Waves

MYP - Lecture Notes

Dr. Belal Al Qassem

Mashrek Internationl Schol
 Waves

Introduction

Wave is a disturbance or oscillation that travels through space or matter, accompanied by a

transfer of energy. Wave motion transfers energy from one point to another.

• All the waves have the repeating pattern or shape.

• All the waves carry energy without moving material along.
• All the waves have wavelength, frequency, and amplitude and time period.
• The speed of the wave depends on the medium, in which it is travelling.

The Propagation of wave

Wave propagation is the direction in which waves travel.

Types of Waves
1. Transverse waves
• Transverse waves are waves where the displacement (oscillation) of the particles
is perpendicular to the direction of travel of the waves (the vibrations are
perpendicular to the direction of travel).
• In another words, the vibrations of the particles are perpendicular to the direction
in which energy transfer

Examples:
Water waves, electromagnetic waves (light, microwaves, radio waves. etc)

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 2. Longitudinal wave:
• Longitudinal waves are waves where the displacement (oscillation) of the
particles is parallel to the direction of travel of the wave (the vibrations are along
the direction of the travel of the wave).
• In another words, the vibrations of the particles are parallel to the direction in
which energy transfer

Example

The example of this is sound waves, where there are compressions and rarefactions in the air
that cause the sound to be transmitted. Sound and some earthquake waves, p-waves

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Describing waves

Terms used to describe waves can be explained with the aid of a displacement–distance
graph.

The wavelength ()

The wavelength of a wave, represented by the Greek letter λ (‘lambda’), is the distance
between successive crests or successive troughs, or any two successive points that are
identical (in phase).

The unit of  is meter (m).

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Amplitude (A)

• The Maximum displacement from the horizontal axis to the peak (from undisturbed
position)
• The unit of Amplitude is meter (m).

Frequency (f):

• The frequency f is the number of complete waves per second.

• The unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz) or s-1

Period (T):

• The time taken for one complete oscillation.

• It is the time for one particle in the wave to complete one vibration or one cycle.
• The unit of period is second.

We get two important pieces of information from a displacement–time graph: the first is the
amplitude of the wave, i.e. the largest displacement, and the second is the period.

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Phase

The short arrows at A, B, C, D on the Figure below show the directions of vibration of the parts
of the rope at these points. The parts at A and C have the same speed in the same direction
and are in phase. At B and D the parts are also in phase with each other but they are out of
phase with those at A and C because their directions of vibration are opposite.

Wave Equation

If the period is T then the frequency is given by:

The wave has moved a distance equal to one wavelength in a time equal to one period and
the speed of the wave is:
𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝝀
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑻
Or

𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = 𝝀𝒇

The speed of the wave depends only on the properties of the medium and not on how it is
produced.

Wavefronts and rays

In two dimensions, a wavefront is a line on which the disturbance has the same phase at all
points; the crests of water waves can be thought of as wavefronts. A line drawn at right angles
to a wavefront, which shows its direction of travel, is called a ray.

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 Electromagnetic waves
• An electromagnetic wave is a wave that consists of oscillating electric and magnetic
fields, which radiate outward from the source at the speed of light.

• The electromagnetic spectrum includes more than visible light.

• Although all electromagnetic waves are identical in their nature, they have very
different properties. This is because of the huge range of frequencies (and thus
energies) involved in the electromagnetic spectrum.

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Reflection
The law of reflection states that:
The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
The angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the normal and the angle of
reflection is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal. The normal is a line
perpendicular to a surface at any chosen point. The angle of incidence and reflection are both
labelled as i and r in the Figure below.

Plane mirrors

The image in a plane mirror is

• as far behind the mirror as the object is in
front, (same distance)
• same size as the object
• virtual.
• upright
• laterally inverted (right becomes left).

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Q.

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Refraction

The bending of light when it passes from one material (called a medium) to another is called
refraction.

Facts about refraction

• A ray of light is bent towards the normal when it enters an optically denser medium (for
example from air to glass or air to water). The angle of refraction r is less than the angle of
incidence i.

• A ray of light is bent away from the normal when it enters an optically less dense
medium, for example from glass to air.

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 • A ray emerging from a parallel-sided block is parallel to the ray entering, but is displaced
sideways.
• A ray travelling along the normal direction at a boundary is not refracted.

Refractive Index

The index of refraction for a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum
to the speed of light in that medium.

𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒄𝒖𝒖𝒎

𝑹𝒆𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 =
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎

𝒄
𝒏=
𝒗
Where c = 3 x 108 m/s.

Note
• Refractive Index of air = 1
• Refractive index of water = 1.33
• Refractive index of glass = 1.52.

Snell’s Law
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant called the (relative) refractive index.

𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟

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Question
Light of wavelength 686 nm in air enters water, making an angle of 40.4° with the normal.
Determine
a) the angle of refraction and
b) the wavelength of light in water.

(The refractive index of water is 1.33.)

Answers
a) 29.2o
b)  = 517 nm

The critical angle and total internal reflection

When light entering an optically less sense medium, it is refracted away from the normal (i.e.
the angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence, or r > i)
If the angle of incidence increases, then r also increases, until r = 90o.

