General wave properties

Waves
• Waves transfer energy between points, without transferring matter:
• When a wave travels between two points, no matter actually travels with it:
The points on the wave simply vibrate back and forth about fixed positions
• The wavelength of a wave is the distance from a point on one wave to
the same point on the next wave. Usually this is measured from the
top of one wave to the top of the next wave
Wavelength is usually measured in metres (a distance)
• The amplitude of a wave is its height, measured from the middle of
the wave to its top (or from the middle to its bottom)
Sinusoidal wave profile

Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a

transverse wave
Wavefront
• Wavefronts are a useful way of picturing waves from above: each
wavefront is used to represent a single wave

Diagram showing a wave drawn as a series of wavefronts

Properties
• The frequency of a wave is the number of waves passing a point (or being
created or received) every second – it is helpful to think of it as being
the waves per second
• The units of frequency are hertz (Hz)
• Period: time taken for one oscillation in seconds
• Speed: how fast the wave travels measured in m/s
• Wavelength: distance between a point on one wave to the corresponding
point on the next wave in length. It is measured in meters (m).
Longitudinal & Transverse Waves
• Waves can exist as one of two main types:
• Transverse
• Longitudinal
Transverse Waves
• For a transverse wave, the points along the wave vibrate at 90
degrees to the direction in which the wave is moving (the direction of
energy transfer)

With a transverse wave, the vibrations are at 90 degrees to the

direction of energy transfer
Longitudinal Waves
• For a longitudinal wave, the points along the wave vibrate in the same
direction that the wave is moving in

With a longitudinal wave, the vibrations are parallel to the

direction of energy transfer
The Wave Equation
• The speed of a wave (v) is related to the frequency (f) and wavelength (λ) by the
equation:

• When stating equations make sure you use the right letters:
Eg. λ for wavelength, not L or W.
• If you can’t remember the correct letters, then just state the word equations.
• Be careful with units: wavelength is usually measured in metres and speed in m/s,
but if the wavelength is given in cm you might have to give the speed in cm/s.
• Likewise, watch out for frequency given in kHz: 1 kHz = 1000 Hz
Wave Effects
Reflection
• When waves hit an object, such as a barrier, they can be reflected:

When waves reflect off a barrier, the angle of reflection, r, is equal to the angle of incidence, i
Reflection
• When waves are reflection:
Refraction
• When waves enter a different medium, their speed can change
• This effect is called refraction, and it can have two other effects:
• The wavelength of the waves can increase or decrease
• The waves can change direction
Refraction

When water waves travel from deep areas to shallow areas

they slow down
Refraction
• If the waves slow down the waves will bunch together, causing the
wavelength to decrease. The waves will also start to travel closer to
the normal
• If the waves speed up then they will spread out, causing the
wavelength to increase. The waves will also turn slightly away from
the normal
Diffraction
• When waves pass through a narrow gap, the waves spread out
• This effect is called diffraction

Diffraction: when a wave passes through a narrow gap, it

spreads out
Factors Affecting Diffraction
• Diffraction, as shown above, only generally happens when the gap is
smaller than the wavelength of the wave
• As the gap gets bigger, the effect gradually gets less pronounced until,
in the case that the gap is very much larger than the wavelength, the
waves no longer spread out at all
The size of the gap (compared to the wavelength)
affects how much the waves spread out
Diffraction can also occur when waves pass
an edge
When a wave goes past the edge of a barrier, the waves can
curve around the edge
Summary
• When drawing waves being reflected take care to:
• Make sure that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
• Keep the wavelength of the waves the same
• Similarly, when waves are diffracted the wavelength remains constant.
• Refraction is the one wave effect where the wavelength changes.
• Remember:
Refraction is the name given to the change in the speed of a wave when it
passes from one medium to another. The change in direction is a
consequence of this.
 Light Waves
Reflection, Refraction, Dispersion
Reflection of Light
• Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum – a family of transverse
waves
• As with all wave, when light reflects:

• Angle of incidence, i = angle of reflection, r

Mirrors
• When an object is placed in front of a mirror, an image of that object
can be seen in the mirror
• The image:
• Is the same size as the object
• Is the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it
• Is directly in line with the object
Virtual Image & Ray Diagram
• The formation of this image can be understood by drawing a ray
diagram
Virtual Image & Ray Diagram
• Light from the object hits the mirror, reflecting from it (i=r)
• To an observer, the reflected ray appears to have come from the right-hand
side of the mirror
• The reflected ray can be traced back in this directions, forming a virtual ray
• This can be repeated for another ray travelling in a slightly different direction
• An image of the object will appear where these two virtual rays cross
• The type of image formed in the mirror is called a virtual image
• A virtual image is formed by the divergence of rays from the image, and
cannot be projected onto a piece of paper (because the rays don’t actually
go through the image)
Refraction of Light
• When light enters a glass block, it slows down, causing it to change
direction
• When it leaves the block it speeds up again, changing direction once
more
Refraction of Light
Refraction of Light
• As the light enters the block it bends towards the normal line
(Remember: Enters Towards)
• When it leaves the block it bends away from the normal line
(Remember: Leaves Away)
Investigating Refraction
• In your examination you might be asked to write a method explaining
how you might investigate the refraction of light through different
shaped blocks
• As part of this method you should describe:
• What equipment you need
• How you will use the equipment
• How you will trace the rays of light before, while and after they pass through
the block
Investigating Refraction
Investigating Refraction
• Method:
• Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the block using a pencil
• Take a ray box and carefully aim the box so that a single ray of light passes through the
block
• Using a pencil, mark some points along the path of the ray:
Before it reaches the block;
Where it hits the block;
Where it leaves the block;
After it has left the block
• Now remove the block from the paper and, using a ruler and pencil, draw straight lines
connecting points: a and b; b and c; c and d. The resulting line will show the path of the ray
• Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a ray striking the block
at a different angle
Snell's Law
• When light enters a denser medium (such as glass) it slows down
and bends towards the normal
Snell's Law
• Snell’s law gives the relationship between the angle of incidence i,
and the angle of refraction r:

