon as possible. If you not follow these directions carefully. It might become wrinkled and you have
to start over. Perhaps that is why ironing is not a favorite chore. It requires extreme attention to detail
form beginning to end.

3. Another household chore that many people dislike is washing dishes. Of course, some people claim
that this chore is no longer a problem because we have dishwashers now! However, no one would argue
that dishes, silverware, and especially pots and pans washed in a dishwasher come out as clean as they
do when washed by hand. For this reason, many of us continue to wash our dishes by hand, but we are
not necessarily happy doing it. Washing dishes is a dirty job that requires not only the elbow grease to
scrape food off the dishes but also the patience to rinse and dry them. In addition, unlike, ironing
clothes, washing is a chore that usually must be done every day. I don’t know how Cinderella felt about
this particular chore, but I believe that most people hate it as much as I do.

4. Though ironing clothes and washing dishes are not the most pleasant household chores, perhaps the
most dreaded is cleaning the bathroom. This involves tackling three main areas: the bathtub, sink, and
toilet. Because the bathroom is full of germs, a quick wiping of the surfaces is not enough. As a result,
you must use strong bathroom cleansers to clean and disinfect this room. The task of cleaning the
bathroom is so unpleasant that some people wear rubber gloves when they attempt it. The only positive
point about cleaning the bathroom is that it does not have to be done on a daily basis.

5. Maintaining a house involves doing a wide variety of unpleasant chores. Cinderella knew this, and so
do we. Many of us do not have the luxury of hiring an outside person to do housework, so we must
make do with our responsibilities. If we can take pride in the results of our hard work, maybe we can get
through the unpleasantness of these typical hose hold chores.

Odious: very unpleasant silverware eating: eating utensils; forks, knives, and spoons
household: referring to the house elbow grease: physical strength, usually using the hands

Chore: a specific task or job tacking: undertaking, beginning

Meticulously: thoroughly and carefully disinfect: purify; eliminate germs

3. According to the author of this essay, what are the three least popular household chores?

WRITER’S NOTE: The Hook

The opening sentence of any essay is called the hook in writing is used to “catch” readers and get their
interest so that they will want to read the essay. (See pages 23-24 for more information about hooks.)
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4. Write the hook in this essay. Every one knows------------she met the prince.

5. Do you think this hook is effective? Does it grab your attention? Why, or why not? yes

6. How many paragraphs does this essay have? _5__ Which paragraph is the introduction? 1___ The
conclusion? 5____Which paragraphs the body? 2,3,4

7. In a few words, what is the general topic of this essay? The most odious house chores

8. Can you find a sentence in paragraph 1 that tells readers what to expect in paragraphs 2,3 and 4?
Write that sentence here. i.e. the thesis statement— The top three of these tasks include ironing clothes
washing dishes, and cleaning the bathroom.

WRITER’S NOTE: The Thesis Statement

In “Cinderella and Her Odious Household chores,” the last sentence in paragraph I is the thesis
statement. It states the main idea of the essay and tells what the organization of the information will be.

9. What is the topic of paragraph 2? ___________________________________________

Can you find one sentence that introduces this topic? Write it here.

Every good paragraph has a topic sentence. The topic sentence tells the reader the main topic of the
paragraph. Sometimes it also gives the reader a hint about the writer’s purpose.

10. Write the topic sentences of paragraph 3 and paragraph 4.

Paragraph3:

Paragraph4:

WRITER’S NOTE: Supporting Sentences

The supporting sentences in an essay are in the body. (See pages 3 1-36 for information about the
body.) Supporting sentences always relate to the topic sentence of the paragraph in which they occur.
Common supporting sentences give examples, reasons, facts, or more specific information. Without
supporting sentences, an essay would be nothing more than a general outline.

11. Supporting sentences: In paragraph 2, the writer shows that people do not like to iron clothes.
Write two of the supporting sentences here:

12. Porting sentences: in paragraph 4, the writer suggests that cleaning the bathroom is not a simple or
fast chore. Write the sentence in which the writer makes this point.
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13. Look at the last paragraph. Find the sentence that restates the thesis. Write that sentence here.

WRITER’S NOTE: The Conclusion

It is important for an essay to have a good conclusion. Notice that the writer mentions
Cinderella again in the last paragraph of “Cinderella and Her Odious Household Chores.” The
introduction and the conclusion often share some ideas and words.

Studying an Example Essay

Activity 2
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Essay 2

In this narrative essay, the narrative experiences a humorous language problem in Japan.

1. What are some words that cause problems for you in English? Why are they difficult?

2. Describe a situation in which you could not express yourself effectively in English. What did you do?

How do you say……?

1. What would happen if you woke up on day and suddenly found yourself in a world where you could
not communicate with anyone? I am a teacher of English as a second language (ESL). In June 1988, I
accepted job in a rural of Japan called Niigata and found myself faced with this language problem. One
event in particular stands out as an example of my inability to express my ideas to the people around me
due to my lack of vocabulary.

2. I had been in Japan only a few days, and I was feeling restless. I wanted to make some fresh bread. So
I set out for the store with the simple intention of buying some flour. I had taken some Japanese
language classes before I arrived in Japan. Although I knew my Japanese skills were limited, my lack of
knowledge did not stop me from going to the store to buy flour. I thought that I would locate the section
where the grains were displayed and find the bag that had a picture of either bread or flour on it.