The angle of incidence (i) which makes the angle of refraction (r) equals 90o, is called the
Critical Angle c.

If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, then the light ray will be totally
reflected (not refracted)

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Conditions for total Internal Reflection:
1) Light rays travelling from an optically high-density medium to less
density medium.
2) i > c

Using Snell’s Law to find c

𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
If i = c then r = 90o and sin(90) = 1.
so
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛90
Or
𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛1

Question:

Find the critical angle for light travelling from

a) Glass (n = 1.52) to air (n = 1.00)
b) Glass (n = 1.52) to water (n = 1.33)
c) water (n = 1.33) to air (n = 1.00)

Application for Total Internal Reflection

1) Fibre Optics

One of the great modern applications of

total internal reflection is the
propagation of digital signals, carrying
information, in optical fibres. The signal
stays within the core, as shown in the
Figure below.

2) Periscope
Using prism to totally reflect light
in Periscope.

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 Diffraction
The spreading of a wave as it goes past an obstacle or through an aperture is called
diffraction.

Let us consider a plane wave of wavelength λ moving towards an aperture of size a

When you draw

diffraction
diagrams, make
sure that you do
not change the
distance between
the wavefronts,
(a) (b) make sure that
you do not
change the
In Figure (a) the wavelength is small compared with a. There is little diffraction. In Figure
distance between
(b) the wavelength is comparable to a and the diffraction is greater. the wavefronts.

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 Note:

Diffraction takes place when a wave with wavelength comparable to or larger than the
size of an aperture or an obstacle moves through or past the aperture or obstacle. In
general, the larger the wavelength, the greater the effect.

Diffraction explains why we can hear, but not see, around corners.

For example, a person talking in the next room can be heard through the open door
because sound diffracts around the opening of the door – the wavelength of sound for
speech is roughly the same as the door size. On the other hand, light does not diffract
around the door since its wavelength is much smaller than the door size. Hence we can
hear through the open door, even though we cannot see the speaker.

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 Diffraction takes place when a wave with wavelength comparable to or larger than the
size of an aperture or an obstacle moves through or past the aperture or obstacle. In
general, the larger the wavelength, the greater the effect.

Diffraction explains why we can hear, but not see, around corners.

For example, a person talking in the next room can be heard through the open door
because sound diffracts around the opening of the door – the wavelength of sound for
speech is roughly the same as the door size. On the other hand, light does not diffract
around the door since its wavelength is much smaller than the door size. Hence we can
hear through the open door, even though we cannot see the speaker.

Interference (The principle of superposition)

• When solid objects meet, they collide,

but when two or more waves meet,
they interfere. The total displacement
is the vector sum of their individual
displacements. Having interacted, the
waves continue their way as if they had
never met at all.
• For a consistent pattern, waves need to
be of the same type and have the same
frequency and speed; the best patterns
are achieved when the waves have the
same or very similar amplitudes.
• The Figure shows two pulses
approaching and passing through each
other. When they meet, the resultant
amplitude is the algebraic sum of the
two amplitudes of the individual pulses.

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Types of Interference
1. Constructive Interference
If the two waves are in phase (Crest on Crest, Trough on Trough), they interfere
constructively. The resultant amplitude is the sum of the two amplitudes.

2. Destructive Interference
If the two waves are out of phase (Crest on Trough, Trough on Crest), they interfere
destructively. The resultant amplitude is the difference between the two amplitudes.

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 Sound
Sound waves
• Sound waves ae Mechanical Waves (They need a medium to travel).
• Sound waves are Longitudinal Waves.
A sound wave, produced for example by a loudspeaker, consists of a train of compressions
(‘squashes’) and rarefactions (‘stretches’) in the air.
The speaker has a cone which is made to vibrate in and out by an electric current. When the
cone moves out, the air in front is compressed; when it moves in, the air is rarefied (goes
‘thinner’). The wave progresses through the air, but the air as a whole does not move. The air
particles (molecules) vibrate backwards and forwards a little as the wave passes. When the
wave enters your ear the compressions and rarefactions cause small, rapid pressure changes
on the eardrum and you experience the sensation of sound.

Speed of sound

The speed of sound depends on the material through which it is passing. It is greater in solids
than in liquids or gases because the molecules in a solid are closer together than in a liquid or
a gas.

Material Speed of Sound (m/s)

Air (at 0oC) 330
Water 1400
Concrete 5000
Steel 6000

Limits of audibility

• Humans hear only sounds with frequencies from about 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. These are
the limits of audibility; the upper limit decreases with age.
• Sound waves with frequencies less than 20 Hz are called infrasonic waves.
• Sound waves with frequencies above 20 000 Hz are called ultrasonic waves

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Pitch of Sound
The pitch of a note depends on the frequency of the sound wave reaching the ear, i.e. on the
frequency of the source of sound. A high-pitched note has a high frequency and a short
wavelength.

Low Frequency (High Wavelength) High Frequency (Low Wavelength)

Low Pitch High Pitch

Loudness
• Loudness depends on the amplitude of the sound wave.
• The larger the amplitude the more energy the sound wave contains therefore the
louder the sound

Lower Amplitude Higher Amplitude

Quieter Louder

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