• Where n is the refractive index of the material

Refractive Index
• The refractive index is related to the speed of light in the material
(which is less than its speed in a vacuum):

• The refractive index is a number that is always bigger than 1 and is

different for different materials (n is about 1.5 for glass)
Total Internal Reflection
• When light is moving from a denser medium towards a less dense
one, most of the light is refracted, but a small amount of it can
be internally reflected
• However, if the angle of the light is great enough then instead of
being refracted, ALL of the light is reflected
• This is called Total Internal reflection and happens when the angle of
the incident ray is greater than the critical angle, c, for that material
• Two conditions are necessary for total internal reflection to occur:
• The light must be going from a more dense medium towards a less dense one
• The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle
Total Internal Reflection
Refractive Index & Critical Angle
Equation
• The critical angle, c, of a material is related to its refractive index, n
• The relationship between the two quantities is given by the equation:

• When calculating the value of the critical angle using the above
equation:
• First use the refractive index, n, to find sin c
• Then use the inverse sin function (sin-1) to find the value of i
Optical Fibres
• Total internal reflection is also used to reflect light along optical
fibres, allowing the high-speed transmission of data on the internet

• Light travelling down an optical fibre is reflected each time it hits

the edge of the fibre
Optical Fibres
• Additionally, optical fibres can be used in medicine in order to see within the human body

• Diagram showing the application of total internal reflection in medicine (using an endoscope)
Thin Converging Lens
• When parallel rays of light (travelling parallel to the principal axis) pass
through a lens, they are brought to a focus at a point known as
the principal focus

• The distance of the principal focus from the lens is called the focal
length, and depends on how curved the lens is
Forming a Real Image
• Lenses can be used to form images of objects placed in front of them
• The location (and nature) of the image can be found by drawing a ray
diagram:

• Diagram showing the formation of a real image by a lens

Forming a Real Image
• Start by drawing a ray going from the top of the object through the centre of the
lens. This ray will continue to travel in a straight line
• Next draw a ray going from the top of the object, travelling parallel to the axis to
the lens. When this ray emerges from the lens it will travel directly towards the
principal focus
• The image is found at the point where the above two rays meet
• The above diagram shows the image that is formed when the object is placed at a
distance between one focal length (f) and two focal lengths (2f) from the lens
• In this case, the image is:
• Real
• Enlarged
• Inverted
Forming a Real Image
• The following diagram shows what happens when the object is more distanced – further than twice the focal
length (2f) from the lens:

• In this case the image is:

• Real
• Diminished (smaller)
• Inverted
Forming a Real Image
• If the object is placed at exactly twice the focal length (2f) from the
lens:
• In this case the image is:
• Real
• Same size as the object
• Inverted
Features of a Real Image
• A real image is one formed by the convergence of rays of light
• A real image can be projected onto a screen
Magnifying Glasses
• If the object is placed closer to the lens than the focal length, the
emerging rays diverge and a real image is no longer formed
• When viewed from the right-hand side of the lens, the emerging rays
appear to come from a point on the left. This point can be found by
extending the rays backwards (creating virtual rays)
• A virtual image will be seen at the point where these virtual rays cross
Magnifying Glasses

A virtual image is formed by the divergence of rays from a

point
•In this case the image is:
• Virtual
• Enlarged
• Upright
•Using a lens in this way allows it to be used as a magnifying glass
•When using a magnifying glass, the lens should always be held close to the object
Dispersion of Light
• When light enters a denser medium, such as glass, it slows down
(refracts), which causes it to bend
• Different colours, however, slow down by different amounts, which
causes them to bend by different amounts
• This effect is known as dispersion and can be used to separate white
light into its individual colours
Dispersion of Light
• The seven colours of the spectrum are:

• When white light is shone through a prism it is dispersed into its individual colours
Light as a Wavelength
• Light is a transverse wave
• The different colours of light all have different wavelengths (and
frequencies)
• Red has the largest wavelength
• Violet has the shortest wavelength
• Light of a single wavelength (a single colour), or single frequency, is
known as monochromatic