3. The small town where I lived had one tiny store. I wandered around the store a few time, but I did not
see a bag of anything that appeared to be flour. In the United States, flour usually comes in a paper bag
with pictures of biscuits or bread on it, so this is what I was looking for. I finally found a few clear plastic
bags that had bread crumbs inside, so I thought that flour might be located nearby. No matter how
many bags I examined. I could not find any flour.

4. I desperately wanted to ask one of the three elderly women clerks where the flour was, but could not
do this simple task. I knew how to ask where something was, but I did not know the word for “flour.” I
tried to think of how to say “flour” using different words such as “white powder” or “the ingredient that
you use to make bread, “but I did not know “power” and I did not know “ingredient.” Just then, I saw
one of my students leaving the store. I rushed outside to his car and explained that I needed to know a
word in Japanese. “How do you say ‘flour’?” I asked. He told me the word was Hana.

5. I rushed back into the store, which was about to close for the evening. I found one of the elderly
clerks and asked in my best Japanese, “sumimasen. Hana wa doko desuka?” or “Excuse me. Where is the
Hana?” The petite old woman said something in Japanese and raced to the far night side of the store.
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“Finally,” I thought, “I’m going to get my flour and go home to make bread,” However, my hopes ended
rather quickly when I followed the clerk to the produce section. I saw green onions, tomatoes, and even
pumpkins, but I could not understand why flour would be there. The woman then pointed to the
beautiful yellow chrysanthemums next to the green onions.

6. At first I was puzzled, but suddenly it all made sense. I had been in the country long enough to know
that people in Japan eat chrysanthemums in salads. I was standing in front of the f-l-o-w-e-r display, not
the f-l-o-u-r display. When “flour” or “flower” because it had never occurred to me that grocery stores,
especially small ones, might sell flowers.

7. I did not buy any chrysanthemums that night. I was not able to find the flour either. My lack of
knowledge about Japanese cuisine and my very limited knowledge of Japanese caused me to go home
empty- handed that night. However, I learned the often-underestimated value of simple vocabulary in
speaking a second language. For me, this event in a small store in rural Japan really opened my eyes to
my lack of vocabulary skills.

Rural: of the countryside; the opposite of urban set out for: to start going to a place

In particular: especially crumbs: tiny pieces of food

Stand out: to be different from the other produce: fresh fruits and vegetables

Members of the group pumpkin: a large, round, orange fruit

Due to: because of chrysanthemum: a type of flower

Lack:: a shortage specify: to say exactly

3. In a few sentences, tell what happened in this story. Use your own words.

4. A good hook in an essay something involves the reader in what follows. Write the hook for

this essay.

5. How does this hook try to involve the reader? Do you think that this hook is successful? Why,

or why not?

6. How many paragraphs are in this essay? __________________In which paragraph doses the

Writer reveals what the problem is with the question he asked in Japans?

_____________________

7. Supporting sentences: Why does the writer include the information in paragraph 6? (Hint:

What supporting information does the writer give to explain the language miscommunication?)

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________
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8. This essay tells a story. It is an organized sequence of events. This kind of essay is called a narrative
essay (Unit 2).

Here is a list of the main events in the essay. Read the list and number the items from 1 to 12 to
indicate the order of the events

___9_____ The clerk took the writer to the produce section.

____6____ The writer asked the student for a Japanese translation.

____10____ The clerk pointed to the flowers.

____2___ The writer arrived in Japan.

___3_____ The writer wanted to make some bread.

_____8___ The writer spoke to an elderly clerk.

____11____ The writer realized that the student had not understood the question correctly.

___12_____ The writer want home without the flour.

___4_____The writer looked all over the store for the flour.

____5____ The writer saw one of his students.

____1____ The writer studied Japanese.

____7_____The writer went to the store.

Activity 3 Studying an Examp1e Essay

Essay 3

Which do you like better, the city or the countryside? Read this comparison essay about some
differences between these two types of places

I. Describe the place where you grew up.

2. What were the best and worst things about living there?

Differences in Urban and Rural Life

1. Imagine life in Toronto. Now imagine life in a neighboring rural Canadian town finally, picture life in
Rome, Italy. Which of these last two places is more different from Toronto? Many people might
mistakenly choose Rome because it is in a different country. In fact, city dwellers all over the world tend
to have similar lifestyles, so the biggest differences are between Toronto and its smaller neighbor. Urban
people and rural people, regardless of their country, live quite differently. Perhaps some of the most
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notable differences in the lives of these two groups include degree of friendliness, pace of life and
variety of activities.

2. One major difference between growing up in the city and in the country is the degree of friendliness.
In large cities, we often hear of people living in huge apartment buildings with hundreds of strangers.
These urban apartment dwellers tend to be wary of unknown faces and rarely get to know their
neighbors well. The situation in a small town is often just the opposite. Small-town people generally
grow up together, attend the same schools and churches, and share the same friends. As a result, rural
people are much more likely to treat their neighbors like family and invite them into their homes.

3. Another difference is the pace of life. In the city, life moves very quickly. The streets reflect this hectic
pace and are rarely empty, even late at night. City dwellers appear to be racing to get somewhere
important. Life for them tends to be a series of deadlines. In the country, Life is much slower. Even
during peak hours, traffic jams occur less often. Stores close in the early evening. And the streets don’t
come alive until the next morning. The people here seem more relaxed and move in a more leisurely
way. The pace of life in these two areas couldn’t be more different.

4. A third difference lies in the way people are able to spend their free time. Although life in the city has
its drawbacks, city dwellers have much wider choice of activities that they can participate in. For
example, they can go to museums, eat in exotic restaurants, attend concerts, and shop in hundreds of
stores. The activities available to people in rural areas, however, are much more limited. It is rare to find
museums or exotic restaurants there. concert tours almost never include stops in country towns. Finally,
people who enjoy shopping might be disappointed in the small number of stores.

5. Life in urban areas and life in rural areas vary in terms of human interaction, pace of life. and daily
activities. Other important differences exist, too, but none of these makes one place better than the
other. The places are simply different. Only people who have experienced living in both the city and the
country can truly appreciate the unique characteristics of each.

Urban: of the city Pace: speed; rate

Dwellers: those who live in a wary: cautious, suspicious

Regardless of: in spite of deadline: the time limit for doing something

Notable: important; worthy on notice peak: the highest; the top (amount)

Degree: amount drawbacks:

3. What is topic of this essay?

The writer’s purpose is to compare and contrast life in two locations. This kind of essay is called a
Comparison essay (Unit 3)

4. What is the thesis statement?

Perhaps some of the most notable differences in the lives of these two groups include degree of
friendliness, pace of life and variety of activities.
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5. In each paragraph, which location is always discussed first, rural or urban?

___________________________________________________________________________

6. Which paragraph talks about activities in each area? __________________________ Which

Place offers more options for activities? _________________________________________

7. Supporting sentences: Some of the supporting sentences in “Differences in Urban and Rural

Life” contrast the pace of life in the two area. Write those sentences in the chart under the correct

heading. Include the paragraph number.

______________________________________________________________________________

Pace of Life (paragraph ____________)

______________________________________________________________________________

A. urban

1.__________________________________________________________________________

2.__________________________________________________________________________

3.__________________________________________________________________________

4.__________________________________________________________________________

B. Rural

1.___________________________________________________________________________

2.___________________________________________________________________________

3.___________________________________________________________________________

4.___________________________________________________________________________

Activity 4 Studying an Example

Essay 4

This cause-effect essay tells about the connection between cancer and an unhealthy lifestyle.

1. Do you think people are healthier now than in the past? Why, or why not?

2. What three changes could you make in your lifestyle to become healthier? Be specific.

Cancer Risks
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1. Lung cancer kills more people in one year than all criminal and accidental deaths combined. These
statistics are shocking. But the good news is that people are now well —informed about the risks
connected to lung cancer. They know that their risk of contracting this terrible disease decreases if they
either stop smoking or don’t smoke at all. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said about other types of
cancer. Many people are not aware that their everyday behavior can lead to the development of these
different forms of cancer. By eating better, exercising regularly and staying out of the sun, people can
reduce their risks

2. Instead of foods that are good for them people often eat hamburgers, cheese, French fries, and pizza.
These common foods contain large amounts of saturated fat, which is the worst kind of fat. Though light
and fat-free products are constantly being introduced to the consumer market, many people still buy
food that contains fat because it often testes better. However, eating fatty foods can increase a person’s
chances for some kinds of cancer. People do not eat as many fresh vegetables and fresh fruit as they
used to. Instead, they now eat a lot more processed foods that do not contain natural fiber. Lack of fiber
in a person’s diet can increase the chance of colon cancer. In the past, people with less information
about nutrition actually had better diets than people do today. They also had fewer cases of cancer.

3. Many people today are overweight, and being overweight has been connected to some kinds of
cancer. This is the generation that started the couch potato boom, and today’s couch potatoes are
bigger than ever. Health experts warm that being overweight is a risk not only for heart disease but also
for certain kinds of cancer. The best way to attain a healthy weight again is to cut back on the amount of
food and to exercise regularly. It is not possible to do only one of these and lose weight permanently.
The improved diet must be in conjunction with regular exercise. In the past, people did more physical
activity than people do today. For example, people used to walk to work: now almost no one does. In
addition, people had jobs that required more physical labor. Now many people have desk jobs in front of
computers.

4. Finally, health officials are gravely concerned by the astounding rise in the cases of skin cancer. Many
societies value a tanned complexion, so on weekends people tend to flock to the beach or swimming
pools and lie in the sun. many of these people don’t use a safe sunscreen, and the result is that they
often get sunburned. Sunburn damages the skin, and repeated damage may lead to skin cancer later in
life. Once the damage is done, it cannot be undone. Thus, prevention is important. In the past, people
did not lie in direct sunlight for long periods, and skin cancer was not as prevalent as it is now. People
have started to listen to doctors’ warnings about this situation, and more and more people are using
proper sunscreens. Unfortunately, millions of people already have this potential cancer problem in their
skin and may develop cancer later.

5. Cancer has been around since the earliest days of human existence, but only recently has the public
been made aware of some of the risk factors involved. Anti-smoking campaigns can be seen
everywhere: on billboards, television, radio, and newsprint. If the same amount of attention were given
to proper diets, exercise, and sunscreens, perhaps the number of overall cancer cases would be
reduced.

Astounding: amazing; surprising

Fiber: a plant material that is good for the

In conjunction with: at the same time as

Digestive system together with together colon: an organ in the digestive system
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Diet: a special plan for losing weight; what a person eats

Attain: to achieve prevalent: common

Cut back on: to reduce the amount (of something)

Flock to: to go to a place in large numbers (as birds do)

1. What is the writer’s main message in this essay?

2. In a few words, what is the general topic of “Cancer Risks”?

3. The writer presents several causes for the rise in the number of cancer cases. This kind of organization
is called a cause-effect essay (Unit 4). In this kind of essay, the writer shows that one thing happened
(effect) because something else happened first (cause).

4. What is the thesis statement of the essay?

5. The thesis statement should tell the reader how the paper will be organized. What do you know
about the organization of the essay from the thesis statement?

6. Supporting sentences: in paragraph 2, the writer states that many people eat unhealthy food. What
supporting information explains why this food is not is not healthy?

7. Supporting sentences: The writer also explains why people enjoy eating unhealthy food. Write the
reason here.

Activity 5 Studying Example Essay

Essay 5

Choosing a college is an important decision. This essay may help you decide.

1. What do you know about community colleges? How are they different from universities?

2. What are some things that students consider when they are choosing a college?

The Advantages of Community Colleges

1. A high school diploma is not the end of many people’s education these days. High school ‘students
who want to continue their education generally choose one of two routes after graduation. Some
students opt to attend a community college and then transfer to a university, while others go directly to
a university. Making this difficult choice requires a great deal of careful thought. However, if the choice
is based on three specific factors, namely, cost, location, and quality of education, students will quickly
see the a advantages that attending a community college offers
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2. Attending a community college is much chapter than attending a university. For example, tuition at a
local community college I attended might cost less than 53.000 for two years. The same classes taken at
a nearby university would cost almost 55.000 bill is calculated or what is included, it is more expensive
to study at a university.

3. Attending a community college can be more convenient because of its location. Going to a university
often requires recent high school graduates to live for from home, and many of them of are reluctant to
do so. These students are only seventeen or eighteen years old and may have very little experience at
being away from home. It would be difficult for these young people to suddenly find themselves far
away form their families. In addition, very few parents are prepared to send their teenagers to distant
universities because almost every area has a community college. Students who opt to go a community
college can continue to be near their families for two more years.

4. Finally, there are educational benefits to attending a community college. University life is very
different form community colleges, which typically have fewer students and extracurricular activities,
may be a better environment for serious study. In addition, the library facilities at a community college,
though not as large as those at a university, are more than sufficient for the kind of work that is required
in first-or second-year courses. Class size is also an issue to consider. Introductory courses at university
often have fifty to sixty or even one hundred students. In such large classes, student-teacher interaction
usually in minimal and learning can be more difficult for some students. Finally, the teaching at
community colleges is often better than the teaching at a university, professors at community colleges
have the same credentials as those at universities, and community college professors spend most of
their time teaching instead of conducting research, as university professors have to do.

5. The decision to enter a university directly or to attend a community college for the first two years
after high school can be difficult. However, based on the three important factors discussed in this essay-
cost, location, and quality of education-it is clear that attending a community college is the smarter thing
to do.

Opt: to choose (do something) reluctant: hesitant

Namely: such as; for example minimal: the least possible

Tuition: money paid for classes credentials: qualifications

3. What two things are being compared in this essay?

_________________________________________________________________________

Which one does the writer think is better?

__________________________________________________________________________

In essays like this one, the writer is comparing or contrasting two or more things. However, unlike
“Differences in Urban and Rural Life” (Essay 3, page 14), in “The Advantages of Community College,” the
writer compares community colleges and universities with the intention of persuading the reader to
agree that community colleges are better or new high school graduates. This kind of essay is called an
argumentative essay (Unit 5). Some books call this persuasive essay.
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4. What is the organization of this essay? Fill in the blanks of this simple outline with the words that are
missing.

Topic: the Advantages of Community Colleges

Paragraph I; introduction

Thesis statement: ___________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

Paragraph 2 topic:____________________________________________________________

A. Community College cost: $____________________________________

B. ________________: $____________________________________

C. Other higher university costs

1. Parking

2._________________________________________________________________________

3._________________________________________________________________________

4. Health clinic services

5. __________________________________________________________________

Paragraph 3 topic

A. Students’ reasons

B. ________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Paragraph 4 topic: __________________________________________

A. Quiet campus

B. ______________________________________________________

C. Class size

D. Quality of teaching

Paragraph 5: Conclusion
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5. The writer discusses three factors-cost, location, and quality of education—In the decision about what
kind college to attend. Can you think of two other factors that the writer could have used?

6. Before you read this essay, did you know much about this topic? What was your opinion before you
red this essay? (Check all possible answers.)

______ I thought that attending a university directly after high school was best.

______I thought that attending a community college after high school was best.

______ I thought that a university offered a better education than a community college.

______I thought that a community college offered a better education than a university.

______I thought that a university was cheaper than a community college.

_____ I thought that a community college was cheaper than a university.

______I did not know much about university education in the United States

.______I did not know much about community college education in the United States.

7. Did your opinion about community colleges change after you read “The Advantages of Community
Colleges”? in other words, did the write persuade you your mind about community colleges in the
United States?__________

8. Which part of the essay was the most persuasive for you?

9. If your answer to question 7 is “Yes,” tell why your opinion changed. If your answer to question 7 is
“no,” can you think of some fact or information that the writer could have used to make the essay more
persuasive?

WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

The introduction is the first part of an essay, usually the first paragraph. The introduction des not have
to be written first, however, some writers design and write this part last or at another point their writing
process.

From the basic outline that follows, you can see how the introduction fits into the essay. In this unit, you
will learn about the introduction.

I. introduction (usually one paragraph)

II. Body (one to four paragraphs)

III. Conclusion (usually one paragraph)

There are many ways to write an introduction. Some writers begin with a question. Other writers give
background information about the topic. The kind of introduction you choose depends on how you want
to present the topic and the kind of essay you decide to write.
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What is the introduction?

The introduction for most essays is one paragraph. This introductory paragraph usually consists of three
parts.

1. The hook

Introduction = 2. Connecting information

3. The thesis statement (or writing plan).

Now look at each of these parts to see what they are and how they work in the introduction.

The Hook

The hook is the opening statements. Just as a fisherman uses a hook to catch a fish, so a writer uses a
hook to catch readers’ afternoon. If a hook dos its job well, readers will want to read the rest of the
essay after they have read the hook. Writing a good hook is not easy. It requires a great deal of thought
and practice.

There are many different ways to write a hook.

1. One common way write a hook is to ask a question. If readers want to know the answer to the

question, they are “hooked” and will read the essay. For example, a writer might begin an essay with
this sentence:

How many people out there on the roads are driving uninsured vehicles?

Most readers won’t know the answer to this question, but they’ll probably be hooked and want to
find out more about the topic.

2. Another way to write a hook is to begin an essay with an interesting observation. Here is an

example.

Asian economists are out sleeping well these days.

This observation makes readers want to know why economists are not sleeping well. To find out, they
read on. Here’s another example of an observation hook full of interesting details that leads readers to
the subject of international trade:

3. Writers often begin an essay with a unique scenario to catch readers’ attention:

Traveling at more than one hundred miles an hour, he feels as though he is not moving. He is
engulfed in complete silence. For a moment, it is as if he has entered another dimension.
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Are you hooked; Do you want to read the rest of the essay? This essay is about the exciting sport of
skydiving.

4. Sometimes writers use a famous quote as a hook, as in this example:

“To be or not to be; that is the question.”

Many readers may think that this hook will lead into a discussion of Shakespeare or the story of Hamlet.
In fact, this hook begins an essay on the topic of suicide.

WRITER’S NOTE: Hook versus Main idea

In English writing, the main idea, or thesis, of an essay in the introduction, but it’s not often the
first sentence. (the hook is usually the first sentence.) If you begin essay with a sentence stating the
main idea, such as:

This essay will talk about the most embarrassing day of my life.

or

There re three ways to curb teen pregnancy.

Your readers may not be interested in reading the rest of your essay. These sentences do not grab your
readers’ attention. Be sure to write a hook and put it first.

Connecting information

After the hook, the writer usually writes three to five sentences that help connect the reader and the
topic. These sentences can be background information about the topic or they can be examples. The
following sentences from Essay 1 on page 6 give examples of how Cinderella probably spent her days
before she met the prince:

Her daily routine was not glamorous. She did everything from sweeping the floors to cooking the meals.
If someone had asked Cinderella, “Are there any household chores that you particularly hate” she
probably would have answered. “Why, none, of course. Housework is my duty!”

From these sentences, the reader has a good idea of what the topic might be: unpleasant household
chores.

WRITER’S NOTE: What does the Reader know?

A good writer does not jump into a topic too quickly. First, a good writer tries to imagine what the
reader already knows about the topic. Then the writer can focus on bridging the gap between what the
reader knows and what he or she needs to know about the topic.

The Thesis Statement

The thesis statement, or writing plan, is usually the last part of the introduction. It can be one or
two sentences long. In the thesis statement, the writer tells the reader what to expect in the essay.
Basically, there are two kinds of thesis statements, direct and indirect.
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Direct thesis Statement some writers want to give a specific outline of the paper in their thesis
statement. For example:

The main problems facing South American countries are a lack of job opportunities for citizens,
increasing demand for better health care, and limited university programs for poor students.

From this statement, the reader knows that the body of the essay has three main parts. One part will
discuss job opportunities, another part will talk about health care needs, and the last part will talk about
university programs for poor students. This kind of thesis statements is called a direct thesis statement.

Indirect thesis Statement: Other writers are not so direct on the same topic as the previous example,
these writers might use this statements:

The important problems facing South American countries today require immediate attention.

From this statement, the reader expects to find a discussion of problems in South America. The reader
does not know exactly what to expect, but that is not a problem. This kind of thesis statement is called
an indirect thesis statement.

Both direct and indirect thesis statements are acceptable. It is up to the writer to decide which approach
to take.

PRACTICE WITH HOOKS AND THESIS SATEMENTS

The following activities will give you practice writing hooks. You will also compare your hooks with
those your classmates wrote. This will help you improve you understanding of how hooks work I essay
introductions. Be prepared to explain why you think your hook will attract readers’ attention and make
them want to read the essay. You will also practice writing and identifying thesis statements.

Activity 6 Practice with Hooks

1. This essay begins with the second sentence. Read the whole essay. Then write three possible
hooks on the lines.
Essay 6

In this argumentative essay, the writer argues that mandatory retirement should be abolished.

Hook1: Do you know that you have at most 45 working years?

_______________________________________________________________________

Hook 2: senior citizens are being fired of their work because of age.
________________________________________________________________________

Hook 3: Sometimes paradox are annoying. Imagine being told forcefully to sit in your home and do
nothing by a country you have served your entire life time and they ask you to show patriotism ?

1. Traditionally, people retire from their jobs when they reach the age of sixty-five. In some jobs, this is
not an option but a requirement. I object to mandatory retirement for capable workers because it
violates personal choice. Discriminates against senior citizens, and wastes valuable skills as well as
money.
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2. First of all, I believe that mandatory retirement violates individual’s personal choice of

continuing to work or retiring. The older working person should be the right to choose his or her
retirement age. A person’s right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness as written in the
Declaration of Independence) is a very special thing. Forced retirement takes away People’s livelihood.
Deprives them of their freedom to choose their line of work, and prevents them form pursuing
happiness.

3. Second mandatory retirement is surely a form of age discrimination. A your person might wonder
why an older worker should be kept on the payroll when the company could hire someone who is
younger and more creative. However, a younger person will not necessarily be a better or more creative
worker. Age does not indicate the equality of a Peron’s work. May well-known artists. Politicians, and
writers developed their best works after the age of sixty. The common belief that a person’s mind slows
down after a certain age is nothing but a misconception.

4. In addition to the previous two points. There is the issue of quality of work. Older employees have
knowledge and experience that can truly be beneficial. Unfortunately. Many employers disregard this
fact. Captain Al Haynes, age fifty-eight, was able to land a DC- 10 that was out of control so that 186 of
the 296 people aboard survived when it crashed. McDonald-Douglas. The maker of the DC- 10
simulated the same problem forty five times and not one time did they have a successful landing.
Safety expects agree that the high survival rate among the passengers on the night was due to Captain
Haynes is aviation skills. Ti is doubtful that a less experienced pilot could have accomplished this feat.
However, a year later. Captain Haynes had to retire because he had reached the age of sixty, the
mandatory retirement age for pilot in the United States. They often focus on obvious differences such
as school uniforms or extracurricular activities. However, these superficial differences are not nearly as

5. Many people especially fresh college graduates. Do not agree that retirement should be an option.
They are worried that if older workers are allowed to continue in their jobs. There will not be enough
openings for younger people. However, is there really a danger that older people will take away job
opportunities from younger people? This is unlikely because younger workers and older workers rarely
compete for the same jobs. In fact, older people will take away job opportunities from younger people?
This is unlikely because younger workers and older workers rarely complete for the same jobs. In fact,
older workers rarely seek entry- level positions. This type of faulty logic was used in the 1 960s to
oppose the passage of the civil rights laws that now protect women and minorities from employment
discrimination. More importantly, the U.S department of Labor is concerned that labor shortages might
occur when “baby boomers” retire after the year 2000. therefore, employers should start looking for
ways to attract experienced workers, not retire them.

6. In conclusion, the age of retirement should be decided by an individual’s economic need, health
status, and work preference. Our lives are our own, and we should be allowed to live our lives to the
fullest potential. Without a doubt mandatory retirement goes against fulfilling this potential and
should not be a part of modern society.

7. In pairs or small groups, share the three hooks that you wrote with your classmates. Are any of them
similar? Explain why you think your hooks will grab readers’ attention.

Activity 7 Thesis Statement Questions

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Answer these questions about the thesis statement I “mandatory Retirement Has to Go

1. What is the thesis statement in the essay?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

2. is this a direct or indirect thesis statement.. _________________________________________

Give the reason for your answer __________________________________________________

3.Rewrite the thesis statements as an indirect thesis statement.

____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Activity 8 More practice with Hooks

1. This essay begins with the second sentence. Read the whole essay. Then write three possible hooks
on the lines.

Essay 7

This comparison essay gives facts about education in South Korea and North America.

Differences in education in South Korea and North America Hook 1:

Hook 2:

Hook 3:

1. The school systems of South Korea. Canada, and the United States are about the same in two areas:
the age when students start school and the number of years they go to school. However, in the field of
education, there are several notable differences between South Korea on the one hand and Canada and
the United States on the other.

2. First, the number of hours of study and formal training that Korean students go through in order to
enter a university is much greater than that of either Canadians or Americans people say that it is easy
to graduate form a Korean university. But the really hard part is getting into the university in the first
place. Because it’s so difficult to get into a university in South Korea, most students not only attend their
regular classes but also attend special “cram” schools for a few hours in the morning or afternoon. As a
result, high school students in South Korea have fifty-five to sixty hours of instruction each week. This is
in stark contrast to the situation in Canada and United States where secondary school students attend
school less than thirty-five hours a week in these north American countries, the most difficult years
begin at age eighteen and don’t let up until age twenty-two.

3. A second difference lies in society’s attitude toward university education. In South Korea, competition
to gain admittance to a prestigious university is intense. This competition results in an incredible amount
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of studying dedication. and self-sacrifice as students do almost noting but study for examinations.
Parents feel this pressure as well and start training their children at a very young age for the eventual
university exams. Thus, students feel pressure from their parents, their peers and society in general.
North American students may feel a comparable amount of pressure if they want to enter a school such
as Harvard or Yale, but the average Canadian or American student does not have to deal with the
societal pressure common in South Korea.

4. Finally, opportunities for university scholarships are very different in these countries in Canada and
the United States there are academic scholarships, athletic scholarships and scholarships for minority
students. This allows for all types of students to take advantage of higher education at little or no cost.
In South Korea, however, the most prevalent type of scholarship is the academic type. Sports skills,
ethnic background, and other nonacademic matters do not play a role in the awarding of university
scholarships.

5. When people talk about educational differences between South Korea an Canada and the United
States. They often focus on obvious differences such as school uniforms or extracurricular activities.
However, these superficial differences are not nearly as important as the differences in the hours of
study, society’s attitude toward education and scholarships. Despite these differences the educational
systems in all three countries continue to produce thousands of successful college graduates each year.

2. In pairs or small groups, share the three hooks that your wrote with your classmates. Are any of them
similar? Explain why you think your hooks will attract readers’ attention.

Activity 9 Thesis Statement Questions

Answer these questions about the thesis statement in “Differences in Education in South Korea and
North America.”

1. What is the thesis statement in the essay?

2. Is this a direct or indirect thesis statement?

Give the reason for your answer ________________________________________

3. Rewrite the thesis statement as a direct thesis statement.

WRITING THE BODY

The body of an essay is the main part. It usually consists of three or four paragraph between the
introduction and the conclusion. The body follows a plan of organization that the writer usually
determines before he or she starts writing. This organization varies depending on the kind of essay you
are writing.

You can write the organizational plan of your essay in an outline. There are different levels of outlining.
A general outline includes the main points, while a specific, or detailed, outline includes notes on even
the smallest pieces of information. It is much easier to write an essay from a specific outline than from a
general outline. However, most writers start with a general outline first and then and details.

WRITER’S NOTE; using an outline

The best essays have well-planned outlines that are carefully prepared before the writer starts writing.
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Here is a general outline and a specific outline for Essay? “Differences in Education in South Korea and
North America,” pages 29-30. Read and compare the two outlines.

General outline/ Specific Outline

I. Introduction

A. Hook: pose a question A. Hood: Is education in South Korea really different from education in Canada
or the U.S.?

B. Connecting information B. Connecting information: We often hear of education differences between

South Korea and

Canada! U.S., but the school systems are not so different on the surface.

1. Children start school at the same age.

2. Students attend school the same number of years.

C. Thesis: Differences in education C. Thesis: There are several differences in education Between South
Korea and the between South Korea and the U.S.! Canada U.S. /Canada

II. Body

A. Difference #1 : number of hours A. Difference # number of hours

1. Hard to enter a Korean university but easy to graduate/exit

2. Korean students attend cram schools

3. Canada U.S.=35 hrs/wk;

Korea=55-60 hrs/wk

B. Difference #2: societal attitude B. Difference #: societal attitude toward

Education toward education 1. Competition to enter a prestigious university

a. Studying

b. Dedication

c. Self-sacrifice

3. Pressure

a. from parents

b. from peers

c. from society in general

4. North Americans don’t have this pressure (except the few who enter Harvard! Yale).
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C. Difference # 3: scholarship opportunities C.

1. Canada/U.S.

a. academic scholarships

b. sports scholarships

c. scholarship for minorities

Despite these differences the educational systems in all three countries continue to produce thousands
of successful college graduates each year.

2. In pairs or small groups. Share the three hooks that your wrote with your classmates. Are any of them
similar? Explain why you think your hooks will attract readers’ attention.

Activity 9 Thesis Statement Questions

Answer these questions about the thesis statement in “Differences in Education in South Korea and
North America.”

1. What is the thesis statement in the essay?

2. Is this a direct or indirect thesis statement?

Give the reason for your answer __________________________________________

3. Rewrite the thesis statement as a direct thesis statement.

Makings Specific outline

Here is a specific outline for Essay 1, “Cinderella and Her Odious Household Chores” on page 6. Read the
Essay again and complete this outline. You may use complete sentences if you wish, but be sure to
include all of the specific information.

Title: “Cinderella and Her Odious Household chores”

I. Introduction (Paragraph 1)

A. Hook:

B. Connecting information: ____________________________________________________

C. Thesis statement: ____________________________________________________________

II. Body

A. Paragraph 2

1. Topic sentence (chore #1): _____________________________________________________

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2. Supporting ideas

a. Attention to detail

(l)Smoothing out the fabric

(2)Following the seams

(3)

(4)

b. Problem:

B. Paragraph 3

1. Topic sentence: (chore#2) ______________________________________________________

2. Supporting ideas

a. Why we can’t depend on dishwashers

b. Negative aspects of this chore

(1) Elbow grease

(2) _____________________________________________________________

(3) _________________________________________________________________________

C. Paragraph 4

1. Topic sentence (chore #3) ___________________________________________________

2. Supporting ideas

a. Tasks

(1)

(2) Cleaning the sink

2. Korea

a. only academic scholarships b. no role for sports/ethnicity

III. Conclusion

Despite superficial differences, all (restate thesis statement) three systems produce good

graduates.
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PRACTICE WITH OUTLINING AN ESSAY

General outline

Activity 10 Making Genera1 outline

Here is a general outline for essay 2, “How Do You Say?, “ (page 10) Read the essay again and complete
this outline.

Title:

I. Introduction (paragraph 1)

A. Hook: Ask a general question

B. Connection information

C. Thesis statement: ________________________________________________________________

II. Body

A. Paragraph 2 topic sentence: ____________________________________________________

B. Paragraph 3 topic sentence:

C. Paragraph 4 topic sentence: ________________________________________________

D. Paragraph 5 topic sentence: __________________________________________________

E. Paragraph 6 topic sentence: At first I was puzzled, but suddenly it all made sense.

III. Conclusion (paragraph 7)

A. End of action

B. Restatement of thesis

Specific outline

Activity 11

Makings Specific outline

Here is a specific outline for Essay 1, “Cinderella and Her Odious Household Chores”. Read the Essay
again and complete this outline. You may use complete sentences if you wish, but be sure to include all
of the specific information.

Title: “Cinderella and Her Odious Household chores”

I. Introduction (Paragraph 1)

A. Hook:

B. Connecting information: ____________________________________________________

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C. Thesis statement: ________________________________________________________________

II. Body

A. Paragraph 2

1. Topic sentence (chore #1): _______________________________________________________

2. Supporting ideas

a. Attention to detail

(1) Smoothing out the fabric

(2)Following the seams

(3)

(4)

b. Problem:

B. Paragraph 3

1. Topic sentence: (chore#2) ____________________________________________________

2. Supporting ideas

a. Why we can’t depend on dishwashers

b. Negative aspects of this chore

(1) Elbow grease

(2) ________________________________________________________________

(3) __________________________________________________________________________

C. Paragraph 4

1. Topic sentence (chore #3) ______________________________________________________

2. Supporting ideas

a. Tasks

(1) _____________________

(2) Cleaning the sink

Cleaning the toilet b. Negative aspects

(1) Bathroom is full of germs

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(1) _______________________________ c. Positive aspects: _____________

III. Conclusion (Paragraph 5)

A. Maintaining a house includes chores.

B. Take pride in doing a good job and getting through the three odious chores.

WRITER’S NOTE: outline Length

If your outline is to long, combine some of the ideas or eliminate ideas that don’t add interest to the
essay.

WRITING THE CONCLUSION

Some people think that writing the conclusion is the hardest part of writing and essay FOr others,
writing the conclusion is easy. When you write a conclusion, follow these guidelines:

1. Let the reader know that this is the conclusion. You can mark the conclusion with some kind of
transition or connector that this is the final paragraph of the essay. (See Appendix 3 for a list of
connectors.) Here are some examples:

In conclusion,

From the information given,

To summarize

Sometimes the first sentence of the conclusion restates the thesis or main idea of the essay.

This essay has presented three of the numerous problems the new parents face today.

2. Do not introduce new information in the conclusion. The conclusion should help the reader to
reconsider the main ideas that you have given in the essay. Any new information in the concluding
paragraph will sound like a continuation of the body of the essay.

3. Many writers find the conclusion difficult to write. It requires a great deal of thought and creativity, as
writing a good hook or thesis statement does. The kind of essay you are writing may determine the way
you and the essay; however, two ideas can be helpful for any essay.

a. The final sentence or sentences of an essay often give a suggestion, an opinion , or a prediction about
the topic of the essay.

• Suggestion

The facts strongly support the existence of a greenhouse warming effect on our atmosphere. It is vital,
therefore, that we heed the warnings and do our best to keep this problem for getting worse.• Opinion:
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Certainly there are advantages and disadvantage to both plans presented here. However, because the
second plan has more mass appeal than the former one it would be a much better choice for the citizens
of our country.

• Prediction

This essay has presented strong arguments in favor of government control of television. Without this
control, there will continue to be a decline in the moral values of American society.

b. Sometimes the final sentence or sentences simply say that the issue has been discussed in the essay
with so many strong, persuasive facts that the answer to the issue is now clear.

Once aware of this information, any reader would have to agree that animal testing is cruel and
unethical and should be abolished.

After careful consideration of all the facts, readers will surely agree that the use of corporal punishment
in ours schools should be prohibited immediately.